Values of the remanent polarization (Pr), Pr/Pmax relationship and the coercive field (Ec) for the studied samples at room temperature.
\r\n\t
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Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48321",title:"Polarization and Thermally Stimulated Processes in Lead-Free Ferroelectric Ceramics",doi:"10.5772/60433",slug:"polarization-and-thermally-stimulated-processes-in-lead-free-ferroelectric-ceramics",body:'It is known that lead-based ferroelectric systems exhibit very good properties for different kinds of applications [1-6] and also that high-level ferroelectric and piezoelectric activities have remained confined to these materials. The only drawback in the technology as a whole has been the environmentalist’s nightmare of its dependence on a high lead-containing family of materials [7]. Therefore, over the last 20 years there has been an enormous effort made in developing lead-free ferroelectric systems in order to obtain better dielectric, ferroelectric, piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties than those of conventional ferroelectric ceramics based on lead, such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT) [8-10].
An important group of lead-free ferroelectric materials belong to the Aurivillius family {[Bi2O2]2+[Am−1BmO3m+1]2−}, which was discovered by Bent Aurivillius in 1949 [11]. These compounds have a complex structure, which is composed of perovskite blocks ([Am-1BmO3m+1]2-) interleaved between bismuth and oxygen layers ([Bi2O2]2+), where m is the number of perovskite blocks in the structure. The A sites of the structure are typically occupied by elements such as Sr2+, Ba2+, Ca2+ and Bi3+, with low valence; the B sites are typically occupied by elements with high valence such as Ti4+, Nb5+ and W6+ [12-16]. These materials have received great attention due to their large remanent polarization, low real dielectric permittivity at room temperature, lead-free nature, relatively low processing temperatures, high Curie temperatures, high electromechanical anisotropy and coercive fields, and excellent piezoelectric properties [8-9], which have suggested them as good candidates for high-temperature piezoelectric applications and memory storage. The bismuth layers [Bi2O2]2+ constrain the size of perovskite blocks establishing a limit for the incorporation of elements into them and providing the mixing of different elements between A sites and bismuth sites in the layered structure [17]. The ferroelectricity depends strongly on the crystallographic orientation of these materials, which is the subject of continuing researches. The main contribution to its spontaneous polarization comes from the displacement of the A cation in the perovskite block, which is quite different for the perovskite structure. It is well known that these have the majority polarization vector along the a-axis in a unit cell and that the oxygen vacancies prefer to stay in the Bi2O2 layers, where their effect upon the polarization is thought to be small, and not in the octahedral site that controls polarization [18].
Structure of some Aurivillius materials with m=1, m=2 and m=3, at the paraelectric phase.
Figure 1 shows the structure for some Aurivillius systems with m=1, m=2 and m=3, at the paraelectric phase, as examples. The structural studies on these materials have shown a relation between the number of perovskite blocks and the symmetry of the cell, i.e., the number of perovskite blocks is related to the crystallographic orientation and to the plane of polarization in these materials [12-16, 18-19]. The polarization vector has also shown a relation to the number of perovskite blocks [18]. For even-layered systems, it has been reported to be a restriction on the polarization to the a-b plane of the cell and an orthorhombic symmetry with A21am space group [18]. For odd-layered systems, the polarization has shown a component in c and orthorhombic phase with B2cb space group [18]. Other results have shown a strong relation between the elements in A sites of the structure and the symmetry of the cell [13-14, 17].
SrBi2Nb2O9 (SBN) is a member of the Aurivillius family in which the ferroelectric properties can be affected by the crystallographic orientation due to their anisotropic crystal structure [13-14]. This system has received particular attention due to its large fatigue resistance, which has been associated with the migration of oxygen vacancies in the material [20]. The Sr2+cation, which is located between the corner-sharing octahedral, can be totally or partially replaced by other cations, as barium is an important element for improving fatigue resistance [20]. The studies on the barium-modified SrBi2Nb2O9 system have shown interesting results from the structural and dielectric point of view [13-14, 20-25]. Structural studies have shown an orthorhombic symmetry with A21am space group for pure and doped SBN samples [22]. The mixing of different elements between A sites and bismuth sites, which occurs to equilibrate the lattice dimensions between the (Bi2O2)2+ layers and the perovskite blocks, has been also analysed [22]. The oxygen vacancies, which are the results of Bi3+ for Ba2+/Sr2+ substitution, could have an important influence in the properties of these compositions [22].
For the Sr1-xBaxBi2Nb2O9 system (x= 0, 15, 30, 50, 70, 85, 100 at%), the barium concentration dependence of Tm, as well as the temperature of the corresponding maximum for the real part of the dielectric permittivity, has suggested a cation site mixing among atomic positions, which has been supported by structural analysis [22]. For compositions with x ≤ 30 at%, Tm increased with the barium concentration; for x ≥ 50 at%, a decrease of Tm and a widening of the curves was observed with the increase of the barium concentration. The structural studies have shown the mixing of Sr2+, Ba2+ and Bi2+ into A sites and the bismuth sites of the structure [22]. For lower barium concentrations (x ≤ 30 at%), the presence of bismuth into A sites and the increasing of the strontium concentration into this site, has been discussed as the principal reason for the increase of the Tm value. The higher barium concentration into A sites was obtained for the compositions with x ≥ 50 at% [22], supporting the decreasing of Tm [22].
On the other hand, a change from normal ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition to relaxor behaviour has been observed when the barium concentration is increased [22]. For the compositions showing relaxor behaviour, an increase of the frequency dispersion degree was also observed with the increase of barium concentration. The relaxor behaviour is typical of materials with a disorder distribution of different ions in equivalent sites of the structure, which is called compositional disorder. For the studied materials, the relaxor behaviour has been explained with reference to the positional disordering of cations at A sites of the structure, which delays the evolution of long-range polar ordering [23, 26].
It is known that ferroelectric materials present a spontaneous polarization in the absence of an electrical field (E), for temperatures below the temperature of the phase transition from the ferroelectric to the paraelectric phase [1]. These materials have regions with uniform polarization, which are called ferroelectric domains. If an electrical field is applied to the material, the structure of domains changes due to the reorientation of the dipoles with E. In ferroelectrics with normal ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transitions, if the electrical field is strong enough the system can reach a saturated state, showing a high percentage of oriented domains in the E direction, which depends on the structure of the system. When the electrical field is removed, the system exhibits a remanent polarization (Pr), which corresponds to the configuration of the minimal energy. On the other hand, for relaxor ferroelectrics, typical slim loops suggest that most of the aligned dipole moments switch back to a randomly oriented state upon removal of the field.
Ferroelectric materials, good isolators by their nature, exhibit temperature-dependent polarization, i.e., when the sample is heated the polarization changes and an electrical current is produced (pyroelectric current) which disappears at a certain temperature [1]. For normal ferroelectrics, the pyroelectric current (iP) achieves a maximum value when the temperature (T) increases, and then decreases until zero at the ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition temperature. For relaxor ferroelectrics, the pyroelectric current is different from zero even at higher temperatures than Tm, as well as the temperature of the corresponding maximum for the real part of the dielectric permittivity [27].
However, the study of the pyroelectric behaviour and its corresponding physical parameters may be quite difficult in many ferroelectric systems because, apart from the localized dipolar species, free charges can also exist in the material. The decay of the electrical polarization could be due to dipolar reorientation, the motion of the real charges stored in the material and its ohmic conductivity. The first of these is induced by thermal excitation, which leads to decay of the resultant dipole polarization, and the second is related to the drift of the charges stored in the internal field of the system and their thermal diffusion. During the temperature rise, the dipoles tend to be disordered gradually owing to the increasing thermal motion, and the space charges trapped at different depths are gradually set free. Therefore the pyroelectric behaviour is usually overlapped by other thermally stimulated processes, and a detailed analysis of this phenomenon is very important in order to separate the different components of the electrical current during the heating of the material (i-T dependences), to then make a real pyroelectric characterization of any system.
The thermally stimulated discharge current method is a typical technique for this analysis, which has been applied with very good results to ferroelectric materials [28-30]. By using this method, the pyroelectric current can be separated from other stimulated processes (including the electrical conductivity mechanisms), providing better knowledge of the material response in a wide temperature range.
Several analytical methods have been developed to analyse the thermally stimulated processes [30-33]. Among these can be mentioned the initial rise method, the peak shape method and the numerical method using Gaussians [30-33].
For the initial rise method, it is considered that measurements do not depend on the heating rate in the initial rise region [33]. Then, a slow heating rate can be used, reducing the problems related to the difference of temperature between the samples and the thermocouple or gradients of temperature in the sample. The peak shape methods [34] depend on the constant heating rate, but consider more experimental points concerning the initial rise method. However, these methods do not consider the overlapping of several peaks in the material response, as the Gaussian method does. This method considers the overlapping of several peaks in i-T dependences, which is very useful for a better understanding of the material response.
The Gaussian method was proposed by Faubert and Sánchez [32]. It consists of fitting the rightmost part (highest temperatures) of the curve with a single time relaxation theoretical curve (Gaussians), and then a new spectrum is obtained by subtracting the theoretical curve from the experimental one (Figure 2). The operation is repeated until the resulting spectrum is smaller than a fixed limit. The final test is carried out summing all the theoretical curves, which may offer the experimental spectrum.
Theoretical decomposition of the i-T dependence using the Gaussian method.
From the so-called area method given by equation (1), where TF is the final temperature and β is the constant heating rate, which is constant, the relaxation times (τ) can be calculated for each theoretical curve (single curves). On the other hand, it is known that the relaxation times usually show a temperature dependence which can be expressed by the Arrhenius law (equation 2, where kB and τ0 are constants). Then, the activation energy value (U) for each process can be obtained from the ln τ vs 1/T dependence.
The remanent polarization (Pr) can be obtained from the pyroelectric current ip(T) using equation 3, where A is the area of the samples. The integration is made from the operation temperature T (usually room temperature) until Tm (or a higher temperature in the case of relaxor ferroelectrics).
Other parameters can be evaluated from the ip(T) dependence, such as the pyroelectric coefficient (p) and several merit figures. The pyroelectric coefficient is related to the variation of Pr (equation 4). The current response parameter (Rv) is one of the important merit figures which are associated with pyroelectric behaviour, and can be obtained using equation 5.
There are not many reports concerning the pyroelectric behaviour of ferroelectric systems from the Aurivillius family. Most of the studies have been carried out on pure and modified bismuth titanate [35-36]. For niobium- and thallium-modified bismuth titanate, it has been reported that there is a pyroelectric coefficient of 12 μC/m2K at room temperature [36], which is better than that for pure bismuth titanate ceramics [35]. The P-E hysteresis loops have showed a remanent polarization of 3.49 μC/cm2 at room temperature [36].
The chapter presents studies on ferroelectric properties and thermally stimulated processes which have been carried out on the Sr1-xBaxBi2Nb2O9 ferroelectric ceramic system with x = 0, 15, 30, 50, 70, 85 and 100 at%. The dependence of the polarization on the applied electric field is discussed at room temperature, for normal and relaxor ferroelectrics compositions. For the thermally stimulated current, the Gaussian method is used to separate the pyroelectric contribution from the other contributions to the total i(T) response in the studied samples. The remanent polarization is evaluated, at room temperature, considering the hysteresis ferroelectric loops and the pyroelectric current dependence iP(T). The pyroelectric coefficient and the current response merit figure are also evaluated.
Sr1-xBaxBi2Nb2O9 (x = 0, 15, 30, 50, 70, 85, 100 at%) ferroelectric ceramic samples were prepared by solid-state reaction method (Figure 3).
Solid-state reaction method for the sample preparation.
The powders of the starting materials SrO, BaO, Bi2O3 and Nb2O5 were mixed with a desired weight ratio. The mixture of oxides was milled with alcohol for two hours, dried and pressed by applying 100 MPa. The pressed samples were calcined in air atmosphere at 950 °C for two hours. After calcination the samples were milled again for one hour, dried and pressed by applying 200 MPa. The sintering process was made in a sealed alumina crucible at 1100 °C for one hour. Samples with density values higher than 90 % of the theoretical density values were obtained. Silver electrodes were deposited on the opposite faces of the disk-like samples by using a heat treatment at 590 °C. The samples were named SBN (x=0), SBBN-x (x=15-85 at%) and BBN (x=100 at%), respectively.
Polarization-electric field (P–E) loops were obtained at room temperature for 10 Hz by using a precision ferroelectric analyser (Premier II, Radiant Technologies Inc.), which is combined with a high-voltage power supply (TReK Model 663A). The highest applied electric field was 90 kV/cm for the studied samples.
The study of thermally stimulated depolarization currents was carried out in sequential thermal cycles as follows: (i) zero-field heating - heating from room temperature to 60 °C under zero electrical field; (ii) field cooling – cooling to room temperature while a polarizing electrical field is applied (EP = 2 kV/mm); (iii) zero-field heating – heating from room temperature to temperatures higher than Tm under zero electrical field. The thermal discharge current was measured (during the third step) using a Keithley 6485 Electrometer, while keeping a temperature rate of about 5 K/min.
The hysteresis loops at room temperature are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5 for the studied samples. The compositions with x ≤ 30 at% show polarization-electrical field (P–E) loops typical of normal ferroelectric materials. The compositions of SBN and SBBN-15 show wide loops at room temperature. This behaviour could be associated with high dielectric losses in these samples. The composition with 30 at% of barium shows the better response with a clear tendency to saturation with the applied electric field. The samples with x ≥ 50 at% show thin hysteresis loops, which are typical of relaxor ferroelectric systems. These compositions have shown relaxor behaviour in the corresponding dielectric analysis [22]; relaxor ferroelectrics do not show a tendency to saturation in the P–E dependence even in a very high electric field.
Polarization (P) dependence on the applied electric field (E), at room temperature, for samples with x ≤ 30 at%.
Polarization (P) dependence with the applied electric field (E), at room temperature, for samples with x ≥ 50 at%.
\n\t\t\t\tComposition\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tPr (μC/cm2)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tPr/Pmax\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEc (kV/cm)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
SBN | \n\t\t\t18.96 | \n\t\t\t0.55 | \n\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t
SBBN-15 | \n\t\t\t34.48 | \n\t\t\t0.80 | \n\t\t\t63 | \n\t\t
SBBN-30 | \n\t\t\t13.45 | \n\t\t\t0.75 | \n\t\t\t42 | \n\t\t
SBBN-50 | \n\t\t\t8.10 | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t
SBBN-70 | \n\t\t\t5.44 | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t
SBBN-85 | \n\t\t\t3.68 | \n\t\t\t0.11 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t
BBN | \n\t\t\t3.55 | \n\t\t\t0.14 | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t
Values of the remanent polarization (Pr), Pr/Pmax relationship and the coercive field (Ec) for the studied samples at room temperature.
Table 1 shows the values of the remanent polarization (Pr), the Pr/Pmax relationship and the coercive electric field (Ec), at room temperature, for the studied compositions. Pmax is the polarization at the highest applied electric field. The SBN and SBBN-15 samples show the highest Pr values. This is associated with higher dielectric losses for theses samples. The compositions with x ≥ 50 at% show the lower Pr values. These ceramics have also presented lower piezoelectric activity [37]. The sample with 30 at% of barium shows the better ferroelectric response with a high Pr value and a Pr/Pmax relation, showing a good saturation. For this composition, a better piezoelectric response has been reported [37]. The Ec values tend to decrease with the increase of barium concentration. For compositions with x ≤ 50 at%, the Ec values are higher than those for other ferroelectrics materials from the Aurivillius family [35].
Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the dependence of the thermally stimulated current (i) on the temperature in the studied samples. The black points represent the experimental curve and the lines represent the fitting, which was carried out using the Gaussian method.
For the compositions with x ≤ 30 at% (Figure 6), three different contributions were observed below the transition temperature (Tm). The contribution at higher temperatures (blue line) is observed from the increase of i at temperatures near to and higher than the transition temperature. The pyroelectric contribution is characterized by an increase to a maximum value, when the temperature (T) increases, and then a decrease to zero at the ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition temperature. From this point of view, the third contribution is not the pyroelectric contribution.
Thermally stimulated current curves (i) in a wide temperature range for the SBN, SBBN-15 and SBBN-30 samples. The black points show the experimental data and the red line (first contribution), black line (second contribution) and blue line (third contribution) represent the fitting using the Gaussian method.
Thermally stimulated current curves (i) in a wide temperature range for the compositions with x > 30 at%. The black points show the experimental data and the red line (first contribution), black line (second contribution) and blue line (third contribution) represent the fitting using the Gaussian method.
The dielectric analysis of the studied samples has shown a strong influence of the electric conductivity on the dielectric parameters at the higher temperature range [22]. The third contribution could be associated with the electric conductivity processes in this temperature range. The influence of this contribution on the second (black line) is remarkable; this second contribution must be associated with the pyroelectric response. The first contribution (red line) is observed at the lower temperature range; it could not be associated with the pyroelectric response or electrical conductivity processes.
The compositions with x > 30 at% show the three contributions for temperatures lower than Tm as well (Figure 7).
From the theoretical curves i(T), which were obtained by using the Gaussian method, the values of the relaxation time (τ) were calculated (equation 1). The temperature dependence for τ (Figures 8 and 9) was obtained for the first and second contributions, showing a typical Arrhenius dependence (equation 2). The values of ln τ are represented by points and the lines represent the fitting using equation 2. From the fitting, the corresponding activation energy values (U) for each contribution were obtained, and are shown in Table 2.
Arrhenius dependence of the first contribution on the i-T dependence. The solid points correspond to the relaxation time values, which were obtained using equation 1; the solid lines correspond to the fitting using equation 2.
Arrhenius dependence of the second contribution on the i-T dependence. The solid points correspond to the relaxation time values, which were obtained using equation 1; the solid lines correspond to the fitting using equation 2.
The activation energy values for the first contribution are between 0.40 and 0.60 eV. This contribution is observed in the lower temperature range, showing lower current values than those obtained for the second contribution. The first contribution could be related to space charge, which is injected during the polarization process. For the second contribution, which is associated with the pyroelectric current, the activation energy values tend to increase with the increase of the barium concentration until 30 at%; above that concentration, this parameter decreases.
For materials from the Aurivillius family, the major contribution to the spontaneous polarization comes from the motion of the A cation in the perovskite blocks [20, 23, 26]. The analysis of the dielectric behaviour for the studied samples has shown a lower ferroelectric-paraelectric transition temperature for the SBN sample [22] than that of the previous report [20]. This result suggests a decrease of the thermal energy, which is necessary to transition from a ferroelectric phase to a paraelectric phase. The structural study for this composition has also shown a higher occupancy of Bi3+ in A sites of the structure [22] than previous reports [14], which can explain the lower Tm value considering the lower radii ionic of the Bi3+ than that of the Sr2+. Therefore, a lower activation energy value is necessary for the thermal depoling (pyroelectric contribution) of the studied SBN sample compared to previous reports. The SBBN-15 and SBBN-30 samples show an increase of the activation energy value with respect to the SBN composition, which is in agreement with the Tm behaviour from 0 to 30 at% [22].
\n\t\t\t\tComposition\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFirst contribution\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\tU (eV)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSecond contribution\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\tU (eV)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
SBN | \n\t\t\t0.57 | \n\t\t\t0.88 | \n\t\t
SBBN-15 | \n\t\t\t0.40 | \n\t\t\t1.11 | \n\t\t
SBBN-30 | \n\t\t\t0.51 | \n\t\t\t0.98 | \n\t\t
SBBN-50 | \n\t\t\t0.49 | \n\t\t\t0.82 | \n\t\t
SBBN-70 | \n\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t0.38 | \n\t\t
SBBN-85 | \n\t\t\t0.57 | \n\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t
BBN | \n\t\t\t0.60 | \n\t\t\t0.33 | \n\t\t
For compositions with x > 30 at%, the activation energy values for the pyroelectric contribution have shown a decrease with the increase of the barium concentration in the structure. These results are in agreement with the dielectric behaviour of these compositions, which is shown in a decrease of the Tm values when the barium concentration increases [22]. The SBBN-50 and SBBN-70 samples have shown a greater increase in the occupancy of Ba2+ and Bi3+ in A sites than was observed in the SBBN-30, since the concentration of Ba2+ is higher than that of Bi3+, which explains the decrease of Tm from 30 to 70 at% of barium and then by extension the lower activation energy values for the pyroelectric contribution.
For SBBN-85 and BBN, a greater decrease of the Ba2+ occupancy in A sites is observed than in SBBN-70 [22], but the Tm values are lower. For both compositions, it has also been reported that there is a higher Ba2+ occupancy in Bi3+ sites than in the other compositions [22]. A higher Ba2+ occupancy in Bi3+ sites and the corresponding generated oxygen vacancies would distort the ionic dipoles due to the A sites’ ions. Then, the decay of the spontaneous polarization could be affected, providing a decrease of the Tm values and the activation energy values for the thermal depoling process (pyroelectric response).
For the third contribution, there were not enough experimental points in some compositions. Thus, the activation energy was only estimated for the studied samples, showing values between 0.7 and 1.50 eV. These values are related to electrical conductivity processes, which are governed by double ionized oxygen vacancies [21, 24]. The oxygen vacancies in the structure of the studied samples are generated to compensate the electrical charge unbalance, which is caused by the substitution of trivalent Bi3+ ion for divalent Ba2+ and Sr2+ ions.
Figure 10 shows the temperature dependence of the remanent polarization (Pr), which has been obtained from the pyroelectric current dependence iP(T) using equation 3. It can be noted that there is an important influence of the barium concentration on the Pr values. At room temperature, an increase of Pr is observed for the lower barium concentration (x ≤ 30 at%); above 30 at%, Pr decreases. These results are in agreement with the Pr behaviour, which has previously been discussed in relation to the hysteresis loops (P-E dependence).
Temperature dependence of the remanent polarization (Pr) for the studied compositions.
\n\t\t\t\tComposition\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tPr (μC/cm2)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tp (μC/m2 °C)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tRV (μC/m2 °C)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
SBN | \n\t\t\t5.03 | \n\t\t\t34 | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t
SBBN-15 | \n\t\t\t8.63 | \n\t\t\t38 | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t
SBBN-30 | \n\t\t\t10.4 | \n\t\t\t73 | \n\t\t\t0.62 | \n\t\t
SBBN-50 | \n\t\t\t9.02 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t0.07 | \n\t\t
SBBN-70 | \n\t\t\t4.79 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t0.01 | \n\t\t
SBBN-85 | \n\t\t\t4.61 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t
BBN | \n\t\t\t2.49 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t
Values of the remanent polarization (Pr), the pyroelectric coefficient (p) and the current response parameter (RV).
Table 3 shows the values for the remanent polarization (Pr), the pyroelectric coefficient (p) and the current response parameter (RV), at room temperature, for the studied samples. The last two parameters were obtained using equations 4 and 5, respectively. The SBBN-30 sample shows the better pyroelectric parameter. The values for the pyroelectric parameters are analogous to previous reports in other Aurivillius materials [24]. However, these are lower than those for conventional lead-based ferroelectric systems [38-39]. Further researches are in progress.
The ferroelectric properties and thermally stimulated processes were studied in the Sr1-xBaxBi2Nb2O9 ferroelectric ceramic system with x = 0, 15, 30, 50, 70, 85, 100 at%. The dependence of the polarization on the applied electric field was discussed, at room temperature, for normal and relaxor ferroelectric compositions. The Gaussian method was used to separate the pyroelectric contribution from the other contributions to the total i(T) response in the studied samples. Three different contributions were obtained in the studied temperature range. The first contribution was associated with space charge, the second with the pyroelectric current and the third with the electric conductivity processes. The remanent polarization, the pyroelectric coefficient and the current response merit figure were evaluated at room temperature. The SBBN-30 showed better ferroelectric and pyroelectric properties.
The authors would like to acknowledge the Third World Academy of Sciences (RG/PHYS/LA Nos. 99-050, 02-225 and 05-043), and the ICTP, Trieste-Italy, for financial support of the Latin-American Network of Ferroelectric Materials (NET-43). Thanks to CNPq and FAPEMIG agencies of Brazil. Dr Aimé Peláiz-Barranco acknowledges Le Conseil Régional de Languedoc-Roussillon for her invitation to the University of Nîmes, France. Thanks to the Embassy of France in Havana, Cuba, for financial support for the scientific cooperation between the University of Nîmes and Havana University. Dr Aimé Peláiz-Barranco would like to thank Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
Hepatoblastoma is the third most commonly diagnosed intra-abdominal solid tumor [1]. It is also the most common primary hepatic malignancy in children [2]. More than 90% of hepatoblastoma occur in children under the age of 5 years [3, 4]. Although its absolute incidence is very low, its growth rate is gradually increasing, which increased from 1.89 per 1,000,000 in 2000 to 2.16 per 1,000,000 in 2015, with an annual percentage change of 2.2%. This increase mainly occurs in male children between 2 and 4 years of age, which was found to be an independent predictor for short overall survival [5]. With the development of multimodal treatment and cooperation between international organizations, the prognoses have been greatly improved in recent years [6].
Clinical manifestations are not typical at the early stage of hepatoblastoma. There would be epigastric or total abdominal distention, nausea, vomit, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, diarrhea, jaundice, even varicosity of abdominal wall, and dyspnea. Another clinical feature is often accompanied by fever, and the temperature can reach 39–40°C. About 3% of patients have sex hormone and sexual organ development abnormalities. And a few children have obvious osteoporosis and pathological fracture.
Physical examination could find diffuse or nodular enlargement of the liver, of which the volume varies, sometimes with splenomegaly and varicosity of the abdominal wall. Abdominal pain and abdominal muscle tension may be due to tumor rupture. In the late stage, the hepatoblastoma progresses rapidly and cachexia appeared soon.
Alpha fetoprotein (AFP) increases in more than 90% of patients, which is a specific indicator for hepatoblastoma and important for disease follow-up. Age should be considered when analyzing the clinical significance of AFP. The average AFP of the newborn is about 62.7ng/ml, and it reaches the peak in the first month after birth, the average AFP is about 1200 ng/ml. After three months, it decreases to 3.15ng/ml (the level of normal adult). In addition, the LDH, cholesterol, and alkaline phosphatase are also increased. The liver function is normal at early stage, middle, and late stage.
Imaging is necessary for diagnosis and preoperative evaluation, including tumor location, number, and the relationship with peripheral blood vessels and organs. The commonly used examination includes ultrasound, CT, MRI, angiography, etc.
Enhanced CT and MRI are important imaging studies, which are recommended. However, due to the difficulty of MRI examination for children, we usually choose enhance CT and reconstruct the images into three-dimensional images to understand the spatial structure of the tumor and the anatomical relationship with the blood vessels.
Additionally, the deep exploration of CT/MRI images is also important for the overall evaluation of hepatoblastoma. Identifying the CT/MRI image features of hepatoblastoma will help distinguish the more malignant tumor, which is potentially useful for guiding the clinical treatment. A study of 34 patients, aimed at studying contrast-enhanced CT characteristics of hepatoblastoma associated with metastatic disease and patient outcomes, found that irregular tumor margins, vascular invasion, capsule retraction, and PRETEXT staging are associated with poor patient prognosis. Among them, irregular tumor margins are the only imaging features that are significantly associated with more aggressive tumor subtypes [7]. For investigating the image characteristics, artificial intelligence has demonstrated remarkable progress in image recognition tasks. Radiomics is used to investigate the quantitative features that are invisible to the naked eye from conventional image with methods of artificial intelligence. The image features could be used to predict the pathology characteristics, therapeutic response, and survival. Previous studies have evaluated the value of radiomics in adult liver cancer. The results were achieved, particularly in the preoperative prediction of pathological features and postoperative recurrence [8, 9].
The four centers in the world that have performed prospective controlled studies of hepatoblastoma joined forces to form the CHIC. It includes the International Childhood Liver Tumor Strategy Group (SIOPEL), the Children’s Oncology Group (COG), the German Society for Pediatric Oncology and Hematology (GPOH), and the Japanese Study Group for Pediatric Liver Tumors (JPLT). Such international cooperation provides a large-scale database for clinical trials. The CHIC has developed a centralized online platform that combines data from eight completed clinical trials to form a database of 1605 hepatoblastoma cases treated between 1988 and 2008. The resulting data set has been used for investigating the relationship between the patient prognosis and the tumor characteristics and patient stratification for treatment selection and follow-up. And the collaboration has led to a uniform implementation of staging system (PRE-Treatment EXTent of tumor, PRETEXT), which is helpful for systemically evaluating the hepatoblastoma at diagnosis and useful for establishing consensus classification. Moreover, pathologists in the collaboration have established a new histopathological consensus classification for pediatric liver tumors. There have also been advances in chemotherapy treatments and liver transplantation for unresectable tumors. These advances will be further evaluated in the upcoming Pediatric Hepatic International Tumor Trial (PHITT) [10].
Imaging is an important basis for disease assessment and treatment selection. The PRETEXT system has been firstly proposed for staging and risk stratification for hepatoblastoma in 1992 [11]. The PRETEXT system is used to classify the tumor extent before treatment, which has a good prognostic value in patients with hepatoblastoma. The PRETEXT system has been widely used to evaluate the hepatoblastoma in recent years, which could stratify patients into groups with different prognosis.
The 2017 PRETEXT has updated the 2005 PRETEXT definitions [12]. The liver was divided into four sections. For PRETEXT I, II, and IV groups, there were no obvious differences between 2017 PRETEXT and 2005 PRETEXT. For PRETEXT I group, the tumor involves only one of the two lateral sections (right posterior and left lateral section). For PRETEXT II group, the tumor involves the left lobe, right lobe, left medial section only, and right anterior section only; two separate tumors involves the two lateral sections or the caudate lobe only. For PRETEXT III group, the tumor involves three sections of the liver, leaving only one normal section. For PRETEXT IV group, the tumor involves all four sections. The 2017 PRETEXT has mainly standardized the PRETEXT annotation factors, preparing the future clinical trials. It includes hepatic venous/inferior vena cava involvement (V), portal venous involvement (P), extrahepatic disease contiguous with the main liver tumor (E), multifocality (F), and tumor rupture (R) [12].
Many single centers have put effort to investigate the prognostic factor of hepatoblastoma [13, 14, 15, 16]. But the results were limited due to the small patients’ number and the use of multiple disparate staging systems. CHIC has created a new staging system to staging and risk stratification in children with hepatoblastoma, named the Children’s Hepatic tumors International Collaboration-Hepatoblastoma Stratification (CHIC-HS). Based on a 5-year event-free survival and clinical applicability, the system was established with risk factors including PRETEXT groups, metastatic disease, age, AFP concentration, PRETEXT annotation factors (VPEFR), and surgically resectable at diagnosis [17]. PRETEXT group is the primary and most important for risk stratification. If the tumor is resectable at diagnosis for patients of PRETEXT I/II group, they are in very low or low risk. After PRETEXT group, metastatic disease is the first risk factor for stratification. All patients with metastatic disease were defined as high risk. Then, age ≥ 8 years in PRETEXT I, II, and III group and age ≥ 3 years in PRETEXT IV group were high-risk factor. For younger patients, AFP ≤100 ng/mL was defined as high-risk group. And VPEFR+ patients were in intermediate-risk group. In PRETEXT I/II group, older patients showed a relatively poor prognosis. But many of these tumors can be surgically resected; they defined the patients at 3–7 year age in the lower-risk group; patients who had low PRETEXT and positive VPEFR were placed in the intermediate-risk group; patients with PRETEXT I and low AFP (≤100 ng/mL) should not be stratified into high-risk group due to surgically resectable small tumors; patients with PRETEXT III group (younger than 8 years, no metastasis (M−) and AFP 100–1000 ng/mL) were defined as intermediate risk due to the poor 5-year event-free survival. CHIC-HS is by far the most complete system for risk stratification of pediatric hepatoblastoma and has important guiding significance for guiding individualized treatment [17]. Further study should also pay attention to the prognostic effect of treatment selection, such as anatomical or nonanatomical partial hepatectomy [18] and the dosage of chemotherapy [19, 20].
Multimodal therapy is recommended for the management of hepatoblastoma, including surgical resection, liver transplantation, chemotherapy, or radiofrequency ablation [21]. Multimodal therapy can improve tumor remission rate of children with advanced hepatoblastoma and prolong the survival. Surgical resection is the preferred treatment of resectable hepatoblastoma at the time of diagnosis. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy could improve the rate and safety of complete surgical resection for unresectable hepatoblastoma. Liver transplantation is one of the main treatments for unresectable hepatoblastoma [22, 23]. Prognosis has been greatly improved due to advances in chemotherapeutic agents and dosing regimens as well as innovations in surgical procedures, including the preoperative three-dimensional reconstruction, the usage of energy device, and liver transplantation. The management of high-risk patients and patients with recurrent or metastatic disease remains challenging [21].
Hepatectomy is the first choice for hepatoblastoma. It is suitable for PRETEXT I, II, and part of III patients. For most PRETEXT III and IV patients, chemotherapy is preferred first. Then, reevaluate the tumor and decide the treatment, hepatectomy or liver transplantation. However, there is still controversy about whether surgery should be performed first or chemotherapy first and the selection of extended hepatectomy or liver transplantation.
Over the past 40 years, the management of hepatoblastoma has changed significantly. For patients with unresectable tumors, neoadjuvant chemotherapy has become the standard treatment which can lead to a significant reduction in preoperative tumors and sometimes even complete ablation [24]. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy may facilitate partial hepatectomy by withdrawal of the tumor boundary from the confluence of portal vein bifurcation, hepatic veins, and inferior vena cava. And the tumor volume of hepatoblastoma could be significantly resolved with increasing neoadjuvant chemotherapy cycles [25]. For patients who underwent cisplatinum-based neoadjuvant and postoperative chemotherapy, microscopically positive resection margin did not affect the overall survival rate. And the “wait-and-see policy” is recommended [26].
For patients with hepatoblastoma that could be resected at diagnosis, postoperative chemotherapy with cisplatin, fluorouracil, and vincristine is useful to control the disease progression [27]. And for the subtype of pure fetal histology hepatoblastoma, complete surgical resection can achieve good survival without additional chemotherapy. Further study should be performed to identify the patients for whom chemotherapy is not necessary [28].
The management of patients in PRETEXT III or IV was difficult, including the selection between an aggressive liver resection and liver transplantation. There has been several study comparing the prognosis of partial hepatectomy and liver transplantation, the 5-year overall survival rate was 92% in patients who were performed partial hepatectomy, and about 83% in patients who underwent liver transplantation [29, 30, 31, 32].
Although primary liver transplantation is recommended for POSTTEXT III and IV hepatoblastoma, some of the patients may be possible to perform extended hepatectomy after careful preoperative evaluation. In a prospective study that involved 18 patients with PRETEXT III and IV, extended major hepatic resection is safe and feasible with a comparable prognosis. The prognosis was similar with liver transplantation, while patients could avoid long-term immunosuppressive treatment. But there should always be a potential donor for salvage liver transplantation [33, 34]. A study including 24 patients performed liver transplantation or extensive liver resection. Two patients in five who underwent liver transplantation experienced tumor recurrence and death within a mean period of 6 months, while 6 patients were recurrent in the extended hepatectomy group, with 63.2% event-free survival and 94.7% overall survival rate. The results support extensive surgical resection in patients of advanced tumor [35]. Although the surgical resection is complicated and sometimes remains positive or close negative margins, the patients could have good outcomes. Combined with neoadjuvant therapy, extensive surgical resection may spare the morbidity of orthotopic liver transplantation. And it will offer an alternative treatment for patients who are ineligible for liver transplantation [36].
In our center, we have performed extended hepatectomy for 27 cases of PRETEXT or POSTEXT III and IV, the 3-year disease-free survival was 75.0%, and the overall survival was 87.5%.
Neoadjuvant therapy has become the standard treatment for unresected hepatoblastoma. After neoadjuvant therapy, tumor volume may reduce, and surgical resection could be safely performed [37]. Although the patients may have good survival, neoadjuvant therapy may be related with postoperative complications. A study assessing the surgical outcomes focusing on resection margins, postoperative complications, 30-day mortality, and overall survival found that patients who underwent partial hepatectomy after chemotherapy experienced high rate of surgical complications (58%). But the complications were not detrimental to survival [29]. In another report, the incidence of complications after surgical resection following adjuvant chemotherapy is high and is associated with overall survival in high-risk hepatoblastoma. One of the possible reasons is that postoperative complication will delay the chemotherapy [38]. In our experience, precise preoperative evaluation of the anatomy of tumor and intrahepatic vascular with three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction and compare with the intraoperative situation will ensure the safety of surgery.
Three-dimensional reconstruction has been widely used in preoperative evaluation and assisting hepatectomy [39] or living donor liver transplantation [40]. 3D simulation software could reconstruct the whole liver, tumor, and intrahepatic vascular, clearly displaying the anatomical variation and the correlation of tumor with the surrounding vascular. It is helpful for making the precise surgical plan and enables individualized anatomic hepatectomy for each pediatric patient with hepatoblastoma. For surgical resection, precisely understanding the location of tumor and the relation of tumor with the surrounding vascular and accurately evaluating the remnant liver volume are important for safe hepatectomy of giant hepatoblastoma. In our center, we have used a novel virtual hepatectomy simulation software named Hisense CAS for preoperative evaluation. The Hisense CAS software could simulate a 3D liver image quickly and accurately with DICOM files of contrast-enhanced CT. With the Hisense CAS, we could confirm the anatomical relationship of tumor with the surrounding vascular from any direction, preoperatively mimic hepatectomy by extracting Glisson territory for anatomical liver resection or nonanatomical hepatectomy, automatically calculate the remnant liver volume, and navigate the liver resection during operation [41, 42]. As shown in Figure 1, with the help of 3D reconstruction, we performed extended hepatectomy for the patients. In total, we have performed extended hepatectomy for 27 patients in PRETEXT or POSTTEXT III and IV. All the hepatoblastoma were successfully removed with no complications. There were shorter operation time and less intraoperative bleeding in the reconstructing group. And the postoperative hospital stays tended to be shorter [41, 42].
Precise evaluation of hepatoblastoma with 3D reconstruction software.
Although extended hepatectomy for advanced hepatoblastoma has achieved favorable results, liver transplantation is still the only treatment for unresectable hepatoblastoma.
Liver transplantation can achieve a good prognosis for patients with hepatoblastoma, with a 5-year survival rate of 86% and a 10-year survival rate of about 80% [32, 43]. Compared with deceased donor transplantation, the prognosis of living liver transplantation was a little better (5-year survival rates were 83.3 and 77.6%). And compared with salvage liver transplantation, primary liver transplantation has a better prognosis (5-year survival rates were 82 and 30%) [31]. Compared with liver transplantation performed before 2010, patients who received liver transplantation after 2010 have a better prognosis (5-year survival rates were 82.6 and 75.1%) [43]. Preoperative liver metastasis, tumor lysis after chemotherapy, and perioperative anticoagulation can significantly improve the prognosis of patients with liver transplantation. And the outcome was not affected by tumor pathology [44]. For unresectable hepatoblastoma, vascular infiltration and poor resection are often present, and liver transplantation has become the first choice [45]. Adjuvant chemotherapy after transplantation can significantly improve the long-term prognosis of patients [22]. For unresectable hepatoblastoma, the pretransplantation trend of alpha-fetoprotein levels after live donor liver transplantation can be used as an indicator of predictive recurrence. Since the AFP response cannot be accurately predicted before each chemotherapy cycle, liver transplantation may be appropriate if the AFP level does not decrease after the last cycle and before AFP levels are found to rise again [46].
The lung is the most common metastatic organ of hepatoblastoma. In addition to lung, brain and bone metastases have also been reported [12, 47]. At the first diagnosis of hepatoblastoma, 17% of patients had pulmonary metastases [48]. Patients with lung metastasis will have a poor overall prognosis. Therefore, a CT scan of the lung should be performed before treatment to determine whether there is lung metastasis. Treatment after lung metastasis is also critical to extend the prognosis of patients. Comprehensive treatment of primary and metastatic lesions can improve the prognosis of patients.
The treatment of patients with synchronous lung metastasis and hepatoblastoma has been systemically reviewed [49]. To summarize, if the primary lesions and metastases are resectable, combine resection; if unresectable, eradicate or reduce the metastasis by neoadjuvant chemotherapy and then flowing combined resection. For single lung metastatic nodule, surgical resection is safe and feasible for the treatment [50]. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy combined with surgical resection of primary and metastatic lesions can achieve a better prognosis for patients with lung metastases. Most lung metastatic lesions are sensitive to chemotherapy. About half (26/60) of patients can achieve complete remission by chemotherapy. Then flowing surgical removal of primary lesion, the patient’s survival could be significantly improved (3-year survival rate 67.2%) [51]. For the patients whose lung metastasis cannot be completely eradicated by chemotherapy, the prognosis is relatively poor [52]. For patients who cannot achieve complete remission, increasing the intensity of chemotherapy or expanding the scope of surgical resection may prolong the patient’s prognosis. In addition, the patients will experience poor prognosis if it occurs as lung metastases while on treatment [52]. If the primary liver lesion is resectable, chemotherapy-resistant lung lesions should be surgically removed before, after, or at the same time as liver tumor surgery. In patients with unresectable primary liver tumor, liver transplantation combined with metastasectomy can be performed after chemotherapy, the 5-year survival rate of which can reach 86%. For patients with an unremovable hepatoblastoma and residual lung metastasis, overall tumor burden may be an important prognostic factor for these patients [53]. Local treatment (e.g., transcatheter arterial chemoembolization or radiofrequency ablation) may be considered to reduce tumor size [49, 54]. Sometimes it is difficult to diagnose whether there is viability of residual lung lesions after chemotherapy; it will affect the operation for the primary tumor. It is difficult to determine the pathology of tiny lesions in imaging and find the lesions during intraoperative exploration; indocyanine green fluoroscopy may be helpful. But further study is necessary to verify the usefulness [55].
Compared with pediatric hepatoblastoma, adult hepatoblastoma has a lower incidence and a higher degree of malignancy [56]. There is no significant gender difference in the incidence of adult hepatoblastoma, and the average age of onset is 42 years [57]. About 25% of adult hepatoblastomas are associated with hepatitis and cirrhosis, while it is rare in pediatric patients. Abdominal pain is the main clinical manifestation, and abdominal mass is the most common sign. As with children, surgical resection is the first choice for adult hepatoblastoma. Most hepatoblastomas are unresectable at diagnosis; chemotherapy can be used for patients who cannot be resected to gain opportunities for surgery [58]. Chemotherapy protocols are not standardized, and there was no statistically significance in survival rate between patients treated with drugs or TACE and patients not treated [57]. Due to low incidence, liver transplantation has yet to be fully evaluated. The prognosis of adult hepatoblastoma is extremely poor. The median survival time was 8 months and a 1-year survival rate of 39.2% after treatment [59]. And patients had a longer survival if operation was performed [59]. Compared with nonsurgical treatment, surgery has a better prognosis. Hepatic multilobed involvement, embryonic histology, multifocal nodules, and AFP <100 or AFP > 1000 are the poor prognostic factors [60].
In summary, surgical resection is the primary treatment for hepatoblastoma. Preoperative three-dimensional reconstruction can improve the resection rate of the tumor and the safety of the resection. For patients who cannot be directly resected, the tumor volume can be reduced by neoadjuvant therapy and then surgically treated. Liver transplantation is the best treatment for unresectable hepatoblastoma and has a good prognosis. For patients with distant metastasis, chemotherapy or metastasis resection combined with primary resection can effectively control disease progression.
This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81600490 and 81600691), the Research and Development Project of Shandong Province (2016GSF201221), China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2016M602098 and 2018M640615), and Qingdao Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2016046).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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