IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
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In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8033",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Seed Dormancy and Germination",title:"Seed Dormancy and Germination",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Seed dormancy and germination are critical processes for the development of plants. Seed dormancy allows seeds to overcome harsh periods of seedling establishment, and is also important for plant agriculture and crop yield. Several processes are involved in the induction of dormancy and in the shift from the dormant to the germinating state, and hormones and regulatory genetic networks are among the critical factors driving these complex processes. Germination can be prevented by different factors leading to seed dormancy, which is highly dependent on environmental cues. During and after germination, early seedling growth is sustained by catabolism of stored reserves (proteins, lipids, or starch) accumulated during seed maturation, supporting cell morphogenesis, chloroplast development, and root growth until photo-auxotrophic growth can be resumed.",isbn:"978-1-78984-861-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-860-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-454-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77864",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"seed-dormancy-and-germination",numberOfPages:158,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8dc6f520dc664e8fd07db7658931dc2d",bookSignature:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8033.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7174,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:53,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 12th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 11th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 28th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33993/images/system/33993.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez, BS. Biochemistry (1998), BS. Biological Sciences (2001), MS. Agricultural Sciences (2004), University of Granada, Spain; and Ph.D. Plant Cell Biology (2008) at CSIC. He was a Postdoctoral Research Associate at Purdue University, USA (2008-2011), and Marie Curie Research Fellow (EU - FP7) (2012-2015) at the University of Western Australia and CSIC. Currently, he is a Senior Research Fellow (Ramon y Cajal research program, 2016 - present), working in the functionality, health benefits, and molecular allergy aspects of seed proteins from crop species of agro-industrial interest (mainly legumes). He is the author of more than 65 journal articles, 29 book chapters, 2 patents, and more than 130 international congresses. He is an active member of different Scientific Societies and editor of multiple books.",institutionString:"Spanish National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Spanish National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"375",title:"Plant Physiology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology-plant-physiology"}],chapters:[{id:"69762",title:"Analysis of the Effect of Scarification Process on Papaya (Carica papaya Lin.) Seeds Germination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88012",slug:"analysis-of-the-effect-of-scarification-process-on-papaya-em-carica-papaya-em-lin-seeds-germination",totalDownloads:901,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The presence of the aril (sarcotesta) in the papaya causes a slow and low germination, being necessary to break the state of dormancy. Calcium hydroxide that was applied in order to evaluate its scarifying effect was the objective. The sample consisted of 60 randomly selected fruits of hermaphrodite plants in a commercial production batch of approximately 1 ha (2222 plants) showing commercial maturity, of homogeneous size (±2 kg). The treatments were calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 at three doses, dipping the seed for a period of 24 h; the standardized sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at 25% with a 15 min immersion time. The highest germination and vigor seeds were obtained applied Ca(OH)2 with highly significant differences respect to the rest treatment, especially for the dose of 60 g l−1 of water for reasons of diminishing expenses. Significant correlations were found, with direct relations (aril and mechanical damage) and inverse relations (abnormal seeds) between the variables evaluated related to the vigor and germination of the seeds. It can be an ecological and not expensive methodology to improve the germination and vigor of papaya seeds in relation to other chemical compounds to scarify.",signatures:"Sergio Rodríguez, Iramis Vargas, Asterio Hijuelo, Frederique Loumeto, Juan J. Silva, Jorge Pérez, Quirino Arias, Yanexis Fonseca, Yarisbel Gómez, Michel Baldoquín and Daliannis Oliva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69762",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69762",authors:[{id:"303942",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Rodríguez Rodríguez",slug:"sergio-rodriguez-rodriguez",fullName:"Sergio Rodríguez Rodríguez"},{id:"305868",title:"MSc.",name:"Iramis",surname:"Vargas Díaz",slug:"iramis-vargas-diaz",fullName:"Iramis Vargas Díaz"},{id:"305870",title:"BSc.",name:"Asterio",surname:"Hijuelo Ramírez",slug:"asterio-hijuelo-ramirez",fullName:"Asterio Hijuelo Ramírez"},{id:"305926",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Frederique",surname:"Loumeto Ipolo",slug:"frederique-loumeto-ipolo",fullName:"Frederique Loumeto Ipolo"},{id:"305927",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Juan José",surname:"Silva Pupo",slug:"juan-jose-silva-pupo",fullName:"Juan José Silva Pupo"},{id:"305928",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Pérez Pérez",slug:"jorge-perez-perez",fullName:"Jorge Pérez Pérez"},{id:"305929",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Yanexis",surname:"Fonseca Carrasco",slug:"yanexis-fonseca-carrasco",fullName:"Yanexis Fonseca Carrasco"},{id:"305930",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Daliannis",surname:"Oliva Domínguez",slug:"daliannis-oliva-dominguez",fullName:"Daliannis Oliva Domínguez"},{id:"305931",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Yarisbel",surname:"Gómez Masjuan",slug:"yarisbel-gomez-masjuan",fullName:"Yarisbel Gómez Masjuan"},{id:"305932",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michel",surname:"Baldoquín Hernández",slug:"michel-baldoquin-hernandez",fullName:"Michel Baldoquín Hernández"}],corrections:null},{id:"68647",title:"Weed Seed Dormancy: The Ecophysiology and Survival Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88015",slug:"weed-seed-dormancy-the-ecophysiology-and-survival-strategies",totalDownloads:1481,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with seed dormancy of agricultural weeds, its definitions and types from the physiological and ecological point of view, and physiological and ecological factors inducing dormancy in different weed species. The role of different environmental factors, agricultural practices including herbicides application, selection pressure, and seasonal dormancy, weed density and population regulation, seed phenology, polymorphism, and modifications were emphasized. Factors induce or terminate dormancy and enhance seed germination and dormancy breaking have been mentioned and evaluated in addition to the ecological importance of seed dormancy and herbicide resistance, genetic bases of dormancy, and molecular studies were presented. The role of allelochemicals, stresses, and dormancy and their effects on seed longevity and germination regulation were thoroughly discussed. Dormancy breaking under laboratory conditions, role of plant hormones and other chemicals, and dormancy management in the field were reviewed in addition to information on seed dormancy/longevity and germination stimulants. Seed germination stimulants and inhibitors of parasitic weed and seed dormancy as a weed survival strategy were presented and discussed.",signatures:"Jamal R. Qasem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68647",authors:[{id:"13565",title:"Prof.",name:"Jamal R.",surname:"Qasem",slug:"jamal-r.-qasem",fullName:"Jamal R. Qasem"}],corrections:null},{id:"70238",title:"Artificial Intelligence Tools to Better Understand Seed Dormancy and Germination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90374",slug:"artificial-intelligence-tools-to-better-understand-seed-dormancy-and-germination",totalDownloads:955,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite a large number of publications available, the control mechanisms of seed dormancy and germination are far to be fully understood. Seed dormancy and germination are very complex biological processes and because they involve multiple factors (physiological, mechanical, and environmental) and their nonlinear interactions. This explains why extremely little variations on some of those factors and in the way they interact caused enormous variation in the obtained results. Multifactorial process like these can be modeled using computer-based tools to predict better results. In this chapter, some basic concepts relative to seed dormancy and germination and the main factors (physiological, involved in seed dormancy, particularly dormancy-inducers and dormancy-breakers, and seed germination) are reviewed. In the next two, we describe the use of artificial intelligence computer-based models to better understand the physiological mechanisms of seed dormancy (how dormancy is controlled and how can be released) and seed germination. Finally, some applications of artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic, and genetic algorithms to elucidate critical factors and predict optimal condition for seed dormancy-breaking and germination are given as examples of the utility of this powerful computer-based tools.",signatures:"Manuel Ayuso, Mariana Landín, Pedro Pablo Gallego and Mª Esther Barreal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70238",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70238",authors:[{id:"19226",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Gallego",slug:"pedro-gallego",fullName:"Pedro Gallego"},{id:"23361",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariana",surname:"Landín",slug:"mariana-landin",fullName:"Mariana Landín"},{id:"290489",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",surname:"Barreal",slug:"esther-barreal",fullName:"Esther Barreal"},{id:"290490",title:"MSc.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Ayuso",slug:"manuel-ayuso",fullName:"Manuel Ayuso"}],corrections:null},{id:"67647",title:"Programmed Cell Death in Seeds: An Adaptive Mechanism Required for Life",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86833",slug:"programmed-cell-death-in-seeds-an-adaptive-mechanism-required-for-life",totalDownloads:912,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The regeneration of the mother plant through germinative process is the main reason that evolutionarily justifies the existence of a viable seed. Current knowledge indicates that the control of germination is a sophisticated process mainly controlled by hormones and reactive oxygen species (ROS), among other endogenous factors. One of the events that directly participate in the germination is the degradation of storage proteins (SPs). Thus, vacuolar processing enzymes (VPEs) contribute to SPs’ degradation and mobilization due to direct proteolysis or through the activation of other peptidases. In parallel, the relationship between VPEs and programmed cell death (PCD) is beyond doubt. As an alternative to VPEs, the formation of vesicles called ricinosomes containing papain-like Cys-proteases (PLCPs) and located in the reserve tissues of some germinating seeds also collaborates to protein degradation. Finally, there are increasing evidences linking nucleases to PCD in different tissues of seed. However, its state of the art is still little developed. Together, this current overview illustrates a part of the complexity of PCD in seeds, a puzzle far from being solved.",signatures:"Angel J. Matilla",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67647",authors:[{id:"298031",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",surname:"Matilla",slug:"angel-matilla",fullName:"Angel Matilla"}],corrections:null},{id:"67884",title:"Adaptation of Halophytes to Different Habitats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87056",slug:"adaptation-of-halophytes-to-different-habitats",totalDownloads:1671,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, global climate change has been altering environmental (severe drought, soil salinization, irregular precipitation, etc.), around world, decreasing crop yield and upsetting the balance of ecosystems. Nonetheless, a group of plants known as halophytes have the ability to survive and develop in saline soils (wetlands, deserts or temperate zones), may be used in agriculture as a possible alternative to crops (salt-sensitive), as well as for fodder, energy production, medicinal purposes, and desalination of salt-affected areas (phytoremediation). This chapter provides a comprehensive summary of the adaptive strategies used by the annual and perennial halophytes on ecophysiological perspectives, to survive in diverse habitats. The results show a great diverse strategies, such as heteromorphism, seed banks, dormancy, rapid germination, and recovery capacity, from saline shock, favoring the chances of seed survival, although these mechanisms depend on light, moisture, temperature, and the type of salt, in which seeds germinate. In addition, it has been included some molecular, and biochemical aspects, discovered in last years, that might improve our understanding of physiology of these plants. It can conclude that halophytes may be as a possible alternative to ease pressure on cropping systems, restored lands degraded, or confer stress tolerance trough gene transfer.",signatures:"Milagros Bueno González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67884",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67884",authors:[{id:"298374",title:"Prof.",name:"Milagros",surname:"Bueno",slug:"milagros-bueno",fullName:"Milagros Bueno"}],corrections:null},{id:"68892",title:"Assessment of Seed Quality and Germination Response in the Species of the Genus Polylepis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88010",slug:"assessment-of-seed-quality-and-germination-response-in-the-species-of-the-genus-em-polylepis-em-",totalDownloads:686,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To contribute to the knowledge of sexual reproduction of endangered native species of the genus Polylepis (P. neglecta, P. incarum and P. pacensis) in Bolivia, different germination studies were performed to obtain saplings for reforestation as a very important measure recommended for the recovery and conservation of this genus. Initially, seed trees were identified in natural populations (P. pacensis and P. incarum) and also in green areas of the Municipality of La Paz (P. neglecta). The characterization of physical and physiological quality (laboratory and greenhouse tests) of the collected seeds was carried out. The physical quality test, showed a high degree of impurities (47%), so it was required to collect a greater amount of plant material. P. incarum, P. pacensis and P. neglecta showed 10, 8 and 6% humidity respectively. A low germination percentage was obtained: 10% (P. neglecta), 8% (P. pacensis) and 2% (P. incarum), issue reported for several Polylepis species. Under greenhouse conditions the highest germination percentage (19%) was displayed in the substrate sand + peat 1:1. On the other hand, P. neglecta showed a higher germination percentage (between 10 and 15%), P. pacensis and P. incarum: 8 and 2%, respectively. Our data suggest feasible alternatives to improve the massive propagation of these species under greenhouse conditions.",signatures:"Cecilia Vega Krstulovic, Jorge Quezada Portugal, Paola Rocabado Koya, Gabriela Villegas Alvarado and Juan Carlos Bermejo Franco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68892",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68892",authors:[{id:"298173",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Vega",slug:"cecilia-vega",fullName:"Cecilia Vega"},{id:"298420",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Quezada",slug:"jorge-quezada",fullName:"Jorge Quezada"}],corrections:null},{id:"68163",title:"Phytotoxicity of Plantago major Extracts on Germination and Seedling Growth of Purslane (Portulaca oleracea)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88129",slug:"phytotoxicity-of-em-plantago-major-em-extracts-on-germination-and-seedling-growth-of-purslane-em-por",totalDownloads:569,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plantago major L. (Plantaginaceae family) has been used as herbal remedies for centuries in almost all over the world and in the treatment of a number of diseases. This study aims to assess the allelopathic potential of Plantago major extracts on the germination and early seedling growth of purslane. Total phenols, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and alkaloids were determined in P. major. Furthermore, concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg.ml−1 of both alcoholic and aqueous extracts were prepared to study their phytotoxic effect on the germination and seedling growth of Portulaca oleracea weed. In our study, showing the germination of P. oleracea was completely inhibited (96.30 mg.ml−1) under treatment of P. major methanolic extracts at 40 mg ml−1. Moreover, both radicle and plumule were strongly inhibited (87.20 and 74.29 mg.ml−1, respectively) under the same treatment. This could be attributed to the high content of bioactive constituents. Therefore, this species can be used in the method of biological control of weeds. In addition, further studies are required to identify and characterize the proper allelochemicals and demonstrate their modes of action.",signatures:"Ahmed F. Al-obaidi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68163",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68163",authors:[{id:"302770",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Al-obaidi",slug:"ahmed-al-obaidi",fullName:"Ahmed Al-obaidi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6096",title:"Seed Biology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0929ebc410ef5c25efdf938e3d34b6b2",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6096.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5382",title:"Cytoskeleton",subtitle:"Structure, Dynamics, Function and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1c57584a4107ef50eefd39ceb1c8e64",slug:"cytoskeleton-structure-dynamics-function-and-disease",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5382.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1819",title:"Biochemical Testing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bab205c706b0f34b0dfcfa1196437fcf",slug:"biochemical-testing",bookSignature:"Jose C. 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1. Introduction
This study seeks to interrogate the nexus between industrial harmony and political stability as a potential determinant or otherwise, in crisis management, and this will be undertaken within the context of the Nigeria’s public sector and its interface with the organised labour. This study further seeks to provoke insightful discussions around the commonplace crisis management mechanisms such as mediation, conciliation and arbitration, otherwise described as alternative disputes resolution (ADR), with view to determining and attaining more strategic and proactive ways of ensuring a harmonious working relationships between the government and its workers on one hand, and between organisations in the private sector and their employees. This study is predicated on the fact that crisis management is essentially embedded in humanity. In the opinion of some writers, social groups by their nature and context, are in fact characterised by conflicts. This is so because aims, objectives and interests of the social units or individuals that constitute any social groups (including labour unions) differ.
According to Dontigney [1], any situation involving more than one person, conflict can arise. In his view, the causes of conflict range from philosophical differences and divergent goals to power imbalances. Dontigney [1] however warns that unmanaged or poorly managed conflicts has the tendency to generate a breakdown in trust and lost productivity. By extrapolation, this viewpoint can equally be validated in the context of public sector crisis management in relation to the impact of the organised labour unionism. This is unavoidable given the fact that both the government and the labour organisation are structurally antithetical in terms of objectives and functions. However, both will not operate in isolation but will continue to engage and synergise to create and advance industrial harmony which is a sine qua non to stability.
In doing this, it will be worthwhile to contextualise the scope of the study by providing a description of the variables associated with the focus of the study.
The public-sector is a combination of two words which can generically, be described as comprising the exclusive administrative space where the government serves as the employer at the federal; state (provincial or regional) and local (municipal or county) government levels, depending on the nomenclatures adopted by each sovereign country [2]. It also comprises state-owned companies and parastatals, so created to carry out assigned responsibilities for the purpose of serving the entire citizens of the country by the provision of basic services constitutionally guaranteed. These levels of government and the agencies are manned by different cadres of personnel, and who engage in discharging their respective assignments. On the other hand, the organised labour organisations represent exclusively, representatives of a defined group of employees which are concerned with the negotiation, administration, interpretation and enforcement of written agreements covering joint understanding as to wages/salaries, rates of pay, hours of work and other conditions of employment. Simply put, labour organisations The public service refers to the amalgamation of services provided by government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing provision of services. In other words, service provided or supported by government or its agencies as embedded in the constitution of the state or country. The partial provision of such or total neglect has resulted in series of socio-economic and political upheavals in countries thereby disrupting governance and usually accompanied by instability.
2. Study research questions
Against the author’s concerns and interest as expressed in the introductory section above, this study seeks to provide objective, but somewhat provocative responses to the following questions which include:
What is the nature of the public sector crisis in Nigeria, and what are the immediate and remote factors responsible for it?
What is the nexus between industrial harmony and political stability in Nigeria?
What mechanism(s) does the Nigerian government adopt in managing and resolving the crisis between the state and the organised labour?
What policy option can the explored to strengthen the nexus between industrial harmony and political stability towards effective governance?
These questions will be responded to and addressed in the study.
3. Methodology
The study is literature based, and this involves engaging relevant sources from which to draw a basis and strength for its eventual outcomes, particularly from previous related publications and write-ups. This is inevitable since the information to be deployed is essentially from secondary sources, but will be critically examined. In doing this, the author will consider a literature survey method to establish the relevant issues at stake in the context of this paper, and will accordingly do so in the course of the write-up. Furthermore, identified themes and findings therefrom will be critically examined with a view to arriving at fresh perspectives on how the creation of industrial harmony or otherwise, by the organised labour will conduce to a desirable political environment in Nigeria, on one hand, and to serve as a mechanism of crisis management in the public-sector in particular, and in the society in general. This paper proceeds by identifying the relevant theoretical framework for the study. This is followed with a rehash of the nature, evolution and the operations of the organised labour unionism in Nigeria and will attempt to point out its impact on governance dynamics in the country. The paper will provide insights into the character of the private sector where the government dictates the pace, thereby exposing the nature of the relationship that exists between the government and its employees, who are part of the organised labour.
4. Theoretical framework
The author seeks to apply the conflict theory as the theoretical framework, among the other relevant theories, to underpin the study which focuses on highlighting the nexus between industrial harmony and political stability in the context of crisis management in Nigeria’s public sector. The is consequent upon the acute relevance of the theory to the focus of the study which has to do with management of crisis and the fact that conflict is recognised and acknowledged as a part of humanity. According to Chidi and Okpala [3], ‘conflict theory is synonymous with the pluralist or the pluralistic frame of reference’. In their view, the conflict theory sees the organisation as a coalescence of sectional groups with different values, interests and objectives. Thus, employees have different values and aspirations from those of management, and these values and aspirations are always in conflict with those of management. The two scholars contend that Conflict theorists argue that conflict is inevitable, rational, functional and normal situation in organisations, which is resolved through compromise and agreement or collective bargaining. Conflict theorists view trade unions as legitimate challenges to managerial rule or prerogatives and emphasise competition and collaboration. This view recognises trade unions as legitimate representative organisations which enable groups of employees to influence management decisions [4] Rose.
Rose further states that the pluralist perspective would seem to be much more relevant than the unitary perspective in the analysis of industrial relations in many large unionised organisations and congruent with developments in contemporary society. In the opinion of Wokoma [5], the conflict theory evolved from the works and ideas of Karl Marx, who contended that conflict is inevitable and stems from inequalities of power and economic wealth inherent in a capitalist economy or society. It should be noted that this study is not intended to view the issues associated with this study from any ideological perspective, but strictly from an academic and analytical prism.
The relevance of this theory derives from the role of theoretical construction in research which, in the view of Badejo [6], serves to observe, understand, explain, predict and control events or phenomena. For Fajana [7], theory ‘helps in our understanding of events and problems in the practical world’. By application therefore, the fact of the conflict nature of social groups, such as the organised labour being a coalescence of individual group of people, suggest the inevitability of disagreement in the course of interactions that could lead to conflict or crisis from time to time. Therefore, the conflict theory would be most appropriate to underpin this study.
5. Crisis management in public-sector: Literature survey
As indicated earlier, this author reiterates that crisis will naturally exist in every given society of human beings in interactions. So also will there be conflict or crisis in every sector, unit or platform which consists of human beings in interactions. The Nigerian public sector is not immune from this phenomenon. What is important is that steps are taken to address any conflictual or crisis-ridden situation. Given the context of this study, it is relevant to highlight the place of government (the State), being the machinery upon which the entire governance responsibility for the country rests. This section will involve some literature survey of previous studies which have dealt with industrial or employee relations in Nigeria and how such has fared under the government.
5.1 The role of the state in public sector crisis management
According to Badejo [6], ‘the state had traditionally played various roles in different countries, most especially in providing the institutional framework for the bilateral relationship between workers/Trade Union and Employers/their representatives to encourage a bipartite relationship’. This suggests that the government, whether at the national, provincial, regional or local level, serves to create and regulate the work environment in terms of legislations which prescribe how workers can conduct their affairs in their working relationship with government. Badejo [6] further mentioned about the government’s publication of the National Labour Policy in 1975, which contained its direct intervention and the pursuance of guided democracy in labour matters, and this involved limited intervention in certain areas of labour activity in order to guarantee industrial harmony.
Expectedly, the government has not ceased from continuous intervention and interference in virtually every area of industrial relations. In the case of Nigeria, such interference has resulted into disruptive strike actions that have in most cases, caused socio-economic and political paralysis in the country. In such circumstances, governance has ultimately borne the brunt as the country would have been engulfed in disorderliness, thereby manifesting in grave security threats. However, scholars like Ubeku [8], believe that there are reasons for state intervention in trying to regulate activities of organised labour.
According to Ubeku [8] in particular, such reasons include among other things, the overwhelming position of government as an employer of labour; political and economic considerations; historical and international imperatives, etc. In the opinion of Otobo [9], whose analysis appears more specific than as highlighted by Ubeku [8], the state (government) unavoidably intervenes in industrial relations matters as a result of it being a huge employer of labour, hence, employment and manpower development structuring; regulations of wages and salaries; union government and administration; collective bargaining; and industrial conflict [9]. However, the position of Yesufu [10] in the classification of the role of government offers clearer perspectives, and will be deployed in this study.
According to Yesufu [10], the role of government in its dealings with the Nigerian labour movement consists of—leadership role; legislative and regulatory role; investigatory and advisory; education and training; and adjudicatory.
On leadership, Yesufu [10] observes that the responsibilities of the state involves economic development and improvement in the standard of living of the people. Consequently, the position of government as the major single largest of labour and as guardian of the social conscience, places the state in a peculiar position to provide leadership in industrial relations as in all other fields of economic and social endeavour. Yesufu [10] argues that this role should necessarily be concerned with the manifestation of policies and by setting the examples though the remuneration and compensation policies. From this vantage position, it could be said that the government exists to serve the interests of every citizen of the country, including that of labour.
At the level of legislative and regulatory responsibility, Yesufu [10] reveals that the role of the state is carried out mainly through the enactment and enforcement of labour and industrial relations legislation which ensures minimum basic and acceptable standards of employment, condition of work, welfare and security, and the institutional framework for the conduct of industrial relations. This suggests that the state, given its sovereign status, possesses the mandate to provide the rules and regulations by which citizens and institutions of government can and should conduct their affairs and relationships within defined confines.
At the level of investigatory and advisory responsibility, Yesufu [10] believes that these functions of the state are generally undertaken by the Federal Ministry of Labour. In the case of Nigeria, it is Ministry of Labour and Employment, and the mandate derives from the ministry’s role in the enforcement of the various labour laws and policies. Operationally, the ministry is expected to constantly engage in touring employment establishments under its jurisdiction in order to ensure conformity with labour and industrial relations legislation, investigating breaches and grievances, and generally advising employers on improvements in working conditions and on management/employee relations.
On education and training responsibility, Yesufu [10] believes and argues that it is expected of the state to provide the environment which conduces to education and training of its employees on their duties and obligations as public servants. This way, it is believed that a thorough education will help solve most of the industrial relations problems in the developing countries.
On adjudicatory role of government, Yesufu [10] is of the opinion that, in spite of how much enlightened an industrial or employee relations system may be, there are constant labour grievances, misunderstandings and disputes which need to be settled. The state accordingly provides machinery for intervention and settlement in such cases, particularly in regard to collective disputes, through the appointment of conciliators, arbitrators, and the establishment of industrial relation courts.
From the foregoing, it is evident that the state does have clearly defined role to play to create the environment for a favourable industrial relations, where employees can be assured of their welfare and the promotion of same. Viewed critically, it is the suggestion of this author that this position of the government could not have been avoided. This role cannot be undermined regardless of the nature of government. However, the scenarios under military regimes have proved otherwise, and this much was characteristic of the Nigeria’s experience under the military dictatorship. The 1994 experience when the late dictator descended heavily on the labour organisations for daring to intrude into matters considered a ‘no go area’, and the consequences are better imagined. However, this paper will point out if the status can be rejigged for fairness, and that will be towards the conclusion of the write-up.
5.2 The nature and character of the organised labour in Nigeria
Historically, trade unionism is recorded and believed to have begun in Nigeria in 1912, when government employees in the public service (public sector) formed the Nigerian Civil Service Union (NCSU), an organisation of workers to promote the interest and welfare of its members in relation to conditions of service [11]. However, the passing of the Trades Union Ordinance in 1938 by the then colonial government provided the legal basis for the existence of labour organisations in the country. The ordinance stipulated the rights and privileges, and the conditions under which the union could safely operate. It is noteworthy that overtime, since the coming into effect of the ordinance, several labour organisations have sprung up in the country with virtually workers in every government department—from national to local—covered under one union or the other.
Perhaps, it is worthwhile to clarify from the onset that industrial harmony, in the context of this chapter, refers to the creation and sustenance of a conducive work environment which results from the deliberate efforts by both representatives of employers and employees. This view can be predicated on the position of Chidi and Okpala [3], who are of the opinion that the interactions between the employers and employees in relations to a work environment, are based upon the determination of substantive and procedural issues at industrial, organisational and workplace levels. It is also arguable that industrial harmony encompasses industrial relations or employee relations which consist of the relations that exist between individuals or groups of employees and employers who engage themselves in a way to maximise the productive activities.
According to Tar [12], the ‘Nigeria labour movement is often described as the veteran of democratic struggle in the country’. By this description, it is believed that the Nigeria labour movement has come to be regarded as the triggers to the struggles and agitations against government, particularly the military rule which has held sway in the country more than democratic government. Labours’ experience is such that the organised unions had to contend with stiff repression from the state under a military rule, which does not consider human rights violations as an aberration. Tar emphasised that, the history of Trade Union movement in Nigeria and elsewhere is closely knit with the struggles for democratic values such as human rights, welfare, wage, equal franchise. Tar however acknowledged that, because of its ideological stance as the defender of workers’ right, the labour movement is often neglected when it comes to discourses on democratic struggles. This view about the vibrancy and potency of labour unionism in Nigeria and how the it has engaged with the government on issues of workers welfare in relation to the upholding and promotion of human rights is not far-fetched. This is despite the repressive tendencies of the government aimed at silencing the actions (such as demonstrations, protests and ultimately strikes) of the unions which are seen as irritable and capable of making governance impossible. Perhaps, it should be mentioned that the role of labour goes beyond agitations for improved welfare for its members to include intensified advocacy for democracy and its associated values. This view can be predicated on the position of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), as can be seen in its report in 1998. According to the ILO, unions play important role in guiding and upholding democracy and as defenders of social justice, in particular, by encompassing women, minorities, consumer groups, the unemployed and the growing ranks of working poor in the sphere of action, ILO [13]. Ironically, this position seems to run counter to the interest of government, particularly the military regime, which considers that as a threat. Regardless of how labour movement is viewed, trade unions or labour organisations will continue to be in the forefront of the yearnings for industrial democracy, otherwise, known as workers participation in the management of their enterprise.
It might be necessary to mention and highlight the real interest of the organised labour as it seeks to represents its workers so as to be able to identify at what point such interest collides with the running of government, which is a significant element being considered in this study.
However, the question to be raised at this point is, − to what extent should the state be involved in Industrial Relations or Employee Relations in the context of the Nigerian public sector? According to Badejo [6], the role ascribed to the state in industrial relations depends on the ideological bent of the state. Badejo [6] observes that in communist countries, no separate role is envisaged for employers and trade unions, but that they operate on the basis of party directive and the state plan. This is in contrast to the capitalist countries, where the approach is to allow employers and unions reasonable latitude to determine their own affairs within the framework established by the state. The developing countries, as a result of their experience have had to intervene in industrial relations in the interest of the whole economy.
However, as the state is the prime mover of the total social system, there is no argument as to whether it has a role to play or not. The reason for state intervention under could be considered from the following perspectives—economic; historical and international imperatives; the states dominance as an employer of labour; political and social. Otobo [9] noted five areas most frequently subjected to state regulations, namely employment and manpower development; wages and salaries; union government and administration; collective bargaining; and industrial conflict.
Against the background of the inevitability of conflict which results from discord that occurs when the goals, interest or values of different individuals or groups in an industrial setting are incompatible, it is relevant to identify in a strict sense, the immediate factors that often trigger labour union’s resistance that most times turns out disruptive. For the purpose of this study, these factors will be pin-pointed and they include, among others—government’ refusal or unwillingness to recognise labour or trade unions, public policies which are perceived anti-citizens, failure of collective bargaining as a result of hard stance positions, and outright repression of dissenting opinions.
In Nigeria, these issues have led to several strike actions and protests, and have resulted in government coming to a standstill in a lot of the occasions. For example, the Nigerian Labour Congress (NLC), and the Trade Union Congress (TUC), had declared a strike in 2019, following months of failed discussions with the government on working conditions and minimum wage. The strike adversely affected the administrative and commercial capital of Abuja and Lagos respectively as government complexes were locked, thus crippling public and civil service across Africa’s most populous nation. Similar strikes have taken place, particularly during the military rule which does not respect the fundamental human rights of the people and rule of law. While it is acknowledged that this study is not about strikes and protests, it is necessary to point out that they serve as a means by which labour unions cause disruptions in the economy of a country thereby engendering an atmosphere of instability.
6. Mechanisms for resolving public sector crisis by government and labour
Conflict resolution mechanisms may differ from organisation to organisation but there are established strategies that have been in use. Whether in private or public sector, the following can be said to be the evolving methods of conflict resolution. These strategies include mediation, conciliation and arbitration. These are referred to as alternate disputes resolution (ADR) mechanisms deployed by disputants, and who are willing to abide by settlement terms. Experience has shown that disputing parties use these ADR methods because they are relatively expeditious, private, and generally much less expensive than resorting to the courts.
The use of any of these methods involves some form of bargaining, commonly referred to as collective bargaining (CB). As a concept, Rose [4] reports that the term was originated by Webb and Webb to describe the process of agreeing terms and conditions of employment when the representatives of employers, and that of the employees. Rose [4] explains that CB could also be defined as a process whereby representatives of employers and employees jointly determine and regulate decisions pertaining to both substantive and procedural matters within the employment relationship.
In the Nigerian public sector, crisis emanating from industrial disputes of serious magnitude, has been subjected to the collective bargaining process. For example, crisis triggered by national strikes that had the tendency to constitute security threats to the government, has had to be resolved through a collective bargaining process. The challenge in this is that the place and role of the state, in most cases, tend to vitiate the effectiveness of this process. This aligns with the view of Adebisi [14], who lamented the highhandedness of the Nigerian government in respect of labour matter for making a nonsense of these mechanisms or procedures for dispute settlement. More often than not, the Nigerian government fails to honour its own agreement with labour, thereby setting poor standards for employers in the private sector. Violations of agreements reached through collective bargaining process have occurred more during the military regime(s) in Nigeria. It is on record, and clearly too, that the military has violated more agreement reached out of collective bargaining than constitutional democracy in Nigeria or the world over. In this instance, Adebisi [14] has cited the failure or reluctance of government to honour a number of agreements with the Academic Staff Union of Universities, ASUU, and the Nigerian Labour Congress, NLC. The current federal government of Nigeria is in the midst of reaching agreement with the organised labour in respect of minimum wage over which there had been disruptive strike actions which had occasioned security nightmares all over the country.
The interesting thing about the adoption of the collective bargaining process as a mechanism for resolving labour issues in Nigeria appears to be the only means possible hitherto. This is not to prejudice the possibility of either improving on the process for more effective operation or exploring additional measures that will complement the process.
At this point, and by way of digression, it is necessary to mention that there are conflict resolution mechanisms peculiar to the private sector. This applies to small businesses, where success often depends or rests on the cohesion of a few people, the loss of trust and productivity can be a challenge to the continued existence and growth of the business. For such businesses, it will be helpful to rely on the prescriptions of Dontigney [1] who had identified the following conflict management strategies that can be deployed in addressing conflictual relationships. These include—accommodating strategy which essentially entails giving the opposing side what it wants. The use of this strategy occurs when one of the parties wishes to keep the peace or perceives the issue as insignificant; the avoidance strategy, which seeks to put off conflict indefinitely. The mechanism hopes the problem resolves itself without a confrontation; the collaboration strategy works by integrating ideas set out by multiple people. This method is deployed to find a creative solution acceptable to everyone; the compromising strategy is used when parties to a conflict may have to give up elements of their position in order to establish an acceptable solution. This strategy applies in conflicts where the parties hold approximately equivalent power; and lastly, the competition strategy operates in a situation where one side to a conflict wins and other loses. This is also referred to as a zero-sum game. In politics, such is described as winner takes all.
7. Industrial harmony and political stability: Any nexus?
To be able to provide a rational and an objective response to this question, it is necessary to aggregate the elements that constitute industrial harmony and political stability by drawing from the insights on the terms as highlighted in the foregoing. As indicated earlier in this study, since the relationship between the government and the labour organisation are structurally antithetical in terms of objectives and functions it is therefore unavoidable that there will always be frictions from time to time as both sides seek to achieve their aims and objectives. But for the sake of peace and stability, it is expected that both sides will continue to engage and synergise to create and advance industrial harmony, a sine qua non to stability, to ultimately provide a conducive environment for governance. Ensuring peace and stability will facilitate the discharge of the world-wide constitutional responsibility to governments in terms of provision of security and welfare for the citizens.
Consequently, the following themes can be identified and posited:
That crisis/conflict in human interactions is inevitable;
That industrial harmony and political stability are two inseparable phenomena;
That the former (industrial harmony) is a sine qua non for the latter political stability;
That both conditions can be facilitated by the state (government) and labour organisations;
That there exists a link (nexus) between industrial harmony and political stability.
This study is inclined to observe that industrial disputes, if poorly managed or not addressed, will ultimately lead to protests, demonstrations and strikes. Workers, worldwide have always resorted to strike actions when the sides to disputes fail to reach mutual agreement. In the case of the public sector crisis, where the Nigerian industrial relations system today to be replete with cases of violations of negotiated agreements as a result of executive lawlessness, the resort to strike actions by workers, usually organised and called by the organised (central) labour organisation seems to have been institutionalised.
8. Matching of themes to research questions (discussion of findings)
In this section, the author proceeds to relate the identified themes which emerged in the course of literature survey on what constitutes industrial harmony and political stability and to answer the question if there is a nexus between the former and the latter in the context of the Nigerian public sector crisis management.
In response to the research question a, of this study which is concerned about the nature of public sector crisis in Nigeria, and what constitutes the immediate and remote factors responsible for it, the author argues that crisis management is essentially embedded in humanity. This is so because social groups by their nature and context are characterised by conflicts. In addition, it is arguable that because aims, objectives and interests of the social units or individuals that constitute any social groups (including labour unions) differ, conflict or crisis will inevitably occur. This view has not been emphasised by authors, some of whose works were cited in this study, but has remained valid at all material time.
On research question b, which is concerned with the nexus between industrial harmony and political stability in Nigeria, it is the opinion of the author that, given the fact of the inevitability of frictions between labour unions and the state as has been established and acknowledged by scholars cited in this study on one hand, and the aftermath of the disruptions which result therefrom on the other hand, it is no longer far-fetched that there exists a connection between industrial harmony and political stability. As noted earlier in the study, the author believes that for the sake of peace and stability, it is expected that both sides (the State and Labour) will continue to engage and synergise to create and advance industrial harmony, which will ultimately lead to a conducive environment for governance.
On study research question c, which relates to what mechanism(s) the Nigerian government can adopt in managing and resolving the crisis between the state and the organised labour, the author believes in the efficacy of the collective bargaining process, but will argue that these can be complemented with the alternative disputes (conflict/crisis) resolution mechanisms, which include mediation, conciliation and arbitration, be deployed exhaustively, coupled with the readiness of parties to disputes to accept resolutions adjudged to be fair and just.
In relation to the study research question d, which relates to the policy option that can be explored to strengthen the nexus between industrial harmony and political stability towards effective governance, the author will make reference to the existing method of engagement between government and labour in terms of the term collective bargaining process to resolve disputes, and suggest the following policy directions which include, that –
The mechanism of collective bargaining mechanism be retained;
Stakeholders involved in collective bargaining demonstrate greater transparency and willingness for tolerable compromises;
The government should be conscious of its responsibility to the entire citizens of the country in terms of security and welfare, by ensuring good governance and responsible leadership;
The government, being the largest employer of public servants and its role of regulation and adjudication, does show unbiased commitment to respecting terms of agreements reached during negotiations.
9. Conclusion and recommendations
So far, attempts have been made in this study to reflect on crisis management in the Nigeria public sector in relation to the link between industrial harmony and political stability. The study sought to determine if there exists a nexus in-between industrial harmony and political stability, and proceeded to describe the variables identifiable and as conceived for the study. The study prescribed the applicable theoretical framework deployed to underpin the research, and carried out considerable survey of relevant literature from which information needed to contextualise the focus envisaged.
In this study, the author found out that, given the humanity-linked nature of conflict, its management in the public sector, particularly in Nigeria will continue to be an unavoidable responsibility of the government. The author contends that this is not just a necessity, but a must-activity to ensure that the right environment is created to guarantee smooth governance. Consequently, the study conclusively remarks and recommends the following:
That crisis or conflict as a phenomenon, will continue to exist in human society but that its management, in terms of resolution mechanisms, can be improved for positive impact;
That the Nigerian public sector crisis management approach will improve and has been given the deepening of democratic institutions and practice which conduces to friendly employee and industrial relations;
That all stakeholders to the mechanism of collective bargaining process should endeavour to be transparent and committed to terms of agreement to avoid the tendency to any form frictions that could spark crisis; and finally,
That organised labour organisations should evolve, promote and implement sound policy on education and training of their members to imbibe the culture of tolerance and extreme understanding in responding to policy decisions of government, to guarantee positive interface.
\n',keywords:"crisis/conflict management, organised labour union, industrial harmony, political stability, strikes and collective bargaining",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69310.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69310.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69310",totalDownloads:467,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:44,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"August 6th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 5th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 28th 2020",dateFinished:"September 29th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This study sought to explore the dynamics in managing crisis in the Nigerian public sector and its engagement with the organised labour, with a view to determining the interface between industrial harmony and political stability in the country. This study is predicated on the fact that crisis management is essentially embedded in humanity. Additionally, the study was informed by the established and widely held view by scholars, that social groups by their nature and context, are in fact characterised by conflicts. Consequently, the study established that the public sector in every society is not immune against conflict or crisis, and this will naturally arise as long as there is interaction between and among human elements in the two sectors. The author used the terms—crisis and conflict—interchangeably in the study, and pointed out that the methodology adopted was a descriptive and analytical approach. This is informed by the sources of information accessed which are essentially secondary. The study concluded by asserting that given the humanity-linked nature of conflict, its management in the public sector, particularly in Nigeria, will continue to be an unavoidable responsibility of the government. This is to ensure that the right environment is created to guarantee smooth governance.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69310",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69310",book:{id:"7806",slug:"public-sector-crisis-management"},signatures:"Daniel Taye Medoye",authors:[{id:"455142",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Medoye",fullName:"Daniel Medoye",slug:"daniel-medoye",email:"daniel.medoye@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Study research questions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Theoretical framework",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Crisis management in public-sector: Literature survey",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 The role of the state in public sector crisis management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 The nature and character of the organised labour in Nigeria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Mechanisms for resolving public sector crisis by government and labour",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"7. Industrial harmony and political stability: Any nexus?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"8. Matching of themes to research questions (discussion of findings)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"9. Conclusion and recommendations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dontigney E. 5 Conflict Management Strategies. 2018. Available from: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/5-conflict-management-strategies-16131.html'},{id:"B2",body:'Francis AC, Tunde E, Gbajumo-Sheriff MA. Collective Bargaining Dynamics in the Nigerian Public and Private Sector. 2011. Available from: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/28924749/collective-bargaining-dynamics-in-the-nigerian-public-and-private'},{id:"B3",body:'Chidi CO, Okpala OP. Theoretical Approaches to Employment and Industrial Relations: A Comparison of Subsisting Orthodoxies. 2012. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/theoretical-and-methodological-approaches-to-social-sciences-and-knowledge-management/theoretical-approaches-to-employment-and-industrial-relations-a-comparison-of-subsisting-orthodoxies'},{id:"B4",body:'Rose ED. Employment Relations. 3rd ed. London: Pearson Education Ltd; 2008'},{id:"B5",body:'Wokoma CU. The Effects of Industrial Conflicts and Strikes in Nigeria: A Socio-Economic Analysis. 2011. Available from: https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijdmr/article/view/66976'},{id:"B6",body:'Badejo AE. A Critique of the Role of the State in Industrial Relations in Nigeria. 2011. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/52e2/7d306512229604c0a97c605a4dee267070b1.pdf'},{id:"B7",body:'Fajana SA. Industrial Relations in Nigeria: Theories and Features Lagos. Labofin and Co; 2000. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---sector/documents/publication/wcms_161189.pdf'},{id:"B8",body:'Ubeku AK. The role of the state in industrial relations. In: Damachi UG, Fashoyin T, editors. Contemporary Problems in Nigerian Industrial Relations. Lagos: Development Press; 1986'},{id:"B9",body:'Otobo D. Industrial Relations: Theory and Controversies. Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd.; 2000'},{id:"B10",body:'Yesufu TM. The Dynamics of Industrial Relations: The Nigerian Experience. Ibadan, Nigeria: University Press Ltd; 1982. Available from: https://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?2103760&uuid=88e3d5a7-0658-4c6e-a493-a4143f5c26c2'},{id:"B11",body:'Egboh EO. Trade Union in Nigeria. African Studies. 2007;27(1):35-40. DOI: 10.1080/00020186808707272'},{id:"B12",body:'Tar UA. Organised Labour and Democratic Struggles in Nigeria. 2009. Available from: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/36771587.pdf'},{id:"B13",body:'ILO. World labour report 1997-1998, International Labour Organization. In: Adefolaju T, editor. 2013, Trade Unions in Nigeria and the Challenge of Internal Democracy. 1998. Available from: https://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/288/304'},{id:"B14",body:'Adebisi MA. History and development of industrial relations. In: Nigeria: Hybridity of Western Models Versus Military Interventionism Culture. 2013. Available from: https://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/1652/0'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Daniel Taye Medoye",address:"tayemedoye@gmail.com;, tayemedoye@yahoo.co.uk;, daniel.medoye@gmail.com",affiliation:'
International Relations, International and Public Affairs Clusters, School of Social Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, South Africa
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1. Introduction
In 2014 recreational, adult-use of cannabis (interchangeably referred to as marijuana) was established in the state of Colorado. At this time the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE) was given statutory responsibility in Colorado Revised Statute (C.R.S.) 25-1.5-110, to; “monitor changes … in the emerging science and medical information relevant to the health effects associated with marijuana use.” and “appoint a panel of health care professionals with expertise in, but not limited to, neuroscience, epidemiology, toxicology, cannabis physiology, and cannabis quality control to further direct policy.” Based on this charge, CDPHE appointed a 14-member committee titled the Retail Marijuana Public Health Advisory Committee (RMPHAC) to review scientific literature on the health effects of marijuana.
Under the same statute mentioned previously, the RMPHAC is directed to “…establish criteria for studies to be reviewed, reviewing studies and other data, and making recommendations, as appropriate, for policies intended to protect consumers of marijuana or marijuana products and the general public.” To implement this charge, the RMPHAC meets four or five times a year to review the scientific literature currently available on health effects of marijuana use, evaluate findings without bias, openly discuss the science and apply expert opinion, come to consensus on the science, translate the science into public health messages, make policy-related recommendations, recommend surveillance activities, and identify and address gaps in the science important to public health. All this information is compiled and detailed in a report every two years for the Colorado State Board of Health, the Colorado Department of Revenue, and the Colorado General Assembly, titled “Monitoring Health Concerns Related to Marijuana in Colorado” [1].
Since 2014, and prior to this publication, the RMPHAC has come together on a quarterly basis, held discussions concerning hundreds of articles, and developed over one hundred evidence statements within eleven health topics. As more scientific evidence regarding cannabis health effects are published, this committee continues to build upon existing evidence statements or will construct new statements when appropriate. This chapter will detail the review methods used by the RMPHAC to develop evidence statements about the health effects associated with marijuana use, describe the findings from all eleven health topics, and report the public health statements, recommendations, and research gaps used to inform public health policy in the State of Colorado.
2. Systematic review development and process
The first step in the process of investigating the health effects from marijuana use was to develop and implement an unbiased, transparent, and complete process for evaluating scientific literature and data on marijuana use and health outcomes. To ensure this, the RMPHAC and CDPHE technical staff developed a twelve step review process guided by the established preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) framework [2]. These twelve steps are followed for each review and are as follows:
Conduct a broad search of current peer-reviewed publications quarterly. Relevant articles cited in reviews or other primary studies are also included.
Review relevant full-text articles identified in the search.
Rate the findings: each finding in the articles is rated as a high-, medium-, or low-quality finding based on strengths and limitations of the methods. Evaluation of the strengths and limitations was based on criteria in the grading of recommendations assessment, development and evaluation (GRADE) system, a well-accepted method for evaluating the quality of scientific evidence [3].
Group related findings: each finding is categorized based on population, exposure, and outcome (health effect), to answer specific questions.
Weigh the evidence: draft evidence statements that summarize the quantity and quality of evidence answering a specific question.
Translate the evidence: draft public health statement that translate the evidence statement into language at an 11th grade reading level.
Synthesize the evidence: draft public health recommendations (e.g., for education or monitoring) based on important information identified through the review process.
Identify research gaps: draft statements to articulate the research gaps identified during the review process.
Present to committee: findings, evidence statements, public health statements, public health recommendations, and research gaps are publicly presented to the RMPHAC for review and revision during open public meetings.
Public comment: during the open public meetings, interested stakeholders and members of the public are invited to provide comments relevant to the topics presented.
Reach consensus: committee members come to consensus on findings, evidence statement, public health statement, public health recommendations, and research gaps.
Adopt summary statements: committee votes to officially accept findings, evidence statements, public health statements, public health recommendations, and research gaps.
All review methods were approved by the RMPHAC, including the terms used to conduct the ongoing broad search of peer-reviewed publications for relevant literature. Medline is the priority research database used to obtain articles for review. Embase, the biomedical database, and gray literature were secondarily reviewed when references in included articles were not included in Medline searches. Studies of marijuana use in humans were the primary focus of the review, with animal studies included for only specific topics with limited human research. All identified peer-reviewed literature on a given topic was reviewed, regardless of positive or negative findings or quality of the methods utilized. For the ongoing broad Medline search, medical subject heading (MeSH) terms were used and is as follows; “Cannabis”[Mesh] OR Marijuana “Smoking”[Mesh] OR “Marijuana Abuse”[Mesh] OR cannabis OR marijuana OR marihuana OR hash oil OR hashish. In 2014, when this review was established, specific searches were conducted using the appropriate MeSH terms for each topic area.
Once relevant literature is obtained, each finding is rated high, medium, or low quality based on the strengths and limitations of the methods which is determined by criteria in the GRADE system. The GRADE system is a well-established method for systematic literature review and has been used by the Cochrane Collaboration, British Medical Journal, American College of Physicians, World Health Organization, and many others [3]. Findings rated high quality are defined as “We are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect outlined in the study.” These are well-designed and well-controlled studies with few limitations. Due to the fact that most studies included in our review are observational epidemiology studies, receiving a high quality rating does not necessarily imply causation. It simply implies that an observed association persists between an exposure and effect in an appropriately-sized study population after adjusting for appropriate confounders. Medium quality findings are defined as “we are moderately confident in the effect estimate outlined in the study. The true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different.” For observational epidemiology studies this implies the finding of an observed association may be limited by a small study population or insufficient adjustment for important confounders. Low quality findings are defined as “our confidence in the effect estimate outlined in the study is limited. The true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect.” For observational epidemiology studies this implies the finding of an observed association with an interpretation that is significantly restricted by study limitations.
Findings from relevant literature are usually grouped based on outcome or the health effect in question. However, in some situations findings are further subdivided based on factors such as: age range of the exposed population, special subject circumstances such as pregnancy or breastfeeding, level or method of marijuana use, time period since last use of marijuana, amount of marijuana used, and THC concentration. Standardized definitions of level of marijuana use (daily, weekly, etc.) and age groups (child, adolescent, young adult, etc.) were established to help facilitate grouping of findings. Once findings are grouped appropriately, the evidence is drafted into evidence statements that summarize the quality and quantity of scientific evidence supporting an association between marijuana use and a health outcome.
3. Systematic review findings
In order to make our review findings easily interpretable we used a standardized rating system to classify evidence statements. These statements are also constructed to accurately portray the quality and quantity of all findings used to support the particular health outcome. Evidence statements all use standardized language from one of the following six classifications:
Substantial evidence—indicates robust scientific findings that support an association between marijuana use and the outcome.
Moderate evidence—indicates scientific findings that support an association, but these findings have some limitations.
Limited evidence—indicates modest scientific findings that support an association, but these findings have significant limitations.
Mixed evidence—indicates both supporting and opposing scientific findings for an association, with neither direction dominating.
Insufficient evidence—indicates the outcome has not been sufficiently studied to conclude whether or not there is an association between marijuana use and the outcome.
Body of research failing to show an association—indicates the topic has been researched without evidence of an association; is further classified as a limited, moderate, or substantial body of research.
In the following sections evidence statements will be discussed according to health topic and statements with enough findings to receive a substantial or moderate rating are displayed in tables. All statements, regardless of evidence level, are drafted by CDPHE technical staff, revised based on committee review and feedback from technical advisors and public stakeholders. Statements in their final form are approved by a vote of the committee.
3.1 Marijuana use among adolescents and young adults
The RMPHAC has reviewed the relationships between adolescent and young adult marijuana use on various areas of concern; including cognitive abilities, academic performance, mental health, and future substance use, displayed in Table 1. Specifically regarding cognitive and academic abilities, weekly marijuana use by adolescents is associated with deficits for at least twenty-eight days after last use. Weekly use among adolescents is also associated with failure to graduate from high school or complete a college degree. Information on how marijuana use affects short-term and long-term IQ is currently insufficient and limited, respectively. As with many of our statements that reflect long-term marijuana use, the paucity of long-term studies is a research gap that will hopefully improve due to the changing legal landscape of cannabis throughout the United States.
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Benefits of quitting
Treatment for cannabis use disorder can reduce use and dependence [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
Quitting or decreasing marijuana use lowers the risk of adverse mental health outcomes [11, 12, 13, 14]
Cognitive and academic effects
Weekly, or more frequent, use is associated with a lower rate of graduating high school [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]
Weekly, or more frequent, use is associated with a lower rate of attaining a college degree (among those who start a degree program) [19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]
Weekly, or more frequent, use is associated with ongoing cognitive and academic impairment for at least 28 days after last use [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]
Mental health
Daily or near daily use is associated with future psychotic disorders like schizophrenia [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43]
Using marijuana with higher THC concentration (>10% THC) is associated with continued use [38, 106, 107, 108]
Use of marijuana with higher THC concentration (>10% THC) is associated with future mental health symptoms and disorders [38, 78, 107]
Table 1.
Marijuana use among adolescents and young adults.
Adolescents and young adults who use marijuana are more likely to experience psychotic symptoms in adulthood (such as hallucinations, paranoia, and delusional beliefs), future psychotic disorders (such as schizophrenia), and suicidal thoughts or attempting suicide, when compared to adolescents and young adults who do not use marijuana. Additionally, those using marijuana with higher tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration (>10% THC) are more likely than non-users to continue using and to develop future mental health symptoms and disorders. How marijuana use during adolescence affects symptoms or a diagnosis of anxiety in adulthood currently stands at a mixed evidence level, with fourteen articles contributing to this rating. Only one of which received a high quality rating and also reported mixed findings relevant to this evidence statement on anxiety [64]. Results from their main analysis did show an association with adolescent cannabis use and adulthood anxiety, however, results from a monozygotic-only co-twin control analysis reported no association [64].
Evidence shows that adolescents who use marijuana can develop cannabis use disorder, along with marijuana use being associated with developing use disorder for tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs. On a more positive note, evidence shows that adolescents who receive treatment for cannabis use disorder can decrease their use and dependence. Additionally, those who quit using marijuana have lower risks of adverse cognitive and mental health outcomes than those who continue to use.
3.2 Marijuana use and cancer
To assess how marijuana use may or may not be associated with cancer, the RMPHAC reviewed health effects of the chemicals released in marijuana smoke and vapor and evaluated how different rates of marijuana use relate to cancer. Strong evidence shows marijuana smoke contains many of the same cancer-causing chemicals found in tobacco smoke [109]. There is also substantial evidence that daily or near-daily marijuana smoking is associated with pre-malignant lesions in the airway. However, there is conflicting research for whether or not marijuana smoking is associated with lung cancer. As shown by the moderate evidence statement in Table 2, the body of research reviewed has failed to show an association between smoking less than the equivalent of one joint per day for 10 years and lung cancer.
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Cancer and precancerous lesions
Daily or near daily use is associated with pre-cancerous lesions in airway [110, 111, 112]
Smoking less than the equivalent of one joint per day for 10 years is not associated with lung cancer [113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118]
Chemicals in MJ smoke or vapor
Marijuana smoke contains many of the same cancer causing chemicals as tobacco smoke [109, 119, 120, 121, 122]
Genitourinary Cancer
Use among adult males is associated with increased risk of nonseminoma testicular cancer [123, 124, 125, 126, 127]
Table 2.
Marijuana use and cancer.
Apart from the respiratory system, most of our statements are not in Table 2 due to the limited evidence available concerning cancers of the bladder, prostate, head and neck. These limited statements all suggest these forms of cancer might not have any association with marijuana use. However, there is evidence that marijuana use among adult males may be associated with nonseminoma testicular cancer. High quality research on non-respiratory tract cancers related to marijuana use remains a research gap identified by the RMPHAC.
3.3 Marijuana use and cardiovascular effects
Related to cardiovascular health effects, how marijuana use associates with myocardial infarction, stroke, and death from cardiovascular causes were reviewed. Evidence shows that marijuana use or consumption in those under the age of fifty-five years are at an increased risk of ischemic stoke, as shown in Table 3. However, currently there is only limited scientific evidence to support our statements on myocardial infarction and death related to a cardiovascular event.
An important metric to understand is how THC blood levels compare from various marijuana methods of use and the numerous concentrations of THC in available products on the retail marijuana market. For example, there is substantial evidence that smoking more than 10 mg THC (or 10–20% of a 1 g marijuana joint) produces a blood THC level near or above 5 ng/mL within 10 min. As we see the THC concentration of marijuana products increase, we can expect this association to remain strong. One important finding in Table 4 is that it can take up to four hours after consuming an edible marijuana product to reach the peak THC blood concentration and feel the full effects. Another method of use, vaporized THC, shows moderate evidence of producing a similar blood THC level to smoking the same amount.
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
THC blood levels resulting from different exposures
It takes up to four hours after ingesting marijuana (edible products) to reach peak blood THC levels [146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151]
Ingesting (edible products) more than 15 mg THC may produce a blood THC level above 5 ng/mL [148, 152, 153, 154]
Smoking more than 10 mg THC produces a blood THC level near or above 5 ng/mL within 10 min [152, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159]
Inhaling vaporized THC produces a blood THC level similar to smoking the same dose [149, 159, 160]
Secondhand exposure
Typical secondhand marijuana smoke exposure is unlikely to cause a positive drug screen by urine or blood [161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169]
Table 4.
Marijuana dose and drug interactions.
Within this topic the RMPHAC reviewed effects of secondhand marijuana smoke, drug-drug interactions involving marijuana, and relationships between marijuana and opioid use. There is credible evidence of clinically important drug-drug interactions between marijuana and multiple medications, including some anti-seizure medications and a common blood-thinner, warfarin. Data about potential interactions are lacking for many drugs at this time and are likely to evolve substantially in the coming years. Other than our statement about secondhand marijuana smoke exposure being unlikely to cause a positive drug screen, our statements in this topic area are all based on limited evidence. Health effects resulting from secondhand marijuana smoke exposure is an area lacking in research. There is also conflicting evidence for whether or not marijuana use is associated with a decrease in opioid use among chronic pain patients or individuals with a history of problem drug use.
3.5 Marijuana use and driving
As with any psychoactive substance it is imperative to know how marijuana affects a person’s ability to drive and the crash risks associated with use. To fully comprehend how marijuana causes driving impairment we must also understand the pharmacokinetics of THC in the human body to know how long these affects will persist after last use. Table 5 displays all driving related statements that have evidence to provide a substantial or moderate rated statement. Current research shows substantial evidence that recent marijuana use by a driver increases the risk of a motor vehicle crash. In addition, using alcohol and marijuana together increases impairment and the risk of a motor vehicle crash more than using either substance alone.
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Combined marijuana and alcohol use
Combined use of marijuana and alcohol increases crash risk more than either substance alone [170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181]
Impairment and crash risk
Recent marijuana use/consumption by a driver increases the risk of a motor vehicle crash [170, 171, 172, 174, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188]
Higher THC blood level increases the risk of a motor vehicle crash [173, 178, 180, 189]
Blood THC levels of impaired drivers are higher now than they were in the past [201]
Orally ingesting more than 10 mg THC can lead driving impairment [146, 147, 153, 155]
Increased risk of driving impairment at blood THC as low as 2–5 ng/mL [155, 185, 190, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206]
Time to wait before driving
Waiting at least 6 after smoking less than 18 mg allows driving impairment to resolve or nearly resolve [155, 190, 207]
Waiting at least 6 h after smoking about 35 mg allows driving impairment to resolve or nearly resolve [157, 192, 196]
Waiting at least 8 h after orally ingesting less than 18 mg allows driving impairment to resolve or nearly resolve [147, 153, 155, 208]
Table 5.
Marijuana use and driving.
The RMPHAC also set out to determine how various patterns of marijuana use affect driving. People that consume marijuana less-than-weekly are likely to experience impaired driving after using marijuana containing ten milligrams or more of THC. This statement holds true for smoking or consuming edible marijuana products. Research on driving impairment for those that consume more frequently than weekly is currently lacking in scientific literature. Due to this our evidence statement on crash risk for different levels of use (less-than-weekly compared to more frequent use) has received an insufficient rating at this time.
Articles measuring THC blood levels were also assessed to evaluate for any correlation to driving impairment, crash risk, and to develop statements informing consumers the amount of time to wait prior to driving. There is substantial evidence, including a randomized clinical trial [202], which has displayed meaningful driving impairment with a whole blood THC of 2–5 ng/mL. Additionally, moderate evidence points to a positive relationship between THC blood level and motor vehicle crash risk. In order for marijuana consumers to allow impairment to resolve, less-than-weekly consumers should wait at least six hours after smoking or eight hours after eating or drinking marijuana products. When consuming larger amounts of THC or for people that consume more frequently, evidence is currently insufficient to determine the safe amount of time for impairment to wear off. Evidence is also showing that blood THC levels of marijuana-impaired drivers are higher now than in the past, likely resulting from the increasing THC concentration of available marijuana products.
3.6 Marijuana use and gastrointestinal or reproductive effects
The RMPHAC reviewed how marijuana use may affect gastrointestinal disease, particularly cyclic vomiting, and infertility or abnormal reproductive function. Displayed in Table 6, evidence shows that long-time, daily or near daily marijuana use is associated with cyclic vomiting, also called cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS). A majority of evidence supporting this statement is from case reports or case series of identified CHS patients, however, many review articles detail diagnostic criteria, treatment options, and the physiology behind marijuana use and CHS presentation [220]. Regarding reproductive function, there is limited research showing marijuana use is associated with male infertility or abnormal function, however, the research is conflicting for women.
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Cyclic vomiting
Cyclic vomiting can occur with long-time, daily or near daily marijuana use/consumption (cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome) [209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219]
Table 6.
Marijuana use and gastrointestinal and reproductive effects.
3.7 Marijuana use and injury
The RMPHAC reviewed workplace, recreational and other non-driving injuries, burns from hash-oil extraction or failed electronic smoking devices, and physical dating violence. Evidence shows mixed results for marijuana use affecting the risk of workplace injury, recreational injury, and other types of non-driving-related injury. There have been many reports of severe burns resulting from home-extraction of butane hash oil leading to explosions, and cases of electronic smoking devices exploding, leading to trauma and burns.
Concerning dating violence, Table 7 shows our only statement reaching moderate or substantial levels of evidence is that young adult women who use marijuana are unlikely to perpetrate physical dating violence against their dating partners. Otherwise, evidence does show that young adults who use marijuana are unlikely to commit or be victims of physical dating violence, however evidence is limited at this time. Evidence for adolescent boys that use marijuana has mixed findings for physical dating violence perpetration and limited evidence for victimization, with evidence for adolescent girls being the opposite (Table 7).
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Physical dating violence
Young adult women who use marijuana are unlikely to perpetrate physical dating violence [221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226]
Table 7.
Marijuana use and injury.
3.8 Marijuana use and neurological, cognitive, and mental health effects
Similar to statements in our adolescent and young adult section, it is imperative to understand how marijuana could impact neurological, cognitive, and mental health in adult marijuana consumers. This section also explores how marijuana consumption relates to marijuana abuse and addiction among adult consumers. While our review on cognitive effects includes decision making, executive function, memory impairment, and lasting cognitive effects, strong evidence has been found only for memory impairment, as shown in Table 8. We have found substantial evidence that daily or near daily adult marijuana consumers are more likely than non-users to have memory impairments for at least seven days after last use. Evidence is mixed for whether or not these memory impairments or other cognitive effects last for at least twenty-eight days after last use, among the same population of adult consumers.
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Cognitive effects
Daily or near daily use is associated with impaired memory for at least 7 days [30, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235]
Mental health effects
Use is associated with acute psychotic symptoms during intoxication, which are worse with higher doses [236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243]
Daily or near daily use is associated with future psychotic disorders like schizophrenia [38, 42, 107, 244, 245, 246]
Use of marijuana with THC concentration > 10% is associated with future psychotic disorders like schizophrenia [38, 107, 247]
Substance use, abuse and addiction
Those who use marijuana can develop cannabis use disorder (addiction) [82, 85, 86, 93, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252]
Treatment for cannabis use disorder can reduce use and dependence [4, 6, 8, 9, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257]
Marijuana use and neurological, cognitive, mental health effects.
As with all psychoactive substances, mental health effects in adult marijuana consumers must be examined. An important acute effect of THC with substantial evidence is psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations, paranoia, and delusional beliefs during intoxication, and these symptoms are worse with higher doses. Additionally, daily or near daily marijuana use is associated with developing a psychotic disorder such as schizophrenia. As detailed in our report focusing on the increasing concentration of THC in products available, there is increased public health concern as these products may lead to higher potential for adverse health effects in consumers [1]. This concern is substantiated by available research enabling us to provide a moderate rated statement showing association between higher concentration THC products and future psychotic disorders in adult marijuana consumers.
Finally, evidence shows marijuana consumers can experience withdrawal symptoms when abstaining and become addicted to marijuana or develop cannabis use disorder. However, as with adolescents, treatment for cannabis use disorder can reduce use and dependence in adult consumers. Many associations within this section lack high quality evidence or research currently exhibits mixed findings, such as marijuana use being associated with anxiety, depression, or bipolar disorder (Table 8).
3.9 Marijuana use during pregnancy and/or breastfeeding
Table 9 details our evidence concerning marijuana use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Biological evidence shows THC passes through the placenta to the fetus and is present in the breast milk of women who use marijuana. Scientific evidence shows the fetus absorbs and metabolizes THC passed through the placenta and THC metabolites are found in the meconium or first stool passed by the newborn after birth. Additionally, infants who drink breast milk containing THC absorb and metabolize the THC. These statements show how important it is to understand how marijuana use during pregnancy and/or breastfeeding can affect the offspring or impact delivery of the offspring.
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Effects on exposed offspring
Prenatal marijuana exposure is associated with reduced cognitive function, academic ability, and IQ scores in childhood [271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280]
Prenatal marijuana exposure is associated with attention problems in childhood [273, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285]
Birth defects
Prenatal marijuana use is not associated with birth defects [286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292]
Preterm delivery or abnormal birth weight
Maternal use during pregnancy is associated with infants being born small for gestational age (birth weight less than 10th percentile for gestational age) [286, 287, 289, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305]
Biological evidence concerning marijuana use during pregnancy and breastfeeding
THC is passed through the placenta of women who use marijuana, the fetus absorbs and metabolizes the THC, and THC metabolites are found in the meconium [306, 307, 308, 309, 310].
THC is present in the breast milk of women who use marijuana. Infants who drink breast milk containing THC absorb and metabolize the THC [311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316].
Table 9.
Marijuana use during pregnancy and/or breastfeeding.
Specifically regarding exposed offspring, the RMPHAC reviews potential effects starting at birth and later in childhood or adolescence. Marijuana use during pregnancy has shown to not be associated with birth defects in general, but limited evidence of an association with an increased risk of heart defects, stillbirth, and decreased growth in offspring. Stronger evidence was found for effects that are seen in offspring years after birth if a child’s mother used marijuana while pregnant. These include impaired cognitive function and academic ability, lower IQ scores, and attention problems in childhood.
3.10 Marijuana use and respiratory effects
While consumers have a variety of marijuana products to choose from, smoking marijuana flower remains the most common method of use and thus respiratory effects must be evaluated [317]. The RMPHAC reviews respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD), chronic bronchitis and asthma, respiratory infections, lung function relative to smoked marijuana. The committee has also reviewed potential health effects of vaporized marijuana as those products have emerged on the legal market. Displayed in Table 10, strong evidence shows an association between daily or near-daily marijuana use and chronic bronchitis, including chronic cough, sputum production, and wheezing. Weaker evidence shows daily or near-daily marijuana use may be associated with bullous lung disease leading to pneumothorax in individuals younger than forty years of age. Additionally, limited evidence does show frequent smokers who switch from marijuana smoking to marijuana vaporizing may have fewer respiratory symptoms and improved pulmonary function. Finally, a notable effect of acute marijuana smoking is a short-term improvement in lung airflow, though evidence contributing to this statement is dated (Table 10).
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Smoked marijuana
Use is associated with chronic bronchitis with cough, wheezing and mucus [318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327]
Acute use is associated with short-term lung airflow improvement [328, 329, 330]
Table 10.
Marijuana use and respiratory effects.
3.11 Unintentional marijuana exposure in children
As marijuana becomes more accessible to the public, we must consider unintentional exposures in homes with children and how packaging can affect these. Strong evidence was found, shown in Table 11, that more unintentional exposures of children occur in states with increased legal access to marijuana, and exposures can lead to significant clinical effects requiring medical attention and even hospitalization. However, evidence does show that child-resistant packaging reduces unintentional pediatric marijuana poisonings (Table 11).
Substantial evidence
Moderate evidence
Legal marijuana access increases unintentional marijuana exposures in children [331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341]
Once evidence statements have been drafted and approved by the RMPHAC, the next step (number 6 from our systematic review process) is to translate the evidence into public health statements. These are designed to accurately reflect the evidence statements using language the public can understand. The committee also wanted to ensure these statements conveyed the volume and quality of research related to the outcome and allowed the statement to stand on its own without context. Similar to our evidence statements, these use standardized language to represent the strength of relationship and use the phrase “associated with” to represent epidemiologic associations that do not imply causation. As of the date of this book’s publication CDPHE has seventy-four public health statements corresponding to all our evidence statements rated moderate or substantial.
In a similar manner, public health statements are subsequently drafted into public health recommendations. These are synthesized in order to inform the development of evidence-based prevention and education campaigns performed by CDPHE. Furthermore, recommendations are separated by data quality issues, surveillance, and education. Our recommendations share common themes to those put forth by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s review of health effects associated with cannabis and cannabinoids [345].
Data quality issues are defined as recommendations to improve current data collection deficiencies at the clinical or governmental level that prevent full analysis of public health outcomes related to marijuana use. It is especially important to improve data quality by systematically collecting information on the frequency, amount, THC content, and method of marijuana use in both public health surveillance and medical care settings. Clinicians should routinely screen for marijuana use during hospitalizations, especially among pregnant or adolescent patients.
Public health surveillance recommendations are based on improving capacity to detect an acute public health danger (e.g., real time emergency department surveillance to detect poisonings from contaminated product); the ability to characterize chronic public health dangers to support policy and other intervention decisions; or the ability to generate epidemiologic data to contribute to planning and evaluating population level interventions. Questions regarding marijuana use should be continued on population-based surveys such as the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, the Healthy Kids Colorado Survey, and Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System. Additionally, methods should be expanded to collect more detailed information, such as quantity and methods of use, THC content of products used, and adverse effects experienced.
Education recommendations are included to ensure evidence-based information on potential health effects of marijuana use is provided to the appropriate target audiences. Public education is especially important related to the effects of use during pregnancy, adolescent use, driving after use, increasing THC concentration of products, and unsafe storage around children. Education for health care providers should also be emphasized on the need for marijuana use screening, the known health effects of use, and encouraging more open dialog between providers and patients.
5. Research gaps
In addition to public health recommendations, important research gaps related to the population-based health effects of marijuana use were identified during the literature review process. These research gaps are based on common limitations of existing research or issues important to public education or policymaking. Research gaps particularly important to public health and safety include the need for: (1) research on the effects of marijuana use on pregnant women and their offspring, including while breastfeeding; (2) research on marijuana and marijuana products that contain THC concentrations consistent with products currently available in legalized markets; (3) research on health effects among individuals who have used marijuana frequently for a long period of time; (4) research on driving impairment among people who use marijuana more than weekly and may have developed tolerance; (5) research to better characterize the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics, potential drug interactions, health effects, and impairment related to non-smoking methods of marijuana use such as edible products and vaporizing; and (6) research to better describe the risk of adverse health effects due to contamination of the marijuana product by fungi, mold, solvents, additives, heavy metals, and pesticides.
Other research gaps identify areas that need improvement in new research moving forward. Such as studies using better and more standardized indicators of marijuana use, including frequency, THC content, and route of exposure, including populations that use marijuana daily or near daily, and stratifying groups by age and gender. Finally one step to provide strong evidence would be research data on a community based cohort to study both beneficial and adverse health effects of marijuana consumption. Identifying these research gaps provides researchers and funding sources with an important framework to prioritize areas of research related to marijuana use and public health.
6. Conclusion
Since 2014, when CDPHE was designated to monitor the emerging science and medical information relevant to the health effects associated with marijuana use, the RMPHAC and CDPHE technical staff have conducted an ongoing systematic review of scientific literature to establish over one hundred evidence statements with eleven health topics. Our mission is to translate the science into meaningful public health statements and recommendations to inform and educate the general public, healthcare providers, and everyone in-between on the health effects associated with marijuana use.
First, the committee established a strict process to ensure a thorough and unbiased review, set up quarterly meetings to enable open discussions on a continuous basis, and come to consensus on the science and how to present this information to the public. After establishing our process, evidence from scientific research is constantly reviewed and added when appropriate to form a comprehensive review of marijuana health effects across eleven health topic. Strong evidence statements from all health topics were displayed in tables and key findings were detailed in subsections to provide an overview of effects associated with marijuana use across many different populations and health topics. Additional details were described on how these evidence statements are used to inform public health policy in the State of Colorado through public health recommendations and research gaps.
Acknowledgments
Elyse Contreras, DeLayna Goulding, Daniel I. Vigil, Katelyn E. Hall, Michael Van Dyke, Shireen Banerji, Russell Bowler, Ashley Brooks-Russell, Christopher Domen, Heather Krug, David J Kroll, Sharon Langendoerfer, Andrew Monte, Kenneth Novoa, Judith Shlay, Elizabeth Stuyt, George Sam Wang, Bernadette Albanese, Lisa Barker, Laura Borgelt, Alvin C. Bronstein, Todd Carlson, Rowena Crow, Teresa Foo, Ken Gershman, Tista Ghosh, Heath Harmon, Rebecca Helfand, Renee M. Johnson, Bruce Mendelson, Madeline Morris, Kristina T. Phillips, Allison Rosenthal, Kim Siegal, Scott Simpson, Christian Thurstone.
Conflict of interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
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Our mission is to translate the science into meaningful public health statements and recommendations to inform and educate the general public, healthcare providers, and everyone in-between on the health effects associated with marijuana use. This chapter summarizes evidence from all of our health topics; ranging from respiratory effects of marijuana to cognitive and academic effects of marijuana use on adolescents and young adults.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82942",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82942",signatures:"Richard Holdman",book:{id:"11714",type:"book",title:"Cannabinoids - Recent Perspectives and Applications in Human Health",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Cannabinoids - Recent Perspectives and Applications in Human Health",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Steven P. James",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11714.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-579-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-578-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-580-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"343012",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven P.",middleName:null,surname:"James",slug:"steven-p.-james",fullName:"Steven P. James"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Systematic review development and process",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Systematic review findings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Marijuana use among adolescents and young adults",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Marijuana use and cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Marijuana use and cardiovascular effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Marijuana dose and drug interactions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Marijuana use and driving",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Marijuana use and gastrointestinal or reproductive effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.7 Marijuana use and injury",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.8 Marijuana use and neurological, cognitive, and mental health effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.9 Marijuana use during pregnancy and/or breastfeeding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.10 Marijuana use and respiratory effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.11 Unintentional marijuana exposure in children",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Public health statements and recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Research gaps",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Monitoring Health Concerns Related to Maijuana; Reports and Summaries. Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. 2022. Available from: https://marijuanahealthinfo.colorado.gov/reports-and-summaries'},{id:"B2",body:'Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 2009;62(10):1006-1012'},{id:"B3",body:'GRADE guidelines—best practices using the GRADE framework.: GRADE working group; 2014. 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Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, Denver, United States
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IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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ALPSP
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The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
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OASPA
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The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
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DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
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Straive
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Straive is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
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United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact
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The Compact is designed to inspire action among publishers. Launched in collaboration with the International Publishers Association, the Compact aims to accelerate progress to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. Signatories aspire to develop sustainable practices and act as champions of the SDGs during the Decade of Action (2020-2030), publishing books and journals that will help inform, develop, and inspire action in that direction. Learn more here
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River Valley Technology
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River Valley Technology is the world’s first XML-based publishing solution from submission to peer review to production and to final hosting, giving full control to publishers, with full transparency of data.
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Figshare
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Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data.
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
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OASPA
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\n\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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\n\n
STM
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\n\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
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COPE
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\n\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
\n\n
\n\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\n
\n\n
Counter
\n\n
\n\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\n
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DORA
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\n\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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\n\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
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Enago
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\n\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
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\n\n
Straive
\n\n
\n\t
Straive is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\n
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Amazon
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\n\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
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United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact
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The Compact is designed to inspire action among publishers. Launched in collaboration with the International Publishers Association, the Compact aims to accelerate progress to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. Signatories aspire to develop sustainable practices and act as champions of the SDGs during the Decade of Action (2020-2030), publishing books and journals that will help inform, develop, and inspire action in that direction. Learn more here
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River Valley Technology
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River Valley Technology is the world’s first XML-based publishing solution from submission to peer review to production and to final hosting, giving full control to publishers, with full transparency of data.
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Figshare
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Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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