Sugarcane bagasse production annually for several countries.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5067",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Insecticides Resistance",title:"Insecticides Resistance",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book contains 20 chapters, which are divided into 5 sections. Section 1 covers different aspects of insecticide resistance of selected economically important plant insect pests, whereas section 2 includes chapters about the importance, development and insecticide resistance management in controlling malaria vectors. Section 3 is dedicated to some general questions in insecticide resistance, while the main topic of section 4 is biochemical approaches of insecticide resistance mechanisms. Section 5 covers ecologically acceptable approaches for overcoming insecticide resistance, such are the use of mycoinsecticides, and understanding the role of some plant chemical compounds, which are important in interactions between plants, their pests and biological control agents.",isbn:"978-953-51-2258-6",printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4208-9",doi:"10.5772/60478",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"insecticides-resistance",numberOfPages:450,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"e0c89a15887b47c513a572364c7d9336",bookSignature:"Stanislav Trdan",publishedDate:"March 2nd 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5067.jpg",numberOfDownloads:40950,numberOfWosCitations:115,numberOfCrossrefCitations:70,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:146,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:331,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 19th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 9th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 14th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 12th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 11th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"78285",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanislav",middleName:null,surname:"Trdan",slug:"stanislav-trdan",fullName:"Stanislav Trdan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/78285/images/3405_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Stanislav Trdan, head of the Chair of Phytomedicine, Agricultural Engineering, Crop Production, Pasture and Grassland Management (Dept. of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia), obtained his BSc, MSc and PhD (agricultural entomology) from the University of Ljubljana. Since 2006, he has been the president of the Plant Protection Society of Slovenia; since 2008, he has been an associate professor of plant protection. He is a member of many international and national research societies. He has organised two international symposia and (co)organised four national conferences in the field of plant protection. He has attended almost 30 international and 20 national conferences, workshops and seminars. Until now, he was a leader of four national scientific projects and a member of many national and international project groups. Dr. Trdan has published more than 100 scientific papers, and he or the members of his research group have given approximately 90 presentations at symposia. He was the supervisor of four PhD theses, six MSc theses and approximately 70 undergraduate theses. He was a reviewer of more than 50 scientific papers from the field of agricultural entomology or plant protection. His fields of interest are agricultural entomology and zoology, integrated pest management, biological control and other alternatives for controlling plant pests and the efficacy of insecticides.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"318",title:"Pestology",slug:"animal-biology-pestology"}],chapters:[{id:"49828",title:"Resistance to neurotoxic insecticides in populations of the coffee leafminer Leucoptera coffeella",doi:"10.5772/61466",slug:"resistance-to-neurotoxic-insecticides-in-populations-of-the-coffee-leafminer-leucoptera-coffeella",totalDownloads:1694,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coffee leafminer Leucoptera coffeella is an important pest on coffee. The continued use of chemicals can result in loss of efficacy and selection of leafminer-resistant populations. We aimed to identify L. coffeella populations resistant to old and new neurotoxic insecticides in regions of Brazil. We collected seven populations of L. coffeella in Brazil. Low levels of resistance were observed for the insecticides chlorantraniliprole (1.02-3.23 times), abamectin (1.19-4.80 times), and deltamethrin (1.05-5.35 times). High resistance levels were observed for profenofos (65.3-522 times) and chlorpyrifos (4.53-18.63 times). We conclude that Brazilian L. coffeella populations showed greater resistance to organophosphate insecticides. Furthermore, resistance may be associated with the distance between the coffee-producing regions.",signatures:"Daianna P. Costa, Flávio L. Fernandes, Flávia M. Alves, Ézio M. da\nSilva and Liliane E. Visôtto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49828",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49828",authors:[{id:"160619",title:"Dr.",name:"Flávio",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"flavio-fernandes",fullName:"Flávio Fernandes"}],corrections:null},{id:"49232",title:"Role of AChE in Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) Resistance to Carbamates and Organophosphates",doi:"10.5772/61460",slug:"role-of-ache-in-colorado-potato-beetle-leptinotarsa-decemlineata-say-resistance-to-carbamates-and-or",totalDownloads:1923,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Colorado potato beetle is one of the most important pests of potatoes and one of the most difficult insects to control. Over the years, none of the control techniques developed against this pest has provided long-term protection for potato crops. Worldwide, CPB is resistant to all major groups of insecticides, including organophosphates and carbamates. The target site of organophosphate (OP) and carbamate insecticides is the same; they inhibit the activity of AChE. The function of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is degradation of acetylcholine (ACh - neurotransmitter) in the insect cholinergic synapses. Mutations in the AChE-encoding locus have been shown to confer target site insensitivity to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, leading to modification of AChE (MACE). A range of other amino acid substitutions in AChE confer insecticide resistance, and these mutations typically reside near to or within the active site of the enzyme. Such AChE mutations, associated with insecticide resistance, mostly known as Ace in Drosophila, have also been observed in other species, including L. decemlineata. Based on bioassays and literature, modified/insensitive AChE confers two major patterns of resistance to OPs/carbamates. Pattern I resistance is characterized by significantly higher resistance ratios (RR) (much greater reduction in the sensitivity of AChE at the biochemical level) to carbamates than to organophosphate insecticides. Pattern II resistance is characterized by resistance ratios (and/or reductions in the sensitivity of AChE) that are approximately equivalent for both carbamates and OPs. There are also a few species for which an insensitive AChE has been reported and for which molecular data have been collected, but for which the resistance profiles for both OPs and carbamates have not been reported. For CPB, both patterns were registered.",signatures:"Miroslav Kostic, Sladjan Stankovic and Janja Kuzevski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49232",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49232",authors:[{id:"176263",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Kostic",slug:"miroslav-kostic",fullName:"Miroslav Kostic"},{id:"176326",title:"Dr.",name:"Sladjan",surname:"Stankovic",slug:"sladjan-stankovic",fullName:"Sladjan Stankovic"},{id:"176333",title:"Dr.",name:"Janja",surname:"Kuzevski",slug:"janja-kuzevski",fullName:"Janja Kuzevski"}],corrections:null},{id:"49309",title:"Spirotetramat — An Alternative for the Control of Parasitic Sucking Insects and its Fate in the Environment",doi:"10.5772/61322",slug:"spirotetramat-an-alternative-for-the-control-of-parasitic-sucking-insects-and-its-fate-in-the-enviro",totalDownloads:3589,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spirotetramat is an insecticide derived from tetramic acid, a systemic material, for the control of sucking insects in their juvenile, immature stages, including aphids, scale insects, and whitefly. It produces growth inhibition of younger insects, reduces the ability of insects to reproduce, resulting in mortality. It acts to inhibit the biosynthesis of lipids and represents a new alternative for the control of problematic insects such as Planococcus ficus and Aphis gossypii. After a foliar application of spirotetramat, it enters the plant and transforms to its metabolite enol, along with the metabolite ketohydroxy, which are the two main products of degradation.",signatures:"Norma-Julieta Salazar-López, María-Lourdes Aldana-Madrid, María-\nIsabel Silveira-Gramont and José-Luis Aguiar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49309",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49309",authors:[{id:"83125",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Lourdes",surname:"Aldana Madrid",slug:"maria-lourdes-aldana-madrid",fullName:"Maria Lourdes Aldana Madrid"},{id:"84143",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Isabel",surname:"Silveira",slug:"maria-isabel-silveira",fullName:"Maria Isabel Silveira"},{id:"176356",title:"MSc.",name:"Norma-Julieta",surname:"Salazar-Lopez",slug:"norma-julieta-salazar-lopez",fullName:"Norma-Julieta Salazar-Lopez"},{id:"176357",title:"MSc.",name:"José-Luis",surname:"Aguiar",slug:"jose-luis-aguiar",fullName:"José-Luis Aguiar"}],corrections:null},{id:"49332",title:"Management Practices for Insect Resistance in Bt Maize",doi:"10.5772/61653",slug:"management-practices-for-insect-resistance-in-bt-maize",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The failure to reduce the population of a phytophagous species recognized as a key pest in a given situation usually occurs by not using the principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The control of insect pests in agriculture has been done mainly through the application of chemical insecticides. However, chemical insecticides has lost effectiveness due to the selection of populations of resistant insects and cause adverse environmental effects. The main resistance management programs (IRM) strategy is the use of ‘high dose/refuge’, which involves the use of high dose of Bt protein in plants, promoting high mortality of heterozygotes associated with the planting of refuge, ie, a proportion of the crop in which it must be planted a non-Bt variety, allowing the survival of susceptible individuals. The emergence of Bt crops is an important step between the tactics available for pest control in various crops such as maize, canola, cotton and, in the near future, soybeans.",signatures:"Gleberson Guillen Piccinin, Alessandro Lucca Braccini, Andréia\nKazumi Suzukawa, Ricardo Shigueru Okumura, Claudete Rosa da\nSilva, Allan Klynger da Silva Lobato and Daiane de Cinque Mariano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49332",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49332",authors:[{id:"21048",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Lucca Braccini",slug:"alessandro-lucca-braccini",fullName:"Alessandro Lucca Braccini"},{id:"79200",title:"Prof.",name:"Allan",surname:"Klynger da Silva Lobato",slug:"allan-klynger-da-silva-lobato",fullName:"Allan Klynger da Silva Lobato"},{id:"111434",title:"MSc.",name:"Gleberson",surname:"Guillen Piccinin",slug:"gleberson-guillen-piccinin",fullName:"Gleberson Guillen Piccinin"},{id:"176250",title:"MSc.",name:"Andréia",surname:"Kazumi Suzukawa",slug:"andreia-kazumi-suzukawa",fullName:"Andréia Kazumi Suzukawa"},{id:"176251",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo Shigueru",surname:"Okumura",slug:"ricardo-shigueru-okumura",fullName:"Ricardo Shigueru Okumura"},{id:"176252",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudete",surname:"Rosa da Silva",slug:"claudete-rosa-da-silva",fullName:"Claudete Rosa da Silva"},{id:"177319",title:"Dr.",name:"Daiane",surname:"de Cinque Mariano",slug:"daiane-de-cinque-mariano",fullName:"Daiane de Cinque Mariano"}],corrections:null},{id:"49557",title:"Complications with Controlling Insect Eggs",doi:"10.5772/61848",slug:"complications-with-controlling-insect-eggs",totalDownloads:2052,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Eggs are difficult to kill because of the unique structure of the eggshell, comprised of multiple layers that have evolved to allow the embryo to breathe while simultaneously limiting water loss. The eggshell has been shown to be an excellent barrier to insecticides, fungal pathogens, and some fumigants. The insect eggshell contains only a few areas that could allow penetration of insecticides, the aeropyles and micropyles, which seem to be either so few in number or small in size that they do not allow a sufficient amount of insecticide through the eggshell. Resistance is also a contributing factor to control failures of insect eggs. Resistance in eggs has been documented in several insect species and a few studies have shown that some insect eggs produce elevated numbers of enzymes to break down insecticides. This chapter focuses on the structure and respiration of the insect eggshell as a barrier to insecticides and also covers various management strategies against insect eggs. Lastly, we discuss the few documentations of resistance in insect eggs thus far.",signatures:"Brittany E. Campbell, Roberto M. Pereira and Philip G. Koehler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49557",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49557",authors:[{id:"157722",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",surname:"Koehler",slug:"philip-koehler",fullName:"Philip Koehler"},{id:"175951",title:"Ms.",name:"Brittany",surname:"Campbell",slug:"brittany-campbell",fullName:"Brittany Campbell"},{id:"176310",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Pereira",slug:"roberto-pereira",fullName:"Roberto Pereira"}],corrections:null},{id:"49305",title:"Current Status of the Insecticide Resistance in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) from Mexico",doi:"10.5772/61526",slug:"current-status-of-the-insecticide-resistance-in-aedes-aegypti-diptera-culicidae-from-mexico",totalDownloads:1836,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The mosquito Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) is the primary vector of dengue in Mexico and lately virus Chikungunya, although Aedes albopictus is widely distributed; its role in both diseases’ transmission has not been confirmed. The control of mosquitoes in Mexico includes source reduction consisting in the elimination of containers that are favorable sites for oviposition and development of the aquatic stage. The use of insecticides is to control larvae and adulticides as outdoor ultra-low volume applications and indoor residual spray and more recently impregnated materials. The health department regulates the use of insecticides, and such regulations are revised and adapted over time. Since 1999, the vector control regulations gave preference to the use of pyrethroids, a permethrin-based formulation to control adult forms. This insecticide was used as the only adulticide in Mexico for more than 10 years. The consequences of this actions have evolved in a widespread and strong resistance to other insecticides, mainly pyrethroids. We include in this revision evidence of resistance reported in Ae. aegypti in Mexico.",signatures:"Adriana E. Flores-Suarez, Gustavo Ponce-Garcia, Beatriz Lopez-\nMonroy, Olga Karina Villanueva-Segura, Iram Pablo RodriguezSanchez,\nJuan Ignacio Arredondo-Jimenez and Pablo Manrique-\nSaide",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49305",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49305",authors:[{id:"176037",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Flores-Suárez",slug:"adriana-flores-suarez",fullName:"Adriana Flores-Suárez"},{id:"176038",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Ponce-García",slug:"gustavo-ponce-garcia",fullName:"Gustavo Ponce-García"},{id:"176039",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",surname:"Lopez-Monroy",slug:"beatriz-lopez-monroy",fullName:"Beatriz Lopez-Monroy"},{id:"176040",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Manrique-Saide",slug:"pablo-manrique-saide",fullName:"Pablo Manrique-Saide"},{id:"176224",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Ignacio",surname:"Arredondo-Jiménez",slug:"juan-ignacio-arredondo-jimenez",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Arredondo-Jiménez"},{id:"176990",title:"MSc.",name:"Iram Pablo",surname:"Rodriguez-Sanchez",slug:"iram-pablo-rodriguez-sanchez",fullName:"Iram Pablo Rodriguez-Sanchez"},{id:"177033",title:"MSc.",name:"Olga Karina",surname:"Villanueva-Segura",slug:"olga-karina-villanueva-segura",fullName:"Olga Karina Villanueva-Segura"}],corrections:null},{id:"49257",title:"Mosquito-Borne Diseases, Pesticides Used for Mosquito Control, and Development of Resistance to Insecticides",doi:"10.5772/61510",slug:"mosquito-borne-diseases-pesticides-used-for-mosquito-control-and-development-of-resistance-to-insect",totalDownloads:3275,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mosquitoes are one of the most dangerous insects in the world for humanity. Over one million people worldwide die from mosquito-borne diseases every year. Mosquito vectored diseases include protozoan diseases, i.e., malaria, filarial diseases such as dog heartworm, and viral diseases such as dengue, encephalitis, and yellow fever. In addition, mosquitoes transmit several diseases and parasites that dogs and horses are very susceptible too. These include dog heartworm, West Nile virus (WNV), and eastern equine encephalitis (EEE). Since its discovery, chemical insecticides have represented the most widely method used to control mosquito-borne vectors. However, the effects of chemical insecticides on mosquito vector populations are usually transitory because vectors can rapidly develop resistance against them. Each insecticide triggers the selection of one or more mechanisms of resistance. These mechanisms include changes in the target site of action and metabolic detoxification among others.",signatures:"Jaime A. Cuervo-Parra, Teresa Romero Cortés and Mario Ramirez-\nLepe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49257",authors:[{id:"76645",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Ramirez-Lepe",slug:"mario-ramirez-lepe",fullName:"Mario Ramirez-Lepe"},{id:"177394",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime Alioscha",surname:"Cuervo-Parra",slug:"jaime-alioscha-cuervo-parra",fullName:"Jaime Alioscha Cuervo-Parra"},{id:"177395",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Romero-Cortes",slug:"teresa-romero-cortes",fullName:"Teresa Romero-Cortes"}],corrections:null},{id:"49420",title:"Resistance and Its Management to Microbial and Insect Growth Regulator Larvicides in Mosquitoes",doi:"10.5772/61658",slug:"resistance-and-its-management-to-microbial-and-insect-growth-regulator-larvicides-in-mosquitoes",totalDownloads:2077,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mosquito larvicides derived from microbial organisms and insect growth regulators have been increasingly used to control mosquito larvae worldwide. Their relative target specificity, nontarget safety, and environmentally friendly profile have been well documented. The current chapter was intended to review and analyze the relevant information regarding resistance development and resistance management tactics. Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis de Bajac (B.t.i.) is a quick-acting and highly target-specific biopesticide against mosquitoes, blackflies, and other nematoceran species. Resistance development toward intact complementary toxin complex of B.t.i. was rare; however, low to high levels of resistance to individual toxins have occurred in laboratory mosquito populations. The toxins from bacterium Bacillus sphaericus Neide (recently renamed Lysinibacillus sphaericus Meyer and Neide) is another highly active larvicide against mosquitoes, toward which low to high levels of resistance have occurred in both laboratory and field mosquito populations. The Cyt1A toxin from B.t.i. and Mtx toxin from certain strains of B. sphaericus are the key components in resistance management to B.t.i. and B. sphaericus. The resistance management strategies have been well developed and implemented. Spinosad derived from Saccharopolyspora spinosa Mertz and Yao has been recently used for mosquito control; high levels of resistance and cross-resistance have occurred in laboratory mosquito populations and no management tactics have ever been developed. Methoprene has been used to control mosquitoes for decades, and low to high levels of resistance have been occasionally reported in both laboratory and field mosquito populations. Studies on mechanism and management of methoprene resistance are quite meager. Very little attention has been paid to the resistance management in mosquitoes to other insect growth regulators such as pyriproxyfen and diflubenzuron. The prevention of resistance and restoration of susceptibility in mosquitoes to these biorational larvicides are crucial to the success of sustainable integrated mosquito management.",signatures:"Tianyun Su",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49420",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49420",authors:[{id:"176406",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tianyun",surname:"Su",slug:"tianyun-su",fullName:"Tianyun Su"}],corrections:null},{id:"49174",title:"Optimizing Strategic Insecticide Resistance Management Planning in Malaria Vectors",doi:"10.5772/61301",slug:"optimizing-strategic-insecticide-resistance-management-planning-in-malaria-vectors",totalDownloads:1946,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the past decade, there has been rapid scale-up of insecticide-based malaria vector control in the context of integrated vector management (IVM). But, the continued efficacy of vector control interventions is threatened by the selection of insecticide resistance. Evidence of insecticide resistance operationally undermining malaria vector control programmes is invariably mounting and is resulting in policy changes. Monitoring and management of resistant disease vectors is essential to limit the selection and spread of insecticide resistance and to maintain the effectiveness of vector control. Thus, countries are encouraged to implement pre-emptive insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategies against malaria vectors according to the Global Plan for IRM. However, substantial challenges for implementation exist at country level. The IVM strategy provides a potential platform that could be exploited for enhanced national strategic IRM planning and operationalisation. Nevertheless, significant coordinated response among stakeholders and political commitment is needed for timely and effective policy implementation within the context of a national health system.",signatures:"Emmanuel Chanda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49174",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49174",authors:[{id:"175938",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Chanda",slug:"emmanuel-chanda",fullName:"Emmanuel Chanda"}],corrections:null},{id:"49270",title:"Insecticide Resistance in East Africa — History, Distribution and Drawbacks on Malaria Vectors and Disease Control",doi:"10.5772/61570",slug:"insecticide-resistance-in-east-africa-history-distribution-and-drawbacks-on-malaria-vectors-and-dise",totalDownloads:1977,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Malaria is a major contributor to the global disease burden and a significant impediment to socio-economic development in resource-poor countries. In contrast to improved trends of malaria morbidity and mortality in some parts of the world, malaria has remained a life threatening disease in many other regions including East Africa because of factors such as weak health systems, growing drug and insecticide resistance, ecological change, climate anomalies, socio-economic factors and changes in land use patterns. Ongoing malaria vector control strategies rely mainly on the use of indoor residual spraying (IRS) and insecticide treated nets (ITNs) which are the primary intervention strategies to reduce malaria burden. The current success in reducing malaria related morbidity and mortality has led to the optimism that elimination of the disease as a public health problem may be a realistic objective. Efforts during the last decades enabled access to ITNs in sub-Saharan Africa protecting millions of people at risk of malaria. The number of countries that employed IRS as a vector control strategy increased almost by two fold and the percentage of households owing at least one ITN in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to increase from time to time. Currently, all ITNs are treated with pyrethroids while IRS depends on pyrethroids, DDT and recently on carbamates. Despite IRS and ITNs are known in reducing malaria incidence, insecticide resistance in malaria vectors threatens the success of malaria control program. Resistance to insecticides has occurred in most arthropod vectors with different mechanisms. If the current trends of increased insecticide resistance continue, it may jeopardise the efficacy of current vector control tools. Given the limited choice of available insecticides, i.e., only 12 insecticides belonging to 4 classes of insecticides (organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids and carbamates), resistance to these insecticides has become a limiting factor for current efforts to sustain control. Currently, no other insecticide class with similar efficacy has been approved by WHOPES. The development of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors has been attributed to the prolonged use of insecticides for IRS and high coverage of ITNs/LLINs. The recent use of pyrethroids for indoor residual spraying is likely to have enhanced the selection pressure for insecticide resistance alleles among East African vector populations. Moreover, mosquitoes breeding in agricultural habitats are exposed to sub lethal doses of pesticides used in agriculture. Since currently recommended insecticides for IRS or ITNs were developed with similar active ingredients of pesticides used for agricultural pest control, their extensive and widespread use to boost agricultural productivity is believed to foster insecticide resistance in mosquito populations. There is strong evidence on the emergence of resistance to DDT and pyrethroids in the major malaria vectors in East Africa however, current information on resistance status of the malaria vectors in different areas of the sub-region is scarce. Genes conferring resistance to malaria vectors, including kdr, super kdr and acetylcholinesterase mutations and metabolic resistance are not mapped. The frequency and spatial distribution of East and West African kdr mutations and their association with the phenotypic resistance in East Africa is less understood. The bioassay results after WHO diagnostic tests in different East African malaria vector populations against insecticides used in public health is not well documented. In conclusion, planning and implementing insecticide resistance monitoring and management strategy should be part of the vector control program either for pre-emptive action without waiting for the development of resistance or to slowdown the spread of resistance in malaria vectors in the sub-region.",signatures:"Delenasaw Yewhalaw and Eliningaya J. Kweka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49270",authors:[{id:"123576",title:"Prof.",name:"Eliningaya",surname:"Kweka",slug:"eliningaya-kweka",fullName:"Eliningaya Kweka"},{id:"175958",title:"Dr.",name:"Delenasaw",surname:"Yewhalaw",slug:"delenasaw-yewhalaw",fullName:"Delenasaw Yewhalaw"}],corrections:null},{id:"49298",title:"Emerging Insect-Borne Diseases of Agricultural, Medical and Veterinary Importance",doi:"10.5772/61467",slug:"emerging-insect-borne-diseases-of-agricultural-medical-and-veterinary-importance",totalDownloads:2081,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Current migrations, due to several causes, but mainly consequence of climate changes, are causing several problems in Southern Europe. Some migrations are evident and attract attention immediately; others are silent, but still important, like several ones involving agriculture and livestock. In the future, a number of products employed in pest control may lose their efficacy. Pesticide resistance should be considered an increasing problem, and more environmental-friendly control approaches against arthropod pests are urgently needed. Two examples from the South of Italy clearly explain the kind of arising alerts and the complex network involving abiotic and biotic causes. The first case is the growing number of blue-tongue disease outbreaks, vectored by Culicoides sp. The second case is the alarm concerning the olive trees epidemic disease in Apulia, due to the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa. The development of new pest control methods is required in order to minimize negative effects of currently marketed synthetic pesticides. In this scenario, natural product research can afford solutions as part of an integrated pest control system. Preliminary results concerning the use of neem, Azadirachta indica, in control of insect vectors are discussed.",signatures:"Marcello Nicoletti, Kadarkarai Murugan and Giovanni Benelli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49298",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49298",authors:[{id:"65501",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",surname:"Nicoletti",slug:"marcello-nicoletti",fullName:"Marcello Nicoletti"}],corrections:null},{id:"49941",title:"Insecticide Resistance and Fitness Cost",doi:"10.5772/61826",slug:"insecticide-resistance-and-fitness-cost",totalDownloads:2399,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:25,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The intensive use of chemicals through decades has been selecting resistant populations of several insect species to distinct classes of insecticides, like neurotoxics, insect growth regulators, and toxins derived from bacteria. Insecticide resistance is nowadays a huge challenge for control programs of pests of rural practices and principally to the management of arthropod vector-borne diseases. Several behavioral, physiological, and molecular mechanisms can be selected for avoiding toxic effects of insecticides in the insect organism. These changes are genetic traits that arise randomly and spread throughout the population along time, under an environment with insecticide selective pressure. However, new rapidly achieved characteristics can present a fitness cost to their harbors, with negative effects in development and reproductive aspects. In this way, in the absence of insecticides, susceptible individuals may present reproductive advantages and then the population resistance levels would tend to decrease. If the selection pressure persists, however, compensatory genes known as modifiers can be selected, ameliorating the negative effects caused by the resistance genes themselves or their pleiotropic effects.",signatures:"Thiago Affonso Belinato and Ademir Jesus Martins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49941",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49941",authors:[{id:"83198",title:"Prof.",name:"Ademir",surname:"Martins",slug:"ademir-martins",fullName:"Ademir Martins"}],corrections:null},{id:"49385",title:"A Review of Insecticide Resistance Status in Botswana",doi:"10.5772/61513",slug:"a-review-of-insecticide-resistance-status-in-botswana",totalDownloads:1642,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For many decades, Botswana has been engaged in various malaria control activities that involved programmes that focused on the elimination of the malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis, by using DDT and pyrethroids. Despite the numerous and continuous application of these insecticides, studies have shown that there is susceptibility of this vector to DDT and pyrethroids in Botswana. Natural insecticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis and Spinosad, as alternatives to the use of chemicals, have shown to be effective against the eggs and larvae of DBM. Insect-resistant crop varieties were also found as alternatives in order to minimise insecticide resistance through the application of insecticides on insect infesting crops. The appearance of esterases B1 and A2–B2 in the Gaborone and Molepolole strains of Culex, respectively, indicates dispersion of these esterases through human migration.",signatures:"N.M. Makate",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49385",authors:[{id:"176112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ntebaleng",surname:"Makate",slug:"ntebaleng-makate",fullName:"Ntebaleng Makate"}],corrections:null},{id:"49354",title:"Effect of Imidacloprid on Bacterial Soil Isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis",doi:"10.5772/61503",slug:"effect-of-imidacloprid-on-bacterial-soil-isolate-bacillus-weihenstephanensis",totalDownloads:1573,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Imidacloprid is a chloronicotinyl insecticide used widely to control biting and sucking insects. The over accumulation of this pesticide in environment requires higher awareness about this pesticide. Present investigation was carried out to analyze the effect of imidacloprid on antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase in soil isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis isolated after laboratory and field studies on the toxic effect of imidacloprid. Further, the genes for the three enzymes involved in the antioxidant defense process in soil isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis were sequenced and identified. Study on the effect of 10–7 to 10–3 molar concentrations of imidacloprid for a period of 24, 48, 72 and 96 h on three antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase in Bacillus weihenstephanensis showed that there was an increase in the activity of all the three antioxidant enzymes. The enzyme activity increased with an increase in the concentration of insecticide proving that the inhibitory effect is dose-dependent. Further, sequencing revealed that Fe/MnSOD (sod A), hydroxyperoxidase HP(II) (Kat E) and glutathione peroxidase genes were expressed in response to stress induced by imidacloprid treatment in Bacillus weihenstephanensis. The present investigation indicates that imidacloprid induces the expression of antioxidant enzymes in the soil isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis. The synthesis of antioxidant enzymes may be helping Bacillus weihenstephanensis in resisting the toxic effects of imidacloprid.",signatures:"A.A. Shetti and B.B. Kaliwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49354",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49354",authors:[{id:"78330",title:"Dr.",name:"Basappa",surname:"Kaliwal",slug:"basappa-kaliwal",fullName:"Basappa Kaliwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"49288",title:"Resistance in Bacteria",doi:"10.5772/61479",slug:"resistance-in-bacteria",totalDownloads:1876,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Resistance is the result of bacteria evolving new genes in response to the presence of pesticide and antibiotics. In our society day by day, a number of chemicals, pesticides, and antibiotics are introducing due to the result of resistance development of bacteria. Pesticides are added to the environment for the purpose of killing or injuring some form of life. Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest. Bacteria have been used extensively for bioremediation purposes. The ability of organisms to bioremediate pesticides is mainly based on their biodegradation activity. Methomyl and imidacloprid are widely using throughout the world as a pesticide. Many pesticide degradation genes present in soil bacteria have been shown to reside on plasmids or genome, a common location for other degradation genes. The excessive use of pesticides and antibiotic leads and promotes the development of resistance in the bacteria. An increase in the frequency of antibiotic resistance in bacteria since the 1950s has been observed for all major classes of antibiotics used to treat a wide variety of diseases. Development of resistance is a major concern for another reason of human and animal health. Antibiotic resistance profiles of the isolates must be done earlier to the use of antibiotics in both to choose appropriate antibiotic for treatment and prevention of the disease. Research into newer antibiotics continues, measures can and should be taken to reverse the practices that promote the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.",signatures:"S.O. Sadashiv and Basappa B. Kaliwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49288",authors:[{id:"78330",title:"Dr.",name:"Basappa",surname:"Kaliwal",slug:"basappa-kaliwal",fullName:"Basappa Kaliwal"},{id:"176334",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadashiv",surname:"S. O.",slug:"sadashiv-s.-o.",fullName:"Sadashiv S. O."}],corrections:null},{id:"49761",title:"The Role of Glutathione Transferases in the Development of Insecticide Resistance",doi:"10.5772/61972",slug:"the-role-of-glutathione-transferases-in-the-development-of-insecticide-resistance",totalDownloads:1927,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glutathione transferases are multifunctional enzymes. Some of the known functions of the enzymes are biotransformation of xenobiotics, countering oxidative stress and participating in cell regulatory functions. As the isoforms present in number of classes the purification of a particular isoform for characterization is a challenging task. In insect, the study of GSTs is focusing on their roles in development of insecticide resistance. There were evident that certain classes of the enzymes are reactive towards conjugating the pesticides. This makes GSTs one of the enzymes of intention in the discipline of pesticide control management.",signatures:"Zazali Alias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49761",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49761",authors:[{id:"176212",title:"Dr.",name:"Zazali",surname:"Alias",slug:"zazali-alias",fullName:"Zazali Alias"}],corrections:null},{id:"49576",title:"Biological and Biochemical Bases of Pesticides Resistance in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus",doi:"10.5772/61839",slug:"biological-and-biochemical-bases-of-pesticides-resistance-in-rhipicephalus-boophilus-microplus",totalDownloads:1847,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several arthropod species are important vectors of pathogens that cause disease in humans, animals, and plants, including protozoa, nematodes, bacteria, and viruses. Arthropods are also pests competing with humans for food and parasitize farm animals, decreasing their productivity. Historically, arthropod pests and disease vectors affecting public health, crop yields, and livestock production have been managed through the intensive use of pesticides. The widespread use of pesticides is a major problem because most of the economically important arthropod species have developed resistance to currently used pesticides. The impact of pesticide resistance is multifactorial and involves losses due to the heavy use of pesticides, environmental pollution, decreased profitability, food contamination, and public health problems due to pesticide exposure. An indirect consequence of pesticide resistance is the mortality caused by arthropod-borne diseases such as dengue and malaria in humans and babesiosis and anaplasmosis in cattle. The understanding of molecular mechanisms and adaptations to resistance in arthropods is an important issue. However, the molecular mechanisms of pesticide resistance remain to be fully understood. Understanding of resistance mechanisms will contribute significantly to improve integrated managements programs and to discover new targets for vaccine development to mitigate the effects of pesticide-resistant arthropods on agriculture and public health.",signatures:"Rodrigo Rosario-Cruz and Delia Inés Domínguez-García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49576",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49576",authors:[{id:"176211",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Rosario-Cruz",slug:"rodrigo-rosario-cruz",fullName:"Rodrigo Rosario-Cruz"},{id:"176225",title:"Dr.",name:"Delia Ines",surname:"Domínguez-García",slug:"delia-ines-dominguez-garcia",fullName:"Delia Ines Domínguez-García"}],corrections:null},{id:"49628",title:"Biochemical Insecticide Resistance in Tea Pests",doi:"10.5772/61949",slug:"biochemical-insecticide-resistance-in-tea-pests",totalDownloads:2280,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polyphagous insect herbivores encounter numerous toxins (xenobiotics) as they pass through their life cycle; some toxins are produced naturally by the host plants (allelochemicals) and others by humans (insecticides) to manage these insects having pest status. The host plants have evolved defensive mechanisms for protection from herbivory, including chemical repellents and toxins (secondary metabolites). Many classes of insect repellents and toxic substances, such as isoflavonoids, furanocoumarins, terpenoids, alkaloids and cyanogenic glycosides are synthesized in plants. The biosynthetic pathways leading to these allelochemicals are continually evolving to generate new secondary metabolites. Similarly, to control the herbivorous insect pests, numerous chemicals of synthetic origin are used continuously against them. In response, the attacking organisms also evolve mechanisms that enable them to resist the defensive chemicals of their hosts and those toxins of synthetic origin applied for their control. A variety of defence mechanisms, including enzymatic detoxification systems, physiological tolerance and behavioural avoidance, protect insect herbivores from these xenobiotic compounds. Insect pests have evolved the mechanisms to degrade metabolically (enzymatically) or otherwise circumvent the toxic effect of many types of chemicals that we have synthesized as modern insecticides. The extent to which insects can metabolize and thereby degrade these antibiotics or toxins is of considerable importance for their survival in hostile chemical environment. These mechanisms continue to evolve as insects attempt to colonize new plant species or encounter newer molecules of synthetic insecticides. Generally, three main enzymes, general esterases (GEs), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and cytochrome P450-mediated monooxygenases (CYPs), are involved in the process of metabolic detoxification of insecticides. During the past 70 years, following the discovery and extensive use of synthetic insecticides, resistance of insects to insecticides has registered the greatest increase and strongest impact. The evolution of resistance to insecticides is an example of evolutionary process. An insecticide is the selection pressure, which results in a very strong but differential fitness of the individual in a population having susceptible and resistant genotypes. The survival and subsequent reproduction of resistant individuals lead to a change in the frequency of alleles conferring resistance in the population over time. While selection pressure acts to change allele frequencies within pest populations, the phenotype upon which selection operates is a function of both genotype and the environment. Recent studies in insect detoxifying enzymes have revealed further versatility in the adaptation of insects to their environment by the phenomenon of induction. This is the process in which a chemical stimulus enhances the activity of the detoxification enzyme systems by the production of additional enzymes that metabolize toxic chemical substances. Hence, the influence of environmental factors such as continuous usage of insecticides and the chemical constituents (allelochemicals) of host plants on phytophagous insects can have a great impact to induce the enzymatic detoxification systems of insects, thereby promoting the insecticide resistance mechanisms. While all insects do possess detoxification ability, its magnitude is expected to vary among the species with the nature of its recent environment and feeding ecology. The level and type of detoxifying mechanisms differ greatly, which therefore result in varying toxicity among different developmental stages, species and populations. Variation in detoxifying enzyme activity is responsible in part for the selective toxicity of different insecticides, the development of resistance to insecticides and selective adaptation to host plants. Over-expression of these detoxifying enzymes, capable of metabolizing insecticides, can result in a high level of metabolic tolerance/resistance to synthetic insecticides. Increased expressions of genes encoding the major xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes are the most common cause of insecticide resistance in insects.",signatures:"Dhiraj Saha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49628",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49628",authors:[{id:"176292",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhiraj",surname:"Saha",slug:"dhiraj-saha",fullName:"Dhiraj Saha"}],corrections:null},{id:"49233",title:"The Role of Volatile Substances Emitted by Cultivated Plant's Roots in Indirect Defense Against Soil Herbivores",doi:"10.5772/61369",slug:"the-role-of-volatile-substances-emitted-by-cultivated-plant-s-roots-in-indirect-defense-against-soil",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants in nature have developed many defense mechanisms to defend themselves against attacks by harmful organisms; these mechanisms are indirect and direct. When attacked by a harmful organism, many plant species release volatile substances that attract natural enemies of herbivores. Volatile substances have an important role in the tritrophic system consisting of a plant, a herbivore, and its natural enemy. They function as a kind of chemical signal (semiochemical) which directly influences both harmful pests and their natural enemy. Some of these substances appear on damaged as well as undamaged plants, while other substances are released in the case of mechanic damage or feeding of a particular herbivore species. Volatile substances may repel a herbivore. Harmful pests have an important role in attracting natural enemies, as they also emit chemical signals that function as kairomones for natural enemies. In order to increase our knowledge in the field of indirect plant defense we studied chemosensation of four entomopathogenic nematode species (Steinernema, Heterorhabditis) to compounds released by insect (wireworms and grubs) damaged and undamaged potato and carrot roots, and mechanically damaged maize roots. The aim of our research was (1) to study the effect of different EPN foraging strategies (ambush, intermediate, or cruise) toward the tested volatile compounds, (2) to determine whether chemotaxis is species-specific, and (3) to assess whether the volatile compounds from damaged and undamaged roots have any behavioral effects on the EPNs studied, and (4) if volatile compounds are a part of an indirect plant defense. Our results indicate that all of the tested EPN species exhibited attraction (or repulsion) to volatiles, irrespective of their foraging strategy, and suggest that responses to distinct volatile cues are a species-specific characteristic. These results expand our knowledge of volatile compounds as cues, which may be used by EPNs to find hosts and for other aspects of navigation in soil.",signatures:"Žiga Laznik and Stanislav Trdan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49233",authors:[{id:"78285",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Trdan",slug:"stanislav-trdan",fullName:"Stanislav Trdan"},{id:"78340",title:"Dr.",name:"Žiga",surname:"Laznik",slug:"ziga-laznik",fullName:"Žiga Laznik"}],corrections:null},{id:"49223",title:"About Previous Investigations Regarding the Role of Glucosinolates in Controlling Brassica Insect Pests in Slovenia",doi:"10.5772/61444",slug:"about-previous-investigations-regarding-the-role-of-glucosinolates-in-controlling-brassica-insect-pe",totalDownloads:1612,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter presents previous field and laboratory investigations of cabbage flea beetles (Phyllotreta spp.) and cabbage stink bugs (Eurydema spp.) interactions with different Brassica crops in Slovenia. The special emphasis is given to an influence of different glucosinolates on injuries caused by mentioned economically important two genera of insect pests. In the study, we found out that the content of glucosinolates differs between different Brassica species, as well as between individual plant organs of the same species. The content of glucosinolates is conditioned also by environmental influences. Among the analysed glucosinolates, glucobrassicin was presented in all plant species. In almost all plant species, it inhibited the feeding of cabbage flea beetles, except in oil rape, where it had stimulative effects. We have established that the influence of individual glucosinolate on Phyllotreta spp. and Eurydema spp. is not identical as it differs between individual plant species. Because of the variability of glucosinolates as well as different preferences of the studied groups of harmful pests in regard to the plant species, one of the options for diminishing the damage caused by cabbage stink bugs and cabbage flea beetles is the use of mixed Brassica crops for trapping the pests in the growing season. In the future, glucosinolates should be employed to a greater extent in environmentally acceptable ways of food production, one of which is also the use of trap crops in order to reduce harmful effects of cabbage stink bugs.",signatures:"Tanja Bohinc and Stanislav Trdan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49223",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49223",authors:[{id:"176249",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanja",surname:"Bohinc",slug:"tanja-bohinc",fullName:"Tanja Bohinc"},{id:"176280",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Trdan",slug:"stanislav-trdan",fullName:"Stanislav Trdan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3055",title:"Insecticides",subtitle:"Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"adb06e05715aa4d3ec42f707d1626158",slug:"insecticides-development-of-safer-and-more-effective-technologies",bookSignature:"Stanislav Trdan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3055.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78285",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Trdan",slug:"stanislav-trdan",fullName:"Stanislav Trdan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2036",title:"Insecticides",subtitle:"Advances in Integrated Pest Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42dc69ce20386f76845e38275b0e54e8",slug:"insecticides-advances-in-integrated-pest-management",bookSignature:"Farzana Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2036.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5252",title:"Integrated Pest Management (IPM)",subtitle:"Environmentally Sound Pest Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8f2c00d77debd573ce98ad0af592512a",slug:"integrated-pest-management-ipm-environmentally-sound-pest-management",bookSignature:"Harsimran Kaur Gill and Gaurav Goyal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5252.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169846",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsimran",surname:"Gill",slug:"harsimran-gill",fullName:"Harsimran Gill"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Leen",slug:"gabriel-leen",email:"Gabriel.Leen@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269579",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fintan",middleName:null,surname:"McGuinness",fullName:"Fintan McGuinness",slug:"fintan-mcguinness",email:"Fintan.McGuinness@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269580",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerard",middleName:null,surname:"Dooly",fullName:"Gerard Dooly",slug:"gerard-dooly",email:"Gerard.Dooly@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8271",title:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",slug:"applications-of-optical-fibers-for-sensing",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8271.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220902",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian 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\r\n\tThe book aims to present the chemistry of lignin molecules, their composition, and structure, strategies for chemical modification, recent progress, and studies of biopolymer lignin. Lignin is composed of alkyl-aryl ether polymers and is found in the cell walls of trees and plants. It is known as the second most naturally abundant biopolymer. The book will focus on the application of lignin in various materials, its synthesis and characterizations, and its development prospects followed by degradation methodologies. In addition to that, it will also emphasize the strategies to prepare nano- and microparticles of lignin by various means, as well as their chemical modification to obtain desired properties. It will also include the industrial aspects of lignin, lignin derivatives, their configuration, and their significant role in thermosetting, thermoplastic materials. In addition, the book welcomes contributions on the technical and economical potential of lignin in generating green bio-fuel and fine chemicals which will or can be used as an energy source for various industrial plants.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-546-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-545-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-861-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c3ccf3ce961d9c60aeb9774034eeb87",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Arpit Sand and Dr. Jaya Tuteja",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11902.jpg",keywords:"Biofuel, Esters, Ethers, Adhesives, Lignin, Structural Features, Physicochemical Properties, Degradation Techniques, Biosynthesis, Biodegradation, Kraft Lignin, Qualitative Analysis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 14th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 22nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 9th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sand, associate professor of Chemistry, was a postdoctoral fellow at Gwangju Institute of Science & Technology, Korea, and at Karolinska Institutet, Sweden. With a keen interest in polymer synthesis, Dr. Sand is an editorial board member for Polymer Synthesis Journal by Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK and Journal of Polymer Science.",coeditorOneBiosketch:'An enthusiastic, disciplined, well-organized Assistant Professor in Chemistry, Dr. Tuteja earned her Ph.D. degree in Materials Science from the Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (JAIST) in 2015 for which she was awarded an “Excellent Doctorate Student". Her research includes the development and application of heterogeneous catalysts for the effective conversion of biomass to value-added products.',coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"287032",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287032/images/system/287032.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arpit Sand is currently an associate professor in the Department of Chemistry, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, India. He received his BSc in Science and MSc in Chemistry from the University of Allahabad, India, in 2004 and 2006, respectively. He received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from the same university in 2010. Dr. Sand is an editorial board member for Polymer Synthesis Journal by Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK and Journal of Polymer Science. He is an academic book editor and a reviewer for international journals including Carbohydrate Polymers, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, and Fibers and Polymers, among others.\r\nDr. Sand’s previous roles include assistant professor (guest faculty) in the Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad; research associate at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) New Delhi; postdoctoral fellow at Gwangju Institute of Science & Technology (GIST), Korea; postdoctoral fellow at Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; junior researcher at the Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic; and researcher at Soongsil University, South Korea.\r\nHe has more than ten years of teaching and research experience. He is also a life member of the Indian Science Congress and Green Chemistry Network center. He has made significant contributions in the modification and characterization of graft copolymers and films decorated with chalcogenide quantum dots to tune the energy bandgap for solar energy harvesting applications. His research interests include polymer synthesis using different polymerization techniques. He has authored more than twenty-four international research articles and review articles in reputed SCI journals.",institutionString:"Manav Rachna University Faridabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"453331",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya",middleName:null,surname:"Tuteja",slug:"jaya-tuteja",fullName:"Jaya Tuteja",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003NAhktQAD/Profile_Picture_1643970806232",biography:"Dr. Jaya Tuteja is currently working as Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Science, Manav Rachna University since January 2018. She earned her Ph.D. degree in Materials Science from Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (JAIST), Japan in 2015 and was awarded as “Excellent Doctorate Student” by JAIST. \r\nShe has published 5 research papers in reputed international journals with a sum of impact factor of >25. She also has 2 patents filed on her name from her Ph.D. research work. One of the articles in ChemSusChem 7 (1), 96-100 has reached a citation of more than 100 and was selected among 25 Most Accessed Articles from ChemSusChem. Her first research article was awarded a BCSJ award article. She also has 1 book chapter in her account.\r\nBefore joining Manav Rachna University, she was working in a chromatography Industry YMC India Ltd. as a Technical and Application Manager. Her research area includes the development, characterization, and application of heterogeneous catalysts for effective conversion of biomass to value-added products, nanoparticles synthesis and nanoparticle-based heterogeneous catalysts, bimetallic nanoparticles, carbohydrate chemistry, and analytical techniques for compound identification.",institutionString:"Manav Rachna University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The 10 countries are Brazil, India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, Mexico, Colombia, Indonesia, Philippines, and United States. About 540 million metric tons per year of sugarcane bagasse are produced globally [1]. Table 1 presents sugarcane bagasse production annually for several countries. Sugarcane bagasse is the solid residue obtained after extraction of the juice from sugar cane (
Country | \nSugarcane bagasse production (million metric ton/year) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|
Brazil | \n181 | \n[2] | \n
India | \n101.3 | \n[3] | \n
China | \n80 | \n[4] | \n
Thailand | \n20 | \n[5] | \n
Mexico | \n15 | \n[6] | \n
Colombia | \n7 | \n[7] | \n
Philippines | \n5.1 | \n[8] | \n
United States | \n3.5 | \n[9] | \n
Sugarcane bagasse production annually for several countries.
Sugarcane bagasse is mainly composed of cellulose (33–36%), hemicellulose (28–30%), and lignin (17–24%). Cellulose is the most abundant polysaccharide polymer which comprised of a linear chain of β(1 → 4) linked D-glucose units that generates crystalline regions and consequently increases resistance to the hydrolytic process. Hemicellulose is the second most abundant polysaccharide after cellulose and is a short and highly branched polymers which comprised of pentose (xylose and arabinose) and hexose (mannose, glucose, and galactose) sugars. It possesses a heteropolysaccharide composition that varies according to the source. Sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose is composed of heteroxylans, with a predominance of xylose. Hence, it can be chemically hydrolyzed more easily than cellulose. Lignins are complex phenylpropanoid polymers formed by the polymerization of aromatic alcohols. The combination of the cellulose-hemicellulose-lignin matrix is conferring resistance to enzymatic and chemical degradation [10, 11]. Bagasse could represent the main lignocellulosic biomass in many tropical countries since it is available at the sugar factory without additional cost and contains high sugar and low lignin content [12].
\nProduction of bioethanol from SCB has a major advantage, like its less carbon intensive, than fossil fuel which reduces air pollution [13]. The bioethanol produced from lignocellulosic materials is named as second-generation (2G) ethanol or cellulosic ethanol, while the first generation ethanol is produced from sucrose (juice extracted from sugarcane, sugarbeet, or sweet sorghum) or starch (typically extracted from grains) [14]. The second-generation ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass has been considered to be the biofuel with the greatest potential to replace oil-based fuels ([15, 16], and it can be produced from various lignocellulosic biomasses such as wood, agricultural, or forest residues. Typically, bioethanol can be produced in a four-step process, that is, pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and distillation (Figure 1), where hydrolysis and fermentation may be combined. Currently, bioethanol is produced mostly in U.S and Brazil (Table 2) [17].
\nA four-step process for ethanol production from biomass.
Country | \nBioethanol production (million gallon) | \n
---|---|
United State | \n15,250 | \n
Brazil | \n7295 | \n
European Union | \n1377 | \n
China | \n835 | \n
Rest of World | \n490 | \n
Canada | \n436 | \n
Thailand | \n322 | \n
Argentina | \n264 | \n
India | \n225 | \n
Bioethanol production by country, million gallons, 2017 [17].
The main objective of the pretreatments is to break down the lignin structure and disrupt the crystalline structure of cellulose for enhancing enzymes accessibility to the cellulose during the hydrolysis step [18]. These pretreatments may be biological, chemical, and physical processes that are used individually, combined, and/or sequentially [19, 20]. The natural structure of lignocellulosic material is extremely recalcitrant to enzymatic hydrolysis. Therefore, the pretreatment step is required for efficient enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose by removal of lignin and hemicellulose, reduction of cellulose crystallinity and increase the porosity of the biomass [21]. Each pretreatment has a different effect on the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin fraction.
\nIt is necessary to choose suitable pretreatment methods for SCB since different lignocellulosic materials have different physico-chemical characteristics [22]. An efficient pretreatment should (1) improve the formation of fermentable sugars, (2) avoid the loss or degradation of carbohydrates, (3) avoid the formation of inhibitory by-products, and (4) be cost-effective [23]. According to Puligundla et al. [24], an ideal pretreatment should be economically efficient, low energy consumption, and producing less or no residues. High digestibility of cellulose and versatility of feedstock are also important in the pretreatment process. In addition, other factors such as low sugar decomposition, low water or high solids, and low chemical consumption during the process should be considered. Besides that, the pretreatment should be performed at low operational risk and safe.
\nThere are two types of acid pretreatments either using concentrated acid or diluted acids. Concentrated acid hydrolysis can be performed at a low temperature (30–60°C) using acid with the concentration around 40–80%. High sugar yield can be obtained using this method, however, requires large volumes of acid which are toxic and corrosive. Thus, corrosion resistant reactors are needed if concentrated acid is employed. Furthermore, the acid concentration must be recovered after hydrolysis to make the process economically feasible [10]. The development of effective acid recovery technologies has made this process renewed its interest [25]. On the other hand, dilute acid hydrolysis is the most widely used and has been considered to be one of the treatment methods with greater potential for wide-scale application. This process can be performed using diluted acids in the range of 0.5–6% and high temperatures from 120–170°C, with variable treatment times from minutes up to an hour.
\nDilute acid pretreatment has received numerous research interests, and it has been successfully developed for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Dilute acid pretreatments are normally used to degrade the hemicellulosic fraction and increase the biomass porosity, improving the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose. The dilute acid pretreatment is important to weaken the glycosidic bond in the hemicellulose and lignin-hemicellulose bond and the lignin bond. This will lead to the dissolution of the sugar in the hemicellulose and also increase the porosity of the plant cell wall for effective enzyme digestibility [26]. Acid pretreatment is a very commonly used technology for biomass to ethanol conversion due to its low cost and the fact that the used acids are easily available. However, acid pretreatments can cause side effects such as the formation of furan and short chain aliphatic acid derivatives, which are considered strong inhibitors in microbial fermentation [27, 28].
\nSeveral different acids used in pretreatments of SCB, including dilute sulfuric acid [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35], dilute hydrochloric acid [36], dilute phosphoric acid [32, 37], and dilute nitric acid [38], have been reported. High hydrolysis yields have been obtained when lignocellulosic biomass was pretreated with dilute sulfuric acid compared with hydrochloric, phosphoric, and nitric acid [22]. Sulfuric (H2SO4) and phosphoric (H3PO4) acids are widely used for acid pretreatment since they are relatively inexpensive and efficient in hydrolyzing lignocellulose. H3PO4 also gives less negative impact on the environment compared to H2SO4, meanwhile hydrochloric (HCl) acid had better penetration to biomass and more volatile and easier to recover than H2SO4 [39]; similarly, nitric acid (HNO3) possesses good cellulose to sugar conversion rates [40]. However, both acids are expensive compared to H2SO4. Sulfuric acid is the most commonly used acid in the pretreatment of SCB [41, 42]. Table 2 shows the yield of sugar at different types of acid pretreatment of SCB.
\nAccording to Table 3, the acid concentration used in the range of 0.5–6.0%, temperature 120–170°C and time is around 10 to 300 min. Dilute acid at moderate temperature effectively removes most of the hemicelluloses and recovers as dissolved sugars.
\nType of acid | \nPretreatment conditions | \nYield of sugar | \nReferences | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
mg/g | \ng/L | \n|||
Sulfuric acid | \n1.5% H2SO4, 170°C, 15 min | \n350 | \n\n | [29] | \n
0.5% H2SO4, 120 °C, 120 min | \n452.27 | \n\n | [30] | \n|
2.0% H2SO4, 155°C, 10 min | \n\n | 22.74 | \n[31] | \n|
0.5% H2SO4, 130°C, 15 min | \n414.9 | \n\n | [32] | \n|
1.25% H2SO4, 121°C, 2 h | \n\n | 59.1 | \n[33] | \n|
0.5% H2SO4, 121°C, 60 min | \n\n | 24.5 | \n[34] | \n|
2.5% H2SO4, 140°C, 30 min | \n\n | 30.29 | \n[35] | \n|
Hydrochloric acid | \n1.2% HCl, 121°C, 4 h | \n37.21 | \n\n | [36] | \n
Phosphoric acid | \n3.5% H3PO4, 130°C, 180min | \n404.5 | \n\n | [32] | \n
4% H3PO4, 122°C, 300 min | \n\n | 23.2 | \n[37] | \n|
Nitric acid | \n6% HNO3, 122°C, 9.3 min | \n\n | 23.51 | \n[38] | \n
Yield of sugar at different types of acid pretreatment of SCB.
Beside acid pretreatment, alkaline pretreatment is also one of the chemical pretreatment technologies receiving numerous attention for SCB pretreatment. It employs various bases, including sodium hydroxide (NaOH) [43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53], calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) [54, 55], potassium hydroxide (KOH) [56], aqueous ammonia (NH3) [57], ammonia hydroxide (NH4OH) in combination with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) [58], NaOH in combination with Ca(OH)2 (lime) [59], and NaOH in combination with H2O2 [60]. Alkaline pretreatment is basically a delignification process. It disrupts the cell wall of SCB by (1) dissolving hemicelluloses, lignin, and silica, (2) hydrolyzing uronic and acetic esters, and (3) swelling cellulose under mild conditions. This process results in two fractions, a liquid (hemicellulose oligomers and lignin) and a solid fraction (cellulose). Table 4 depicts the composition of lignin in SCB and pretreated SCB with NaOH. It shows that the lignin content decreased when SCB was pretreated with NaOH for all different pretreatment conditions.
\nLignin (% w/w) | \nPretreatment conditions | \nReferences | \n|
---|---|---|---|
SCB | \nPretreated SCB | \n||
21.5 | \n10.6 | \n1.0% NaOH, 120°C, 10 min | \n[43] | \n
27.9 | \n9.2 | \n0.9% NaOH, 80°C, 2 h | \n[44] | \n
25.4 | \n7.8 | \n2% NaOH, 121°C, 30 min | \n[45] | \n
18.0 | \n1.8 | \n15% NaOH, 175°C, 15 min | \n[46] | \n
17.8 | \n4.3 | \n4% NaOH, 121°C, 30 min | \n[47] | \n
25.0 | \n9.0 | \n2.5% NaOH, 126°C, 45 min | \n[48] | \n
30.1 | \n18.5 | \n1.0% NaOH, 120°C, 60 min | \n[49] | \n
23.4 | \n5.2 | \n5% NaOH, 121°C, 60 min | \n[50] | \n
25* | \n6 | \n1% NaOH, 100°C, 30 min | \n[51] | \n
34.3* | \n5.7 | \n1% NaOH, 100°C, 1 h | \n[52] | \n
22.0 | \n9.5 | \n2.0% NaOH, 120°C, 40 min | \n[53] | \n
Composition of lignin in SCB and pretreated SCB.
Lignin content of SCB pretreated by steam explosion.
The physical structure and chemical composition of the substrate as well as the treatment conditions are important factors for the effectiveness of alkaline pretreatment. In general, alkaline pretreatment is more effective on hardwood, herbaceous crops, and agricultural residues with a low lignin content than on softwood with a high lignin content [61]. Although hydroxides are not expensive, the drawback of this process is that it consumes a lot of water for washing the sodium (or calcium) salts that incorporate into the biomass so that the treatment of a large amount of salts becomes a challenging issue for alkaline pretreatment. In addition, some enzyme inhibitors can be generated during lignin depolymerization [62]. In comparison with other pretreatment technologies, alkali pretreatment usually uses lower temperatures and pressures, even ambient conditions. Pretreatment time, however, is recorded in terms of hours such as 24 hours or days that are much longer than other pretreatment processes [63].
\nAlkaline pretreatments differ from acid pretreatments so that they are more efficient in lignin removal, substantially increasing cellulose digestibility, even after removing only part of the lignin. The hydrolysis of ester linkages between hemicellulose residues and lignin promotes an increase of porosity in the biomass, and as a result, cellulose and hemicellulose become more accessible to enzyme action [10, 64]. As this pretreatment results in a large fraction of both cellulose and hemicellulose to remain intact, it has the potential for hydrolysis of a much larger fraction of the pretreated biomass, releasing glucose from cellulose and additional pentose sugars from hemicellulose. In addition, this occurs in an environment free of strong acids and fermentation inhibitors. Under these conditions, the degradation of sugars is minimal [65]. Sodium hydroxide shows the greatest lignin degradation when compared to other alkalis, such as sodium carbonate, ammonium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and hydrogen peroxide.
\nLime (calcium hydroxide) pretreatment is another attractive alkali pretreatment technology due to the low formation of fermentation inhibitors, which increases pH and provides a low-cost alternative for lignin solubilization where the process is removing approximately 33% of lignin and 100% of acetyl groups. Even though the action of lime is slower than other pretreatments, lime is much cheaper than other alkalis and has low toxicity to the environment and safe handling [66]. The effectiveness of lime pretreatment in improving sugarcane bagasse susceptibility to enzymatic hydrolysis was studied by Rabelo et al. [54]. The result showed that lime pretreatment improved the enzymatic digestibility of SCB.
\nThe organosolv process is a delignification process, with varying simultaneous hemicellulose solubilization. The organosolv process uses organic or aqueous organic solvent mixtures with or without an acid or alkali catalysts to extract lignin from lignocellulosic biomass. Numerous organic solvent mixtures including methanol, ethanol, acetone, ethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, and tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol have been used. The advantages of ethanol as a solvent are that it is produced in many biorefineries. It is easily replenished and recycled as a solvent for the pretreatment process. Ethanol is also inexpensive and less toxic to humans compared to other solvents such as methanol [67].
\nThe ethanol organosolv process is among the chemical pretreatment being studied for the conversion of SCB to ethanol. In this pretreatment, high degrees of delignification can be achieved for SCB following ethanol organosolv pretreatment using formic acid as a catalyst. The degree of delignification increased with increasing pretreatment temperature. The maximum degree of delignification of sugarcane bagasse reached 80% at 210°C [68]. Mesa et al. [69] reported that the combination of a dilute-acid pretreatment followed by the organosolv pretreatment with NaOH at a temperature of 195°C for 60 min using 30% (v/v) was an efficient technique for SCB fractionation for the subsequent use on the enzymatic hydrolysis process, since yielded a residual solid material containing 67.3% (w/w) glucose. Novo et al. [70] showed that one of the best pretreatment conditions for lignin removal from SCB by the organosolv method could be achieved at 190°C and 150 min.
\nBeside ethanol, glycerol is an excellent solvent for organosolv pretreatment [71]. Glycerol, a high-boiling-point organic solvent derived from the oleochemical industry as a by-product has become very attractive. Martı́n et al. [72] studied the effect of glycerol pretreatment on the main components of SCB. The result shows that the glycerol acted more selectively on lignin than on xylan where cellulose was almost completely recovered in the pretreated solids, accounting for 72% (g/g) of the pretreated substrate. Meanwhile, Novo et al. [70] reported that the glycerol pretreatment attained good cellulose preservation (>91%) and 80% lignin removal. However, Zhang et al. [73] found that >96% of the cellulose was recovered, whereas the lignin and hemicellulose removal were almost 60 and 80%, respectively, when SCB was treated with an acid-catalyzed glycerol organosolv pretreatment.
\nSteam explosion is one of the most efficient methods to deconstruct the plant cell wall macromolecular organization [19, 74]. This process occurs both chemically and physically by revealing the lignocellulosic materials to high temperatures ranging from 160 to 260°C for reaction times varying from 2 to 30 min in the saturated steam either in the absence or presence of an exogenous acid or basic catalyst. The steam is able to expand the cell wall of the polysaccharide fiber and destroys cell structure into small pieces and breaks down the lignin network. This process would increase the accessibility of the enzyme to cellulose by exposing internal cellulose surface, which acetyl groups of hemicellulose can be hydrolyzed to acetic acid [75, 76]. The physical forces cause partial hemicellulose solubilization and lignin reorganization. The major variables that affect steam explosion pretreatment efficacy include biomass origin, particle size, temperature, residence time, and moisture content [77, 78].
\nWhen pretreatment is performed in the presence of an acid catalyst such as sulfuric (H2SO4) or phosphoric (H3PO4) acids, the need for time and temperature decreases substantially depending on the strength of the acid and its actual concentration in relation to the dry mass of the biomass. In addition, this process can remove hemicelluloses almost completely, whereas lignin is modified to a deeper extend, thus making the cellulosic materials more susceptible to enzymatic or acid hydrolysis [27, 74, 79]. There are several advantages of steam explosion pretreatment which includes lower environmental impact, cost-effectiveness, greater energy efficiency, and less or no chemical usage [22]. Also, to obtain the same particle size of the substrate, steam explosion method requires a 70% lower energy consumption compared to the conventional mechanical process [10]. The main drawbacks of steam explosion pretreatment are the partial degradation of hemicelluloses and the formation of toxic components that could affect the enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation process [76].
\nAccording to Sánchez et al. [80], liquid hot water (LHW) pretreatment is performed at various temperatures from 160 to 240°C in the liquid state with water instead of steam. The LHW process primarily maximizes the solubilization of hemicellulose, partial removal of lignin, and making cellulose more accessible to the enzyme. In addition, the formation of the undesirable side products in liquid fraction can be reduced due to solubilized hemicellulose mostly appears in oligomers forms [18]. The LHW pretreatment cleaves hemicellulose linkages and liberates various acids during the process. These acids help to hydrolyze hemicellulose to monomeric sugars, which can be subsequently degraded to aldehydes (i.e., furfural from five carbon sugars and HMF from six carbon sugars). LHW has a great potential to be chosen as a pretreatment step in the biorefinery process as it can be considered as a green technology [81].
\nDuring high temperature pretreatment processes, water molecules penetrate the biomass cell wall and hydrate cellulose, with the partial removal of hemicellulose and minor amount of lignin [82]. The advantage of using the neutral method compared to the dilute-acid and alkaline catalyzed pretreatments is to avoid the chemical use in excess, because pH close to neutral does not cause corrosion from occurring, and the formation of excess furans during sugar degradation reactions can be eluded. [83]. However, sugar release yields from LHW pretreated biomass are lower than diluted acid pretreated biomass, otherwise higher pretreatment temperature and longer residence time are required for comparable performance [84]. The LHW has a few advantages compared to other pretreatment methods such as no additional catalysts or chemicals, operates at relatively moderate temperature, high hemicelluloses recovery, low levels of inhibitory by-products and cost-effective [85].
\nTable 5 presents the comparison between the cellulose content before and after pretreatment of LHW and steam explosion. The temperature range used in LHW is around 170–200°C, whereas in steam explosion the temperature is in the range of 180–195°C. Compared to the untreated SCB, cellulose content increased in pretreated SCB for both LHW and steam explosion pretreatments. The LHW pretreatment of SCB led to an excellent preservation of glucan (cellulose) fraction [88]. Meanwhile, steam explosion with and aid of H2SO4 acid during pretreatment also increases the cellulose content in the pretreated SCB [91]. The increment of cellulose in pretreated SCB is related to the lignin removal during the pretreatment process either in LHW or steam explosion.
\nPhysico-chemical pretreatment | \nPretreatment conditions | \nCellulose content of SCB (%) | \nReference | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
Before pretreatment | \nAfter pretreatment | \n|||
Liquid hot water | \nTemp. 200°C, time 10 min, LSR 4 | \n39.5 | \n41.7 | \n[86] | \n
Temp. 200°C, time 30 min, LSR 10 | \n37.53 | \n53.02 | \n[87] | \n|
Temp. 180°C, time 20 min, LSR 9 | \n43.43 | \n66.53 | \n[88] | \n|
Temp. 170°C, time 60 min, LSR 3 | \n42.6 | \n48.5 | \n[89] | \n|
Steam explosion | \nTemp. 180°C, time 5 min, LSR 20 | \n42.8 | \n49.1 | \n[90] | \n
Temp. 190°C, time 10 min, LSR 10, impregnated with 4%(v/v) H2SO4 | \n50.7 | \n61.4 | \n[91] | \n|
Temp. 195°C, time 7.5 min | \n36.9 | \n62.8 | \n[92] | \n|
Temp. 190°C, time 15 min | \n43.1 | \n57.5 | \n[93] | \n
Cellulose content of SCB before and after pretreatment by LWH and steam explosion.
LSR: liquid solid ratio.
Biological pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is considered as an efficient, ecofriendly, and cheap alternative [94]. The biological pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is usually performed using cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic microorganisms. The commonly used microorganisms are filamentous fungi which are ubiquitous and can be isolated from the soil, living plants or lignocellulosic waste materials [95]. White-rot fungi have been reported as the most effective microorganisms for the pretreatment of most of the lignocellulosic materials [96]. These microorganisms degrade lignin through the action of lignin-degrading enzymes such as peroxidases and laccases [97]. Brown-rot fungi mainly attack cellulose, while white and soft rot fungi attack both cellulose and lignin [10]. Table 6 shows the type of fungal species commonly used in biological pretreatment. The biological pretreatment appears to be a promising technique and has very apparent advantages, including low-capital cost, low energy requirement, no chemical requirement, and mild environmental conditions. However, the main disadvantages are the long incubation time, low efficiency, considerable loss of carbohydrate requirement of careful control of growth conditions, and space restrain its applications [98].
\nType of fungus | \nFungal species | \n
---|---|
White rot | \n|
\n | |
\n | |
\n | |
Brown rot | \n|
\n | |
\n | |
Soft rot | \n
Type of fungal species commonly used in biological pretreatment.
Jiraprasertwong et al. [99] investigated the effect of different microbial strains on biological pretreatment of SCB for enzymatic hydrolysis. The results showed that the pretreatment with the white-rot fungus gave the highest glucose concentration around two-fold higher when compared with the others. Hernández et al. [100] reported that SCB pretreated with
There are several pretreatment methods available for SCB; however, the final choice for the selection of pretreatment methods depends upon the effective delignification or hemicellulose removal, low sugar loss, time savings, being economic, and causing less environmental pollution. Each pretreatment method has its own advantages and disadvantages. Instead of performing the chemical pretreatment alone, it is good to combine the pretreatment with other physico-chemical pretreatment such as steam explosion in order to improve the sugar yield and increase the lignin removal from SCB. The combination of pretreatment is a promising method to improve enzymatic hydrolysis and ethanol production from SCB.
\nThe authors are grateful to the Institute of Research Management and Innovation (IRMI) Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia for the financial support under LESTARI grant (600-IRMI/Dana KCM 5/3/LESTARI (105/2017) to carry out the research work on bioethanol.
\nThe need for weight-saving in the automotive and mass transportation sector, like trains and civil airplanes, has historically pushed the usage of magnesium, which, for shared knowledge, is the metallic material at the lowest density, nearly to dense polymers. But, much more effectively, magnesium alloys are characterized by very high specific strength. A long tradition and past knowledge of the magnesium industry accumulated from the 1970s till its Golden Age in the early 1980s. In those years, you could buy primary magnesium at its lowest price on the marketplace, and many bet that the turn against rival aluminum was just around the corner. However, the forecast high growth rate of the magnesium market has not succeeded yet.
Today, you can hear about big worries about magnesium:
It could be an unsafe material, susceptible to easy burning and explosion.
It has a high cost and poor availability on the market.
It has a high carbon footprint in the extractive, refining, and casting processes.
You could also add to the list a poor knowledge of the wrought alloys and their deformation processes and concerns about their poor corrosion and creep resistance. Those barriers prevented magnesium from competing with its main rival in weight-saving strategies in the transport sector, the aluminum metal. In the following, we try to give readers a more detailed view, considering that we have to know what we were in the past to get a keen comprehension of today’s concerns.
Most concerns about the magnesium market do not depend on geographical lack of raw material. Still, trade issues, production base, and export policies made primary production in Europe not competitive. The last primary production plant in Europe shut down in 2001 since European-based smelters could not compete with low-cost Chinese production. As a result, the availability of primary material is a genuine concern, as European demand depends mainly on China’s imports. Therefore, one main drawback for broader use in the automotive industry is the lack of a solid supply base with stable prices over a medium-term period combined with competitive magnesium production outside China. The last primary production plant in Europe shut down in 2001 since European-based smelters could not compete with low-cost Chinese production. As a result, the availability of primary material is a genuine concern, as European demand depends mainly on China’s imports. Therefore, one main drawback for broader use in the automotive industry is the lack of a solid supply base with stable prices over a medium-term period combined with competitive magnesium production outside China. But few people know which milestones were in the history of the magnesium market. Why did magnesium growth not meet reasonable expectations? Why did the material price increase and fluctuate after prolonged stability at the lowest price level targeted in the 1980s, the years of maximum Western production? What shaped today’s market structure based on perilous dependency on Chinese producers? In the following, we’ll try to give you a compass to never get lost in such a multifaced and complex market.
During First World War, Americans noticed the importance of magnesium for its strategic pyrotechnics application. Magnesium was the base of flares incorporated in rocket devices that, fired into the air, descended with a parachute, lighting the enemy’s corridor for several minutes. During the Interwar period, 1919–1939, the interest in strategic magnesium for national armaments industries rose worldwide (Table 1). The rise in the magnesium demand was pushed by lightweight structural applications. Alliances were surprised by the German Luftwaffe supremacy of the burning European skies. German airplanes were faster and capable of carrying unexpected bomb shipments. By studying some German planes that crashed, the British discovered that they contained a large percentage of magnesium alloys, the “Elektron metal” as the Germans called it. The weight-saving in German aircraft was the key to such a significant advantage in the European skies. Magnesium was instantly proclaimed as a strategic metal for the second time. The U.S. Government allocated all of the U.S. nation’s total production (at that time produced by Dow Chemical) to national defense. At the beginning of the Second World War, the production of magnesium was 33,500 tons, whereas 5 years later, magnesium production reached a peak of 426,000 tons [1].
Starting year | Process | Sources | Company | Region | Type |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1895 | I.G. Farbenindustrie | Seawater/brine | I.G. Farbenindustrie | Germany | Electrolytic |
1915 | Dow process | Seawater/brine | Dow Chemical | Midland, Michigan (USA) | Electrolytic |
1920 | Dow process | Fluoride material and magnesium oxide | American Magnesium Corporation (Alcoa) | California (USA) | Electrolytic |
1920 | Dow process | Seawater/brine | De Norske Saltverker AS | Bergen, Norway | Electrolytic |
1931 | I.G. Farbenindustrie’s technology | Dolomite/FeSi | National AluminiumMagnesium Institute (VAMI) USSR | Leningrad | |
1933 | I.G. Farbenindustrie’s technology | Dolomite/FeSi | Riken Metal Manufacturing Co. | Ube (Japan) | Thermal |
1935 | I.G. Farbenindustrie’s technology | Dolomite/FeSi | Government plant | Zaporozhye and Solikamsk (USSR) | Electrolytic |
1936 | I.G. Farbenindustrie’s technology | Dolomite/FeSi | Magnesium Electron Company (MEL) | United Kingdom | Electrolytic |
1941 | Dow process | Seawater | Dow | Freeport, Texas (USA) | Electrolytic |
1945 | I.G. Farbenindustrie’s technology | Brucite Mg (OH)2 | Aluminum Company of Canada (Alcan) | Arvida (Quebec) | Electrolytic |
1951 | I.G. Farbenindustrie’s technology | Seawater | Norsk Hydro | Porsgrunn, Norway | Electrolytic |
1959 | Pidgeon | Dolomite/FeSi | Alabama Metallurgical Corp. | Selma, Alabama (USA) | Thermal |
1960 | Pidgeon | Dolomite/FeSi | Furukawa Magnesium Corp. | Oyama (Japan) | Thermal |
1964 | Magnetherm | Dolomite/FeSi | Pechiney | Marignac (France) | Thermal |
1964 | Pidgeon | Dolomite/FeSi | Ube Kosan | Ube (Japan) | Thermal |
1969 | Modified IG I.G. Farbenindustrie’s technology | Brine | National Lead Industries (From 1980, facility operated by Amax Inc.; from 1989, facility operated by Magnesium Corp. of America. MagCorp) | Great Salt Lake, Utah (USA) | Electrolytic |
1970 | Modified IG I.G. Farbenindustrie’s technology | Dolomite/FeSi | AM Magnesium | Texas (USA) | Electrolytic |
1972 | Dow process | seawater | Dow Chemical | Texas (USA) | Electrolytic |
1974 | Amati-Ravelli | Dolomite/FeSi | Magnesium do Brasil | Ceara (Brasil) | Thermal |
1975 | Magnetherm | Dolomite/FeSi | Alcoa’s Northwest Alloys | Washington (USA) | Thermal |
1992 | Norsk Hydro | Magnesite | Norsk Hydro | Quebec (Canada) | Electrolytic |
1993 | VAMI/ UTI Technology (Russian) | Brine | Dead Sea magnesium | Israel | Electrolytic |
1994 | Alcan | Asbestos | Noranda | Canada | Electrolytic |
1997 | Alcan | Magnesite | Queensland Metals Corporation Limited | Australia | Electrolytic |
History of worldwide magnesium plants before 2000s.
Americans developed their own wrought and cast magnesium alloys. Enormous quantities of magnesium were put on military aircraft to curb the weight of liquid and air-cooled engines, wheels, oil tanks, frame structures, instrument housings, gyro frames, and many others. The jet-propelled prototype “Flying Wing” airplane was an aircraft bomber, designed for high speed and maneuverability, made primarily of magnesium (Figure 1a). It never entered service in favor of the B-36 bomber (Figure 1b) that used a total of 3800 kg of magnesium in castings, forgings, and sheets for airframe parts ad fuselage skin. At the same time, for civilian scope, commercial truck vehicle, body, and motor engine parts, benefited as well from the light-weighting that was made possible by magnesium. Magnesium alloys were extensively used in the airframe skin of the large airplane Convair XC-99 built by the U.S. Air force that remained in activity from the 1940s to 1950s. By 1948, the military aircraft Lockheed F-80C “Shooting Star” was the first American project for constructing a combat-ready jet fighter capable of exceeding 500 mph in level flight. One F-80C (47-171) constructed magnesium throughout, redesignated NF-80C-LO, is today visible at the United States Air Force Museum, Ohio (Figure 2).
(a) The “Flying Wing” airplane and (b) the B-36 bomber airplane.
The Lockheed F-80C is constructed of magnesium throughout, today visible at the United States Air Force Museum, Ohio.
However, following the end of the Second World War, military applications of magnesium lost their strategic importance. The magnesium extractive industry contracted to register a new peak demand in the early ‘50s because of the Korean War.
The production peak registered during Second World War drawn by U.S. national production was not surpassed until the ‘70s. Widespread post-war applications of magnesium would be expected in automobiles and civil aircraft to reduce engine weight and dynamic masses. Still, magnesium demand finally decreased till the ‘70s, not being sustained by aggressive market growth strategies. Magnesium soon revealed losing in front of the prominence of aluminum alloys. The significant factor restricting the growth of magnesium after wartimes can be researched—as a comparison—looking to a good lesson taught by the rival aluminum industry. The primary aluminum industry had a long tradition of cooperation. A group of pioneers in the European aluminum industry set up an “Aluminum Association” way back in 1901, just 15 years after the modern electrolysis smelting process patents of Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult. It was created to promote the widespread use of aluminum (at that time, aluminum was a pioneering material for few applications) to provide economic governance to the nascent aluminum market [2]. The Aluminum Association shared information on markets, feedback from customers on applications, on the quality of the metal. All those information was necessary to align demand requirements and supply features and to encourage the private sector’s investments. It was an observatory to analyze the market trends to make the use of aluminum alloys easier. Moreover, the Aluminum Association directed specific actions toward pricing policy based on stable selling prices to promote demand growth. This stability consolidated a nonspeculative market, and it allowed to plan a gradual and programmable extension of the productive capacities of big plants.
These efforts were not completely replicated in the nascent magnesium market to sustain post-war demand. It is true that a prominent American producer, the Dow company, broadened civilian markets by the ‘1950s. Precisely, the date 1954 was when the Dow company started the mass production of Samsonite Ultralite luggage bag, 20% lighter than other luggage bags, entering in operativity a mammoth large-scale magnesium sheet mill. At that time, several advancements in magnesium alloys were made. New coatings (anodic, electroless-Ni, and Cr-plating) were produced in the 1950s to protect the magnesium alloys from corrosion; viable ceramic and porcelain coatings for magnesium were developed, processes for cladding magnesium sheet and plate alloys with other magnesium alloys and aluminum.
At Dow company, people frequently told that Dow’s metallurgists within the 1960s probably had alloyed magnesium with any possible element with good wettability like Li, Al, Si, Ca, Mn, Cu, Zn, Sr, Y, Zr, Ag, and Rare Earth [3]. Researchers soon focused on the overall properties of a fabricated Mg-alloy component as a result of microstructure [4] finally realized by alloy chemistry and processing parameters to promote beneficial solid solution distribution, dispersoids, intermetallic precipitation by heat treatments, grain refining.
Corrosion behavior of Mg alloys developed was enormously improved by limiting impurities Fe, Ni, and Cu that largely influence corrosion resistance of Mg because of the formation (and dispersion) of micro-galvanic cells. New Mg-RE, Mg-Th, and Mg-Th-Zr high-temperature alloys were developed at the beginning of the ‘60s for use at temperatures of 200–350°C but were limited to their high costs to jet aircraft and military missiles. Following the first hot chamber die-casting process developed at Dow Chemical Company [5], further die-casting techniques were improved and widely used to make engine-driven tools (chain saws, post hole diggers, etc.). Researchers and metallurgy laboratories at magnesium companies provided many answers to questions about phase equilibria, alloying effects, and the relationship of structure and properties for their potential customers (casters, forgers, extruders). During the 1960s in Europe, 20,000–25,000 tons, supplied mainly by Norwegian Norsk Hydro, were being used in the Volkswagen Beetle’s air-cooled engine and gearbox. Those components were installed above and behind the rear wheels, and this required the German engineers to produce a drive system as light as possible so that the front wheels gripped the road adequately. The 1960s were also the Cold War years, and several magnesium sheets were used in the lightweight intercontinental ballistic missiles. A machined magnesium-lithium alloy LA 141 was chosen for its high stiffness, low weight, and sound vibration damping characteristics for manufacturing the chassis of the Launch Vehicle Digital Computer (LVDC) that provided the autopilot for the Saturn V, the liquid-fueled rocket developed under the Apollo program for human exploration of the Moon. High-temperature magnesium-thorium alloys in sheet and extrusion form constituted a large part of the large conical structure of the Retro-Rocket Modules of the Gemini spacecraft (the white-painted portions in Figure 3, just near the black-painted cone).
The Gemini spacecraft with the centered, white-painted portion in magnesium alloy.
However, it was symbolic of what president Roger Wheeler said at the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Magnesium Association (still, International Magnesium Association) in 1966. He said that the magnesium industry had failed in the previous 15 years to take its place as a fundamental industrial commodity metal in the U.S. [6]. At that time, magnesium consumption was one order less than forecast one decade earlier. The Magnesium Association recognized that the future of magnesium growth in North America could depend on the automotive market, and automotive engineers needed to lose their concerns about magnesium, following the example of Germans [7]. In Germany, likewise the air-cooled Volkswagen Beetle die-cast engines, in 1967 Porsche developed the 166 kg crankcase for their six-cylinder 911 series (Figure 4a), following visionary forecast in the post-wartime (Figure 4b).
(a) The Porsche 166 kg crankcase for the six-cylinder 911 series; (b) the November 1944 issue of Light Metal Age presented an image of “Tomorrow’s light metal car.” In the associated article, the writers talk about the use of aluminum and magnesium in the sleek-lined, spaced-aged cars of the future.
By the 1970s, developments were extended to new composite magnesium-based materials, new high-temperature magnesium alloys, new fluxing methods, squeeze casting, recycling methods, and new anodizing processes for magnesium [8]. They were good news for the magnesium industry, but, in reality, in the middle 1970s, world demand for magnesium was about not more than 2% of the aluminum. Economic uncertainties by the oil crisis caused the rapid decrease in sales of the Beetle caused German automakers to curtail magnesium consumption [9]. Despite aluminum pricing that remained steady, the rising magnesium price made aluminum much more competitive. Whether during the late 1970s and beginning 1980s, the need for cutting fuel cost of automobiles could represent an opportunity for the magnesium industry, desulphurization and deoxidation of steel were (unfortunately) still considered the most favorable growth market for magnesium [10]. Magnesium for aluminum alloying was expanding market sector as it consumed almost half of the magnesium production, and it was expected to grow at about 5% per year, while some other markets such as desulphurization and die casting were expected to grow more rapidly [10]. Many efforts were made by researchers to develop high-performance alloys for automotive applications to curb as much weight as possible from massive engine blocks, including advanced rapidly solidified magnesium alloys [11] and magnesium alloy composites [12].
Over the second half of the 1980s and early 1990s years, the period was a time of great ferment for magnesium potentialities in the automotive sector [8]. The dominant technology for magnesium production was still electrolysis with giant plants, and the leading producer countries were the United States, Canada, and Norway. Die casting consumption with different magnesium die-cast components in automobile sectors drove the significant annual growth rate of North America—thus more or less the total world magnesium demand at that time. General Motors die-casted in a single-shot, a large part an instrument panel beam for the GMC Savana and Chevrolet Express van. It was a 12 kg part 4 mm thick, which provided 32% mass saving compared to the steel design with improved crashworthiness and high vibration damping. It was less costly thanks to a few parts assemblies, 25 parts in the magnesium design compared to the 67-parts in the steel-made product [13]. To shape much more complex parts made of magnesium, in 1991, the Dow Company registered the Patent for a method and apparatus for the injection molding of magnesium metal, a process based on the foundation of the fundamental discoveries on semi-solid metals by Flemings and his students at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT [14].
During that golden age for magnesium, the US Dow Company increased its almost monopolistic control of the magnesium market thanks to the economy of scale of its giant and old electrolytic plants powered by low-cost power sources available in Texas. In 1991 Dow could produce 109,000 tons per year, namely around 35% of the world’s entire output. But the cost of making magnesium in Texas began to rise gradually as the time of cheap natural gas ended. With almost 20 kW-h of electricity to produce a kilogram of magnesium, a lot of power was available, but all that power had been contracted for by the big aluminum producers like Alcoa, Kaiser, and Reynolds [3]. The old Dow plant became soon antiquated, and to stay in business at a competitive level, the most significant World producer would have had to build a new efficient plant, as planned at the Great Salt Lake, a project that never started. Factors leading to Dow’s success, and that driven till the early 1990s all magnesium market, have been: early entry, cost efficiency, and strategic deterrence behavior [3]. The biggest world’s magnesium producer started to hand over its 60 years of harvests by the early 1970s when Dow began to reap the benefits of its magnesium business rather than investing beyond its old plants in Texas. Dow company switched from a “limit pricing” strategy originally designed to deter entry to a “skim pricing” type of strategy that ultimately sacrificed the firm’s viability as a magnesium producer [15].
Unlike Dow, other dominant firms have opted to expand tactically in related industries (e.g., DuPont in titanium dioxide and Alcoa in aluminum before 1945). One potential explanation is that Dow’s cost advantage was not sustainable. Dow’s production process benefited from years of incremental improvements but was not fundamentally different from the technology potentially available to others [15]. The Dow big electrolytic plants worked at an efficient scale in the decades after wartime characterized by modest demand for magnesium, and there were substantially no further opportunities for new efficient-scale plants until the U.S. But a radical change, as depicted, started with an automotive interest in magnesium at the beginning of the 1990s. Magnesium would switch its position in the marketplace from a specialty material with one dominant producer with considerable knowledge accumulated in 60 years into a commodity product with a competitive global market [15].
The rest of the story is like what happened to dominant Western countries firms in similar markets for commodity products. As the Cold War ended around 1990 and as the Chinese economic reform entered its Second Stage (the establishment of the Socialist Market Economy), individual Chinese enterprises were allowed to exist and to be protected by the law of the People’s Republic of China. The primary market forces began to shift very rapidly in Western countries. In China, a multiplicity of low-investment production plants with the Pidgeon process were building at the minor technology scale. Hundreds of those plants based on a very high labor-intensive process were set up and ramped up very rapidly, in a few months, producing per capita just a few hundred metric tons per year. There was no Chinese knowledge at that time about magnesium alloying and alloys applications; those plants needed just to sell primary magnesium to the Western countries at almost their marginal cost. This new situation created confusion in the not-stabilized marketplace [3]. However, it is a fact that the Pidgeon process produced a significant amount of World War II magnesium. Those Pidgeon plants during wartime could not compete with the electrolytic process.
On the contrary, in the 1990s, when small Chinese plants started to supply 4% of the world’s magnesium, Chinese labor cost was very low. In that period, Chinese-made magnesium was sold at about 0.72 USD/lb. while Dow’s production cost was not less than 1.08 USD/lb. That magnesium price had been starting to crush the marketplace, a problem that never ended till that time. By far, the principal use of magnesium, almost 50%, that year was recorded in alloying the large numbers in the aluminum beverage cans sector, in which magnesium was (and is) used as a strengthening agent instead of in structural alloys for engineering applications.
Very soon, China, with its low prices, supplied 50% of World magnesium demand (Figure 5), becoming the world’s largest supplier of primary magnesium. Between 2000 and 2010, magnesium production in China tripled, mainly due to the high costs of the process in the USA, Canada, France, and Norway. Most of the big magnesium plants in those countries were closed due to lower competitiveness. Despite the establishment of duties that could reduce imports, U.S. producers of magnesium began to exit the market. In 1998, Dow Chemical decided to leave the magnesium business, contracting a licensing deal for its technology to Samaj, a Pima Mining’s subsidiary, for the South Australian magnesium project. Northwest Alloys Inc. closed its plant in Washington by 2001. Renco Metals Inc., the Magnesium Corporation of America parent, filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy in August 2001. In the same year, Norsk Hydro ended magnesium production in Norway, and after 6 years, in 2007, it ended its operation at Becancour, Canada. Noranda, which operated in Quebec the Magnolia electrolytic magnesium plant relied on serpentine tails from nearby asbestos mines, closed the smelter in 2003.
Evolution of magnesium production per region (1990–2017) [
By 2015, more than 80% of the world’s magnesium production took place in China, followed by Russia, Israel, and Kazakhstan, with only a few percent market share. In 2021, due to curbs in domestic power consumption, Chinese production of magnesium had been halted or curtailed to such an extent that deliveries to Europe have drastically dropped since 20 September 2021. In the second half of 2021, in the world’s main magnesium production hubs, Shaanxi and Shanxi Provinces, 25 magnesium plants would have to shut down. Five other plants had to cut production by 50% amid China’s power curbing rollout. With an 87% global share in magnesium production, the Chinese supply shortfall has already resulted in record prices, reaching the never recorded price of 6 Eur per kg and a worldwide global distortion in the supply chain.
The dependency on Chinese producers has created magnesium users worldwide a deadly embrace. Fluctuant prices over the 2000s depend on Chinese supplies. From the end of 2007 to the end of the first quarter of 2008, the average U.S. spot Western price increased significantly, as in China and Europe. Several factors contributed to these price escalations. In the United States, a decline in imports from Russia and Canada, two of the leading import sources, caused a supply shortage on the spot market. In China, increased prices for ferrosilicon, power, and transportation were causes for the rapid price increase [1]. In addition, environmental crackdowns by the Government of China may have led to shutdowns at some smaller and highly pollutant Pidgeon plants. In the United States, the Platts Metals Week U.S. spot Western price range reached a peak of USD 3.50 to USD 3.70, while in China, the magnesium price range reached a high of USD 5950 to USD 6250 per metric ton. The increased production cost of Chinese magnesium is firmly attributed to higher prices for raw material (main ferrosilicon), decreased production due to stricter environmental regulations at smelters and coal mines, increased labor costs, and an increase in coal power cost. Table 2 represents the cost-shares breakdown of primary magnesium and significant differences between the old Western big electrolytic plant and the small Pidgeon plants powered by coal, primary actors of national magnesium production expansion in the first decade of the 2000s.
Electrolytic reduction (Western) (%) | Thermal reduction (China Pidgeon, coal-powered) (%) | |
---|---|---|
Materials | 6 | 50 |
Capital | 37 | 20 |
Energy | 18 | 8 |
Labour | 16 | 5 |
Other | 24 | 17 |
Total | 100 | 100 |
Cost shares breakdown of primary magnesium and significant differences existing among the old Western big electrolytic plant and the small Pidgeon plants.
Though the raw material cost is essential, price stability is a much more relevant factor. For this reason, several projects are currently being developed to increase primary magnesium production capacity worldwide. In Nevada, United States, one company has obtained permission to build a pilot plant to test magnesium production from a dolomite deposit. In Quebec, Canada, a company started the construction of a secondary magnesium smelter. A company in Australia with a 3000 ton per year plant is going to be completed; it will recover magnesium from coal fly ash [17].
Now, let us go a bit in-depth about price concerns.
On the one hand, manufacturers are under the constant pressure of product costs that must be affordable; on the other hand, they cannot easily justify the use of bright material characterized by a (historical) uncertainty of supply over a medium-term period. Figure 6 shows the price history of magnesium metal (US Market spot price) relative to magnesium and aluminum [USGS Bulletins]. On that source, it is crucial to notice that the ratio between magnesium and (primary) aluminum price has been over the ratio of 1.6, which is generally considered the affordable price ratio for magnesium versus aluminum, usually calculated by the inverse ratio densities of the two materials.
Yearly average U.S. market spot price for aluminum and magnesium [
On the other hand, it would be more appropriate to consider the switching cost for each kg of steel that you would substitute with the alternative light metal for the same function. Table 3 represents a viability study on the structural application of light metal alloy for manufacturing the automobile outdoor body panel that shall guarantee equal (or higher) stiffness and denting capability. To evaluate whether it is technically convenient to replace galvanized mild steel with lighter aluminum and magnesium metal alloys for stamping an outer door panel of a road vehicle, we need to know for alternative lightweight scenarios the substitution factors that are defined as the mass ratio between the lightweight (aluminum and magnesium) and the baseline (steel) component. The mass is obtained by multiplying the material density by the volume of the panel. Otherwise, the outer door panel volume is obtained by the front area of the panel that is usually fixed due to geometry constraints (e.g., the perimetral geometry defined by screen and center pillars) and the thickness of the panel sheet cold drawn. Furthermore, it is a multiple constraints problem: it is a strength-limited design problem with constraints in terms of the same (or higher) dent resistance and same (or higher) flexural stiffness of the panel. Under these circumstances, substitution factors for an aluminum alloy AA 5083 sheet cold drawn ranges 0.5–0.6, for a magnesium alloy AZ31D twin rolled cast sheet warm stamped ranges 0.4–0.5 (refer again to Table 3).
Baseline | Lightweight solutions | ||
---|---|---|---|
AISI 1045 steel | Aluminum 6061 | AZ31D twin rolled cast sheet, warm formed | |
Density [g/cm3] | 7.8 | 2.7 | 1.8 |
Yield strength (minimum) [N/mm2] | 350.0 | 250.0 | 135.0 |
Elastic modulus | 210.0 | 70.0 | 45.0 |
thickness for bending load parity and stiffness [mm] | 0.8 | 1.2 | 1.3 |
Strength-to-weight ratio (kNm/kg) | 44.9 | 91.2 | 75.0 |
Minimum thickness to achieve bending load parity with galvanized steel [mm] | — | 1.2 | 1.3 |
Minimum thickness to achieve stiffness parity to galvanized steel [mm] | — | 0.9 | 1.3 |
Panel mass [kg] | 15.9 | 8.1 | 6.2 |
Substitution factor (SF) | 1.0 | 0.5 | 0.4 |
Weight saved in percentage with lightweight solution | 0% | 49% | 61% |
Current production cost (Eur/kg) | 0.9 | 3.3 | 6.5 |
Elastic module [GPa] | 210.0 | 70.0 | 45.0 |
Switching cost per each kg steel substituted with an alternative metal for the same function, equivalent stiffness, and load (denting) capability, calculated as (price of 1 kg material) × SF: [Eur] | 0.9 | 1.7 | 2.5 |
Material unitary cost for steel parity, calculated as (unitary steel price)/SF: [Eur/kg] | 0.9 | 1.8 | 2.3 |
Feasibility study about the affordability of lightweight solutions with aluminum and magnesium alloy for an outdoor body panel for the automobile; comparison with baseline steel scenario.
Thus, by calculating the material substitution factor for each light metal considered, we would evaluate how much is the switching cost of each kg of steel when it is substituted with 0.6 kg aluminum alloy or with 0.4 kg magnesium alloy. Table 3 shows the switching costs per kg of steel in the case of both aluminum and magnesium solutions. Much more interesting is the line indicating the “steel parity” unitary material price (Euro/kg) for the outdoor panel: it represents how much it should be the unitary price for an alternative material to manufacture the body panel at the exact cost of the baseline case, the steel made pan.
Hence, the big question: is the steel parity cost the unique parameter to consider if magnesium is attractive as light material?
Nowadays, the transportation sector impacts around 25% of direct CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion. Among the variety of transportation means, road vehicles, particularly passenger cars and freight vehicles such as heavy trucks, busses, and two-wheelers, are estimated by the International Energy Agency (IEA), accounting for nearly three-quarters of transport CO2 emissions. Although CO2 emissions from aviation and shipping have been increasing in the last decade, the road share of total transport sector emissions has fluctuated around 75% of total transport emissions for two decades. If several efforts and advancements have been made in road-vehicle electrification, otherwise larger (and heavier) vehicles are still preferred by lots of consumers. The worldwide market share of SUVs has increased in the last two decades, and in 2019, before the pandemic crisis, it represented nearly half of the global light-duty vehicle market in several countries. Growing demand for the urban transport of goods is rising, adversely affecting air quality, noise, safety, and liveability in the city. The automotive sector has been putting efforts for reversing CO2 emissions growth by several strategies; one of those strategies focuses on energy efficiency countermeasures that would be implemented in the form of:
managing/rationalizing travel habits to reduce the frequency and/or distance switching from high-energy-intensity modes (e.g., private car and or air) to most efficient methods (i.e., train for traveling long distances plus rented new efficient vehicles on local base).
deploying energy-efficient technologies for vehicles and fuels.
more stringent requirements on vehicle efficiency, namely, power consumption per km.
The latter strategy is thought a valuable approach for accompanying market migration from heavy vehicles powered by combustion engines fueled by gasoline toward cleaner electrified cars that could be likely powered by near-zero-emission electricity. During vehicle operation, the fuel consumption rate can be approximated as the sum of a linear function of the vehicle mass and—as a second contribution—the loss in aerodynamic drag; both of them through coefficients that depends on several vehicle characteristics. Strategies approaching weight reduction are actually most effective during transient driving cycles; instead, during constant speed traveling, the vehicles’ fuel efficiency mostly depends on aerodynamic drag forces. Global average fuel consumption of new cars has been too slowly decreased, less than 2% per year, setting around 7 L gasoline equivalent per 100 km (Lge/100 km). To get on track with 2030 targeted 4.5 Lge/100 km, expected standards will become significantly more stringent to achieve efficiency goals. In 2021 the European Commission proposed new CO2 emissions targets for 2030 and 2035 that require CO2 emissions reductions of half actual emissions for cars and vans.
Despite wide literature on life cycle assessment of on-road vehicles considers fossil fuel-powered vehicles, a similar approach is being deployed in the case of electric motor-powered vehicles (considering the energy efficiency of kWh per km traveled) or hydrogen-gas fueled road vehicles (considering hydrogen gas supplied to fuel cell unit per km traveled). Precisely for fully electric cars, the weight of full-electric vehicles is a sum of the mass of the vehicle’s architecture and the mass of battery packs. Thus, its common sense considering that the travel range represents for the consumers the independence from the plug-in commences with battery size. That’s the Achille’s heel of plugged-in vehicles for fossil-fueled vehicle buyers. On the one hand, travel range increases with battery capacity, but on the other hand, larger battery capacity means a heavier vehicle to travel.
While vehicle downsizing improvements in fuel efficiency could be achieved, it appears in contrast with buyers’ needs; thus, reducing size for reducing mass could not target a competitive strategy for automakers.
For this reason, a weight-saving strategy primarily implemented by extensive use of lightweight materials—better to say, by higher specific strength—is, therefore, most promising for pursuing consumers’ satisfaction. Meanwhile, environmental aspects are successfully addressed, as they cannot be deferrable. It has been estimated that a 10% of vehicle weight curbing increases the vehicle’s fuel efficiency by nearly 7%. But the ability to introduce new lightweight materials into vehicles is not a simple remove-and-replace process. Concerns about the impact of material changes on manufacturing lines, supplying network reliability, material cost stability, secure material availability in the marketplace are the main drivers in the material-shift decision process as they all could be more important for automakers than the percentage of weight saved. The potentiality of any lightweight scenarios steered by material replacement rates is based on the actual capability of lighter but weaker materials to safely replace heavier but stronger ferrous alloys, like steels and cast irons. As shown in Table 3, the weight-saving potentialities of lighter material depends on the specific substitution factor for the specific function, and it’s a fact that the materials substitution factor strongly depends on: the physical properties of the material (e.g., its density and its elastic module as key-factor impacting on stiffness-limited design), the shaped part mechanical properties that are strongly dependent on the shaping process employed (e.g., fatigue limit obtained by cold pressure die-casting operations is different from fatigue limit obtained with low-pressurized die-casting), the geometrical constraints fixed by design (e.g., limited space of fixed boundaries to frame architecture).
As it is usual for any comparative analysis, we need a baseline and parameter to use in the calculation of data output to compare. The fuel consumption reduction coefficient is conventionally used as a measure of fuel-mass correlation. It provides the saving in specific consumption achieved through a 100 kg weight-saving. Recent literature set in the range 0.3–0.5 L/(100 km × 100 kg), varying with modeling assumptions, such as vehicle class, car model, driving cycle, the fuel consumption reduction coefficient for internal combustion engine vehicles [19], and values in the range of 0.47–1.17 kWh/(100 km × 100 kg) for electric vehicles [20].
But there is always a “but”; light-weighting is not a stand-alone measure whether its motivation is pollution curbs [21]. The extractive metallurgy (mining and refining) of nonferrous structural metals that are highly reactive toward oxygen like aluminum, titanium, and magnesium is complicated due to their low grade. The high complexity of the ore extraction and the energy-intensive pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical processes employed for pure metal refining are critical stages for the potential release of gas, liquid, and solid emissions (i.e., direct pollutant emissions) and for a large amount of CO2 emissions correlated to lots of energy consumed (i.e., indirect pollutant emissions). In the next sections, we’ll go into details, but for the moment, we can summarize by this way:
light nonferrous alloys are the cleaner solution in their usage phase in the transport sector because they can target a consistent weight curb capable of reducing direct emissions at the tailpipe of fossil-fueled vehicles. For internal combustion engine vehicles with average tailpipe emissions near 120 gCO2/km, assuming 2.4 KgCO2 emitted al tailpipe per liter gasoline burned, it can be calculated to reduce by 100 kg onboard vehicle mass, nearly 1.2 kgCO2 is the pollution cut per 100 km traveled.
The direct CO2 curb obtained in the usage phase could be reduced (sometimes nullified) by the sum of pollution (direct and indirect) emitted during the extractive phase, the refining process, and the manufacturing of the lighter products. For example, on average, the greenhouse gases emitted as equivalent CO2 per kg of product manufactured can vary from 2.0 to 2.5 kgCO2eq per each kg of steel made products and 12.0–16.0 kgCO2eq per each kg of aluminum products.
Therefore, a broad vision must encompass the net CO2 emissions over the road vehicle lifespan.
A qualitative scheme representing the green ability of light alloys against heavier metal, such as steel, is depicted in Figure 7. The baseline case (1) represents a reference, for example, a body panel made of galvanized plain carbon steel. For the steel-made product, the total CO2 emitted over the product’s lifespan is the sum of the CO2 (direct and indirect) emitted during the manufacturing stage and the usage phase (traveling). By replacing steel-made products with lighter metal alloy (2), we shall consider more pollutant emissions in the fabricating stage. For this reason, the break-even point T1 versus the baseline scenario (1) could be targeted at the T1 traveled distance. The beneficial effect of weight saving is visible by the gray shaded area from T1 to the expected vehicle lifespan representing the net CO2 curb by lightweight solution. Case (3) represents the use of much lighter material (due to the reduced slope of the line), but with higher CO2 emitted in the manufacturing stage as per the higher linear coefficient of the line (3). In this second scenario, the break-even point switches to the higher T2 mileage. The difference between the two shaded areas represents the net CO2 cut for alternative weight-saving scenarios (2) and (3) compared to the baseline scenario (1).
Three qualitative scenarios for addressing the environmental impact of automotive body panels over the product lifespan.
We refer again to Table 3. On average, you may consider 0.5 the aluminum substitution factor applicable in structural engineering applications, thus 100 kg of steel (that accounts for around 230 kgCO2 for the manufacturing stage) would be potentially replaced by approximately 50 kg of aluminum, which accounts for about 700 kgCO2eq emitted in the manufacturing phase. On the other hand, referring to the schematic representation in Figure 7, aluminum onboard would potentially save 50 kg. Now you can account for nearly 0.2 gramCO2, the pollution cut per kg of weight saved and per each km traveled. Putting onboard an internal combustion engine-powered vehicle 50 kg aluminum to replace steel, we would cut around 5.95 gCO2 per km traveled.
Now, we can proceed with a further step.
The net CO2 emissions from the aluminum-steel switch account for around 470 kgCO2eq emitted in the “cradle-to-gate” phase (including extractive, refining, alloying, and manufacturing stages). Aluminum bodies shall travel onboard around 78,000 km to achieve the break-even point, namely the traveling distance necessary to offset the 470 kgCO2 extra emissions over the steel-made bodies (the baseline scenario). The environmental sustainability of the lighter solution is therefore strongly influenced by the environmental impact of the raw material fabrication phase, mostly the extractive stage. For that reason, intensive use of recycled patterns to limit the use of primary (virgin) metal for such energy-intensive lightweight alloys is the key to excellent sustainable use of light alloys on-road vehicles. And what about magnesium products? Former data about the carbon footprint of magnesium production have indicated an extensive range of 37–47 kgCO2eq/kg of magnesium [22]. With such numbers, many still consider magnesium from a technical point of view an exciting opportunity to implement lightweight strategies but an unsound option for a cross-cutting greening approach. It would be effortless to calculate whether 37 kgCO2eq is the carbon footprint per kg of magnesium to put onboard for replacing 1.6 kg of steel, the CO2 emitted for the manufacturing phase could be “absorbed”, traveling for a lot, above 200,000 km. What are the reasons for such a high carbon footprint of magnesium metallurgy? And shall we consider those numbers still valid today? We’ll try to get an answer to those questions in the following sections.
There are two primary sources of direct and indirect pollutant emissions in the magnesium industry. The first source is correlated to high reactivity with the oxygen of magnesium when molten. In the air, molten magnesium is coated with an oxide layer, which, in contrast to the aluminum oxide layer, cannot protect highly reactive magnesium from oxygen. It is true that molten aluminum, too, is highly reactive with oxygen. However, the alumina layer that instantaneously forms on liquid metal in oxygen is dense and not permeable to further oxygen. The magnesium oxide layer formed during melting is characterized by low density. The Pilling–Bedworth number (PBR) explains the high-temperature oxidation behavior of different metals and their oxides [23] by the ratio between the molar volume of oxide and the molar volume of metal. This volume change is responsible for varying types of surface stress in the oxide layer.
For PBR <1, tensile stress on the oxide layer promotes the layer to crack: that’s what happens in molten magnesium metal. When the PBR is equal to 1 (the better situation with PBR above 1), it represents a safe condition. Sound compressive stresses develop in the thin dense, and stable oxide layer, protecting the molten metal from the outer atmosphere. This happens for iron, aluminum, titanium, and other metals. Unfortunately, this does not apply to magnesium. Emley [24] found that up to 450°C, magnesium forms a protective magnesium oxide layer, but it becomes porous and non-protective over 450°C. The high reactivity with oxygen causes magnesium to easily ignite and endangers the workers and the production line.
The time to ignition depends on the magnesium alloy composition [23, 25]. The real big problem of flame ignition in magnesium is that the oxidation reaction is highly exothermic. Magnesium oxide, white powder, creates a net release of energy in the form of heat. Magnesium ignited burns with flame at more than 2000°C; thus, no crucible can resist if the flame is not extinguished. Furthermore, magnesium atoms are also capable of reducing water to the highly flammable hydrogen gas by the reaction Mg(s) + 2H2O → Mg (OH)2(s) + H2(g); meanwhile, hydrogen gas could be easily ignited by the excess heat given by the magnesium reduction reaction. Magnesium metal can also react with carbon dioxide when present in the atmosphere to promote and sustain magnesium oxide formation accordingly with the following: Mg(s) + CO2 → 2MgO(s) + C(s). For this reason, conventional carbon dioxide fire extinguishers cannot be used for extinguishing magnesium fires (required Class D dry chemical fire extinguisher or covering the fire with sand to remove air source).
This hazardous behavior of magnesium metal is therefore historically correlated to conditions that lead to flame ignition of molten magnesium or magnesium in the form of powder, ribbon, thin strips, and foils, namely those fine structure forms that can be quickly heated up just by relatively low heating source, for example by friction. The highly exothermic oxidation reaction could bring explosive hazards in the presence of moisture when flame ignition is not adequately managed by specific knowledge and expertise. For these reasons, particularly in the presence of molten magnesium (for example, during cast shaping), fluorine-based compounds, such as SF6, for protection of molten magnesium have been used since the 1930s [26]. Before introducing SF6, magnesium was protected with alkali metal halide fluxes, sulfur dioxide (SO2), or even elemental sulfur. The decomposition and following reaction between the fluorine and liquid magnesium keeps separate highly reactive molten magnesium from oxygen. On the one hand, these reactions are thought capable of creating on the molten metal surface an elastic, nonporous protective film containing MgO and MgF2 with a Pilling-Bedworth ratio larger than 1 [27]. On the other hand, significant impact is ascribable to the use of SF6 as a cover gas. The SF6 environmental impact has been calculated to be 22,800 kg CO2eq/kg of SF6 used (in other words, 22,800 times greater than 1 kg of CO2 emitted). Usually, 1 kg of SF6 is required as cover gas per ton of melting magnesium, resulting in a 22,800 kg CO2 equivalent per kilogram of melt magnesium. In Europe, SF6 is banned, while in the United States, its use is optional for the industry.
To present date, banded SF6 has been substituted by less impacting hydrofluorocarbons such as HFC-134a, however, considered a greenhouse gas but much less impacting. A much lower impact is for sulfur dioxide, but it presents limits for its toxicity and its corrosive properties. Usually, a specific blend of them is used. Recently the Novec 612 fluid—registered by the 3 M Company— promises a meager global warming potential (GWP, expressed as kgCO2eq/kg product) of 1, equivalent to CO2. Furthermore, to limit the intense use of protective substances, an old approach recently proposed consists of adding unique alloying elements to improve the ignition resistance of magnesium alloys. In the past, Emley [24] claimed that additions of small amounts of Be, Al, and Ca enhanced the oxidation resistance of solid Mg alloy near the melting point. Such magnesium alloys could be melted in the air if the oxide skin on the ingot was not broken. Sakamoto et al. [28] verified the oxide film on the Mg-Ca consists of a CaO surface thin layer, and just below this layer, a mixture of MgO-CaO exists. To date, the main reason for this protective effect from Ca-O is not clarified. One prominent hypothesis embraces the PBR rule. The higher thermodynamic stability of Ca-O added oxide layer and the kinetics of the diffusion and reaction of Mg ion at and through the oxide layer formed by a mixture of MgO and CaO. When the oxide layer consists of a combination of MgO and CaO, the large volume of CaO might compensate for the shrinkage due to MgO formation. Phenomena involved in retarding flame ignition in Mg alloys systems when alloyed with Ca, Be, and Y has been studied for years but not wholly clarified today.
To summarize, reasonable and sustainable practices are available today in the marketplace to safely treat magnesium and significantly reduce the pollutant emissions in handling molten magnesium in foundries.
But the second source of pollution for the magnesium industry, much more relevant and challenging to control, depends on the vast amount of energy necessary for the magnesium extractive and refining phase, namely the primary magnesium fabrication. There are only a few processes available for the primary magnesium fabrication as they are based on sources of the raw materials by which magnesium can be extracted: raw materials ores (such as dolomite, magnesite, hydroxide mineral brucite, halide mineral carnallite) and brine, which is a mainly a highly concentrated water solution of common salts like hydrated magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate and magnesium bromide, whose preferred reservoirs are the higher concentrated seawater such as the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. By the way, magnesium raw material sources are considered practically inexhaustible, as magnesium is the 4th abundant metal in the Hearth crust, following iron, aluminum, and silicon. Moreover, inexhaustibility is properly true for seawater reservoirs of magnesium chloride salts. Depending on the type of magnesium source employed, we can distinguish two prominent process patterns to produce magnesium metal: (a) the electrolysis of fused anhydrous magnesium chloride obtained by various refining upstream processes (e.g., dehydration of magnesium chloride brines or chlorination of magnesium oxide) and (b) the thermal reduction of magnesium oxide by ferrosilicon derived from carbonate ores. Today’s electrolytic processes are mainly based on the oldest and original Dow process employing seawater as a primary magnesium source.
The Dow process was developed in the first decade of the twentieth century, as the USA started an extensive magnesium production for military scopes. Electrolytic cells are vessels equipped with multiple steel cathodes and graphite anodes partially submerged in the dehydrated molten salt electrolyte. They generally operate to temperatures from 680 to 750°C to develop the basic reaction: MgCl2 → Mg (liquid metal) + Cl2 (gas). While the Dow process was starting and ramping up US national production, Germans continued investigating carbo-chlorination of magnesite to produce liquid anhydrous magnesium chloride. During those years, when the second peak of magnesium demand rose, Canadian scientist Lloyd Montgomery Pidgeon developed the thermal process for reducing magnesium oxide with silicon in externally heated retorts. Silicon is generally obtained by ferrosilicon ores, and it is produced in an arc furnace, mixed with calcined dolomite, and then briquetted. The briquettes are placed in a retort and heated to extract magnesium vapors condensed at the cold end of the retort with a relatively small diameter. The process is a batch process. It requires metal to be removed from the condensers, slag to be evacuated as a solid, and finally, it is possible to recharge the retort. Thus, the Pidgeon process has reduced the productivity of magnesium per day compared to big electrolytic cells plants. We would simplify the basic reaction as: 2CaO + 2MgO + Si → 2Mg + Ca2SiO4. It is an endothermic reaction, and a large amount of heat must be applied to initiate it and continue.
Therefore, the Pidgeon main environmental problem is the combustible used for firing furnace; oil or gas are commonly used for the scope. Former literature ascribed to oil firing the high environmental impact of polluting emissions, ranging from 37 to 47 kgCO2eq/kg of Mg extracted [22].
Another thermal process, the Bolzano process, like the Pidgeon process, employs the dolomite-ferrosilicon briquettes. Briquettes are stacked on a unique charge support system through which internal electric heating is conducted to the charge. In that case, most carbon emissions are drawn by the indirect carbon emissions of the energy mix used. Depending on the electricity carbon footprint on a local base, the Bolzano process ranges from 13 to 33 kgCO2eq/kg of Mg depending on the local electricity share produced by hydropower [29].
In brief, we can summarize. On the one hand, the Pidgeon process advantage consists of low investments to recoup, fewer constraints on the minimum size to be profitable, short time for facility construction, equipment installation, and plant ramp-up, flexible production. On the other hand, it suffers from low productivity, high labor requirement, and high energy consumption.
But to reply to the big question: Are the environmental concerns about magnesium extractive processes still valid today? It is necessary to ponder data from the most recent life cycle assessment studies committed to an in-depth investigation of magnesium green ability. In 2013, the International Magnesium Association (IMA) published the study “Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Magnesium Components in Vehicle Construction” which analyzed the entire life cycle of magnesium components for transport applications [30]. The study addressed primary magnesium production, alloying, component production, use phase, and the end-of-life of magnesium components, particularly for passenger vehicles comparing differences in emissions among Pidgeon process employed in small factories during the first decade of the 2000s with the most recent Pidgeon process practiced in larger plants. The worst numbers in former LCA studies before 2011 addressed massive emissions from small Pidgeon process plants developed in China from the 1990s to 2011. Pollution emissions from small plants significantly decreased following the imposed shutdown of several high pollutant firms, including small magnesium plants, ordered by the Chinese Government 1 month before starting the Beijing Olympic Games to improve air quality. Small factories in the primary magnesium business would have targeted more stringent environmental prescriptions before they could resume production, but several small factories had not restarted production. Survived small plants restarted, at higher operating costs, improving the energy Efficiency with substitution of coal by gaseous fuels, with more efficient re-use of waste heat, and installing additional air treatment equipment.
Therefore, the 2013 LCA analysis published by the International Magnesium Association downscaled the overall average emissions from the Pidgeon process under the improvements mentioned above to 28 kg CO2eq, including all upstream processes [30]. It is worth noticing the magnesium production plant located in Brazil uses a silicothermic process, a modified type of the Bolzano Process. It targeted an excellent result of 10.1 kgCO2eq/kg magnesium.
Alternatively to the Pidgeon process, the big electrolytic plants could have a meager environmental impact, depending on the primary energy source. The Dead Sea Magnesium plant, which produces magnesium from the Dead Sea evaporite deposits in Israel, uses natural gas as an energy supply. The global warming potential of this process is accounted for 17.8 kg CO2eq/kg Mg [30]. As in this electrolysis plant, two main by-products are produced, liquefied chlorine (Cl2) and KCl-rich salt. They can have a wide range of potential uses; thus, they are used as raw materials for other sectors. Credits for their re-use, therefore, contribute to decreasing the global warming potential to 14.0 kg CO2eq/kg magnesium [30].
Since 2017 a new electrolysis plant with a capacity of 100,000 metric tons per annum has been operating in China by the Qinghai Salt Lake Magnesium Co. (QSLM). The QSLM electrolytic magnesium smelter is located at Golmud in Qinghai Province. This process produces pure magnesium from magnesium chloride (MgCl2) brine, an adjacent potash production waste product. The smelter produces low CO2 embedded magnesium metal thanks to energy power used for the complex supplied from regional hydro facilities (75%), solar (9%), and wind, as well as a local thermal power station. With support from the Qinghai Provincial Government and the national Government in Beijing, QSLM has plans to expand the production of pure magnesium alloys from current levels to 150,000 mtpa soon and then to 450,000 mtpa. Adjacent to the electrolytic magnesium smelter, Magontec has constructed a new primary magnesium alloy cast house facility with an output capacity of 60,000 metric tons per annum that will take pure liquid magnesium from the adjacent smelter. Magontec’s plant benefits the QSLM’s energy supply of 75% hydro and nearly 10% solar. The overall greenhouse gas emissions of the electrolysis amount to 8.5 kg CO2eq/kg magnesium. Apart from pure magnesium, the electrolysis of magnesium chloride produces gaseous chlorine. The amount of chlorine produced cannot finally be predicted at this stage of the project, but a chlorine yield of around 2.5 kg per kg of magnesium can be assumed. This by-product is used as feedstock for the nearby PVC plant. Producing 2.5 kg of chlorine usually leads to greenhouse gas emissions of about 3.2 kg CO2eq [30]. Thus, crediting these emissions, which the magnesium electrolysis has saved, leads to overall emissions of 5.3 kg CO2eq/kg of magnesium ingot [30]. The Qinghai plant has not reached its total capacity but is still ramp-up.
It is a fact that government policies of the country in which plants operate play an essential role in the environmental impact of magnesium. The national electricity mix used for plant operations, disposal, and recycling routes and the grade of technical solution development drastically reduce electrolytic routes’ effects. Under the updated LCA data, the following Table 4 recalculates the GWP for the body panel case study (refer to Table 3). GWP for the three options refers to average updated data published in [30]. Finally, since GWP are expressed per unit mass of material used, it is necessary to consider the actual usage of light material for the specific application. Table 4 estimates the kgCO2eq emitted by aluminum and magnesium solution for substituting each kg of steel in the inner door panel for the same function, at equivalent (or higher) stiffness, and equivalent (or higher) denting capability. The calculation method follows:
Baseline | Lightweight solutions | ||
---|---|---|---|
AISI 1045 steel | Aluminum 6061 | AZ31D twin rolled cast sheet, warm formed | |
Substitution factor (SF) | 1.0 | 0.5 | 0.4 |
KgCO2eq emitted for substituting 1 kg of steel with alternative metals for same function, equivalent stiffness, and load (denting) capability (kgCO2eq emitted per kg of material) × SF [kgCO2eq] | 2.3 | 4.91 | 2.02 |
10.83 | |||
Steel parity GWP calculated as (GWP_steel)/(SF): [kgCO2eq/kg] | 2.3 | 4.7 | 3.7 |
Recalculated GWP data for comparative scenarios in manufacturing a lightweight outdoor body panel with light metal alloys.
The last line of Table 2 shows the recalculated GWP for aluminum and magnesium light solutions to the “steel parity” calculated as:
The (2) represents the GWP of metal alloys give parity to body panel made of steel at equal (or higher, as for magnesium solution) stiffness and load capability.
Recycling metals is critical to their overall sustainability. Magnesium retains most of the necessary physical integrity when recycled if it is not contaminated. Remelting and forming of ingots are the main energy requirement for recycling, but generally, secondary production of magnesium ingots requires substantially less energy than primary production [32]. Otherwise, this process’s greenhouse gas emission mainly depends on the selected cover gas; generally, a cumulative 3.6 kgCO2eq/kg of secondary magnesium produced could be released [33].
Today the recycling of magnesium is technologically feasible. Currently, the primary source of magnesium alloy scrap comes from the magnesium die-casting industry (the most common method of fabricating new magnesium alloys parts). Die casting foundries can manage the amount of process scrap in three different ways:
The scrap can be sold on the open market and downgraded for recycling in other sectors, such as steel desulphurization.
The scraps can be recycled internally or externally within a closed-loop system; this could optimize the demand for primary raw material saving up 50% primary magnesium in casting automotive parts, rising to 85% for electronic die-cast products. Among factors that influence the number of recycled scraps and recycling ratio optimization we should consider: the amount of material lost in the melting cycle, the number of different components that are cast, the percentage of cast parts that must be rejected during production, the end quality of process scrap, and the recycling operation efficiency all affect the amount of process scrap, and primary magnesium utilized [34].
Remelting of magnesium chips from machining of die castings, considering that, due to high magnesium susceptibility to oxidize and fine forms of chips, chips remelting could produce further dross quantity. For this reason, preliminary treatments are required to eliminate possible lubricants (e.g., aqueous washing treatment, steam treatment). The second treatment in liquid acid pickling solution (deoxidizer) specific for magnesium alloys helps to reduce oxide contamination.
Recent studies [35] successfully validated the no-melting route for recycling magnesium chips by hot forging and extrusion as it is done for aluminum chips.
On the other hand, the processing of end-of-life vehicles is today still not easily practicable and needs technological improvement. Shredded magnesium can be contaminated with iron, nickel, and copper from coatings and fasteners, all of which are detrimental to the corrosion resistance of the metal. Although the low-value markets mentioned above (aluminum alloys and steel desulphurization) can absorb low-quality post-consumer magnesium, options for separating it from other metals are necessary for magnesium structural alloys applications. The main viable option is melting magnesium in contact with molten salt to remove oxides from the liquid metal. This process is today not fully capable of separating magnesium from other metals. Another possibility is metal vapor distillation: due to higher vapor pressure and low boiling point of magnesium compared to aluminum and many other metals.
On the other hand, a too high magnesium-aluminum chemical affinity results in poor separation. A much more viable route is collecting and separating magnesium from the high-quality scraps made of aluminum-magnesium alloys: the beverage can stock (e.g., the aluminum 3xxx series alloys employed for the body, the aluminum 5xxxs series used for edge), and the aluminum 5xxxs series today preferred for body panels of automobiles. To separate magnesium, chlorine gas bubbling through the liquid alloyed metal can remove magnesium by reaction, but such a hydrometallurgy process requires large amounts of chlorine and energy. Further recent advancements in magnesium separation from aluminum alloy scraps focus on electrorefining. It is a process in which metals are purified in an electrolytic cell where the anode is the impure metal, and the cathode is a very pure sample of the metal [36]. To summarize, an efficient recycling route for magnesium by automotive scraps is still an issue. Broad approaches based on the design for corrosion-free assembling and easy disassembling of magnesium parts in the multi-material structure are on track.
One significant value that manufacturers usually give to magnesium is its excellent die-castability resources, compared with aluminum. It is mainly due to very low viscosity in the molten state and reduced (or absent) die-soldering phenomena with steel mold-die that broadly extend mold-dies lifespan. The high castability is one metallurgy factor that allows die-casters to realize large, thin-walled, and complex casting shapes. It is due to a less costly manufacturing process that would replace steel-made components by assembling numerous steel stamped pieces or heavily reinforced plastic members [37]. As magnesium alloys can be cast with thinner walls than aluminum, the lower elastic modulus of magnesium alloys can be compensated using located ribs of thin wall thickness that allow restoring stiffness at required values. Secondly, the lower latent heat for solidification of magnesium compared to aluminum leads to considerably shorter casting cycle times, compensating for the lower heat conductivity of magnesium. For a comprehensive overview of die-casting processes and recent advancements, you may refer to [38], here in the following, shortly resumed. Two main casting processes are available for magnesium, the pressure-assisted cold, and hot-chamber injection, with an alternative represented by low-pressure die casting. In pressurized injection casting processes, high pressure is exerted after the liquid metal injection to compensate for metal shrinkage and remove as much possible air entrapped during the shot sleeve movement that accelerated to pressurize liquid metal into the die. The metal solidifies at high cooling rates (higher for the cold chamber than the hot chamber), leaving a fine-grained material (more satisfactory for the cold-chamber process) with secondary dendrite arm spacing in the range of 5–10 μm. As it is usual for any metal, particularly for magnesium alloys, grain refinement is one primary strengthening mechanism capable of saving good ductility and though properties, generally lower for the common magnesium-aluminum alloys containing more than 3–4% of aluminum. If, on one hand, aluminum promotes a strengthening mechanism based on a solid solution, on the other hand, an excess of aluminum (it is limited up to 9%) produces an almost continuous secondary phase of aluminum enriched—the magnesium aluminide, Mg17Al12. The magnesium aluminide decreases local plastic resources at the alpha-solution grain boundaries, where magnesium aluminide precipitates.
The long tradition of magnesium automotive part die-casting is proper for magnesium manufacturers, as shown in Figure 8, where an example of Meridien’s timeline for automobile products is summarized. Magnesium die-casting is evolving in Mercedes-Benz automatic transmission cases, from the first seven-speed automatic transmission case developed in 2003 (Figure 9) to the current eight-speed transmission case, still manufactured by magnesium alloy.
Meridian product development timeline (courtesy of IMA).
The 2003 case of the 7G-TRONIC, the world’s first seven-speed automatic transmission.
Figure 10a shows the recent magnesium die-cast liftgate inner for the 2017 Chrysler Pacifica Mini-Van realized by Meridian Company with Fiat-Chrysler Automobiles. The liftgate assembly consists of:
Magnesium alloy die-cast internal structure, around 80% of the liftgate at the nominal.
Wall stock of 2.3 mm, 20% with localized ribbing and thick patches.
Aluminum wiper bracket.
Two-piece aluminum outer skin.
(a) Diecast liftgate inner by Meridien (courtesy of IMA), 1450 mm wide, 1210 mm in height, the mass of 6.9 kg, (b) Strut bar Audi A8 (courtesy of IMA).
An AM60B alloy has been used due to elongation, strength, castability, and energy-absorbing properties. The magnesium casting allows replacing seven steel stampings, including reinforcements in hinge & latch areas, two plastic pieces, joining technologies. In the final assembly, a powder coat was applied to all structures to prevent galvanic corrosion problems. Figure 10b shows the new die-cast strut bar of Strut bar for Audi A8 realized by Stihl Magnesium. In Figure 11, several magnesium-made parts have been recently put onboard vehicles.
Recent die cast parts from magnesium industry [courtesy of GF Casting Solutions]: (a) Porsche Control Box Cover, made of MgAl4RE4 alloy, 2.6 kg weight, realized by multistage process (casting, stamping, machining), then assembled; (b) E-vehicle upper door frame alloy made of AM 50 alloy, 2.9 kg weight, realized by multistage process (casting, punching, machining, e-coating); (c) Ranger Rover Front End & Cross Car beam made of AM60 alloy, 6.0 kg weight realized by the multistage process then assembled (casting, machining, stamping); (d) Daimler SLK 2 seat back frame, AM 50 alloy by die-casting, 2.6 kg weight (courtesy of GF Casting Solution AG).
Magnesium part manufacturers deploy a long-tradition cumulated in warm and hot deformation processes (Figure 12). Opposite to the common thought about magnesium deformation resources, wrought magnesium alloys are suitable for sheet forming contributing to weight-saving projects in the automotive sector. Indeed, significant drawbacks in magnesium alloys’ sheet forming and deformation processes exist, especially compared to aluminum alloys. Due to its hexagonal structure, to activate enough slip systems for assuring sufficient plasticity, magnesium alloys must be formed above 200°C. Furthermore, the different heat transfer capability compared to aluminum is an issue to consider for optimizing pre and re-heating temperatures in the hot-deformation multistage processes. Extrusion of magnesium alloys is usually carried out in multiple steps, starting with a pre-extrusion of large billets into smaller diameter billets. After the preliminary stage, the billet can be re-heated and subsequently extruded into the final shape. Generally, the pressure per unit volume material extruded is higher than in aluminum alloys. Thus, extrusion speed shall be carefully controlled and optimized for specific magnesium alloy to avoid local melting and local oxidation phenomena, particularly critical for hollow sections extrusion process by porthole dies, as typically employed for aluminum alloys. These aspects are firm limits for semi-finishing and net-shape forming processes, prominently for affordability.
The Chevrolet Corvette SS Race Car, 1957, made of magnesium-formed panels.
But on the other hand, warm deep drawing is also possible for magnesium alloys, as for aluminum alloys; in the range of 100–180°C thin sheet of 0.5 mm approximately can be drawn, with precise temperature control and at a lower speed [39]. The recent application of magnesium sheets we can find in the literature illustrates the successful use of a novel Mg-Zn-Ca-Zr alloy in sheet form produced by twin-roll casting. This alloy has been used to manufacture a Volkswagen Passat decklid magnesium-made that saved half 6 kg of the original 12 kg steel weight [40]. Large magnesium components can also be produced by die casting (see Figure 13).
(a) The Porsche window frame realized by AM50 magnesium alloy with multi process stages (casting, laser cutting, machining), finally coated and joined; (b) The Aston Martin cover door made AM50 with multi-stage process (Casting, Stamping, Flattening) [courtesy of GF Casting Solutions AG].
Net-shape semi-solid forming has attracted automakers with alternate attention since the middle 1990s. The net-shape semi-solid forming is possible for magnesium alloys thanks to its thixotropic state realized when vigorously sheared in a semi-solid state. Shearing reduces the viscosity of the slurry mass to a similar value of the liquid metal, providing similar (sometimes better) castability of the liquid form. Still, the semi-solid state allows shaping with lower latent heat in the mass; this creates advantages for shorter casting cycles than die-casting (depending on chosen semisolid process) lower metal shrinkage to compensate, and consequently near-net shaping. The industrial application of semi-solid net-shaping in the magnesium industry commenced in the early 1980s with the Dow Chemical Company. Dow Chemical patented the Thixomolding technology based on the architecture of plastic injection molding machinery for injecting magnesium alloys in the semi-solid state into a mold die.
Further advantages of injection molding of magnesium alloys are that this technology’s highly complex shaping capability allows for more innovative design concepts and a multi-body-material concept design. Direct assembly of different parts during injection molding in a molded-in technique, thanks to inserting aluminum parts directly in the tool. As a semi-solid process, less energy is consumed by the Thixomolding apparatus; the power energy is estimated to be on the order of 12–24% lower than the total energy required by a conventional casting process. An additional benefit is that the Thixomolding product cycle employs inert gas, usually argon, to protect magnesium feedstock from oxidation once introduced in the hopper in particulate and solid forms (pellets or chips) [41]. However, it is worth noticing that current die-casting processes align with the environmental sustainability of the Thixomolding process thanks to much more environmentally friendly cover gases mixtures today used instead of the banded SF6. With relevant advantages of the Thixomolding process in net-shaping part of high complexity in a single shot, two are the most drawbacks acknowledged by part manufacturers. The high price and the limited number of suppliers of chip or pellet forms of magnesium alloys, namely the material feedstock of Thixomolding machinery, and the maximum clamping force exerted during the metal injection into mold dies. Clamping forces of 2700–6500 kN generally allow the production of thin flat surfaces (0.8 mm, not possible by high pressure die-casting) such as that for tablet terminals, notebook computers, electronics, sports goods. Instead, the interest of the automotive sector is to even thicker and wider structural components with a weight of over 2 kg. This would require more giant machines with increased clamping forces over 8000 kN [41].
The historical and current primary market for structural applications of magnesium alloys is high-pressure die-cast parts. We find those components in the automobile’s powertrain, chassis, or body areas. Depending on the type of structural part to shape, key technical features that need to target are the safe-at-break behavior avoiding fast-fracture failure modes, sufficient toughness (i.e., minimum impact energy to rupture and fracture toughness), specific strength, corrosion resistance, high-temperature resistance, or creep resistance (for powertrain applications). From the manufacturing point of view, the requirements addressed shall target affordable production cost, which merges fixed and variable costs, derived from the accounting of investment costs (machinery and tools, energy, labor, etc.) and operating costs (raw material cost, trimming, machining, coating costs, etc.) to recoup.
Specifically, in automotive assemblies, corrosion concerns are crucial. Today high purity versions of magnesium alloys show corrosion properties comparable to aluminum die casting alloys, but galvanic corrosion problems persist when magnesium parts have to be assembled with different materials. Therefore, advancements in coating techniques are the basis for safely combining magnesium parts with other materials. High ductility magnesium alloys are of interest to the automotive sector. Advancements in alloying are crucial for the correct choice of the structural ability of magnesium material. The higher creep resistance of Mg-Al-Si, the AS series, acknowledged by Germans during WII, is allowed by Si addition which forms fine and hard Mg2Si particles along the grain boundaries to help retard grain boundary sliding. The remarkable grain-refining ability of zirconium in the Mg-Zn-Zr series alloys allows high strength and ductility for use either at elevated temperatures or for energy-absorbing applications, however at a higher cost due to Zr. The ZE series achieved further mechanical properties in the die-cast part with Mg-Rare Earth-Zn-Zr casting alloys. RE elements (La, Ce, etc.) are added as they are active during aging treatment by promoting high-temperature stable precipitates with a strengthening effect. The costly Magnesium-Yttrium casting alloys, the WE series, containing approximately 4–5 wt.% Y, exhibit high strength with good creep resistance at temperatures up to 300°C and superior corrosion resistance (comparable to some aluminum-based casting alloys). Furthermore, the WE43 and the Elektron 21, a proprietary magnesium-based casting alloy containing neodymium, gadolinium, and zinc developed by Magnesium Elektron (today part of Luxfer MEL Technology), passed stringent flammability tests of Federal Aviation Administration FAA-FAR 25.853 Part 25, Appendix F, Part 2 Modified Seat Cushion Test. Both alloys did not burn when melted, or they are self-extinguished.
More cost-efficient production routes for sheet products are believed to create new opportunities for the automotive market segment. Considerable efforts have been directed at innovative developments of global efforts in expanding the manufacturing capabilities of magnesium sheets through the twin-roll casting process route, offering many benefits, including a reduction in the number of processing steps and energy savings [42].
Finally, last but not least, die-casting and semisolid process design strategies are similar to those employed for injection molding of structural plastics. But, in general, plastic designs require thicker sections than magnesium die-castings. Both materials allow complex shapes with ribs to enhance stiffness (Figure 14), but magnesium die-castings need more minor material for these features than plastics. As a result, magnesium die-castings can be designed more efficiently (less volume, less weight, more significant feature variation) and offer a higher degree of definition than comparable plastic designs, superior mechanical properties, and the capability to integrate several functional design features, material recyclability. The latter feature is not of minor importance, being automakers sensitive to recyclability resources of material used for car manufacturing. Although the material price-based approach leads to the obvious choice of plastics, complex and large parts could present unforeseen internal costs to the product line, negatively impacting final product marketability. A whole approach cost also considers the impact on a company’s internal costs structure and the value-added needs of the next customer in the product chain, up to and including the end-user. In a total system cost strategy, the benefits of using magnesium tend to outweigh the lowest material price strategy. This is typical for products like instrument panel structures. The benefits of higher stiffness, elongation, toughness, and design flexibility allow the magnesium part to readily integrate many features in a one-piece to be fully assembled and quickly installed into the vehicle with weight-saving up to 50% compared to plastic designs.
Magnesium AM 50 die cast front center console for Audi A8, high stiffness, no machining and all connection and fixing points are intergrated (courtesy of GF Casting Solutions).
An interesting overlap of cast magnesium’s mechanical and physical properties with reinforced plastics, primarily strength, and density, would drive the material switch. In the interior design of automotive vehicles today, large bodies are made of non-fully recyclable plastics. Thus, other potentialities for magnesium die-casting and injection molding could be redesigning today’s plastic structural components with recyclable and more robust magnesium metal.
In this chapter, we tried to resume the magnesium for lightweight approach over the past, till today. Hopefully, but not exhaustively, this was tentative to answer where the magnesium industry is going. We must not forget the past, learning lessons that are still valid today. However, we must consider some new factors, mainly based on the magnesium trade, were unknown in the past century or during the golden Age of magnesium peak demand. It is a fact that when going through magnesium history, several articles projected an optimistic future for magnesium.
Forecasting the future of magnesium, especially in current pandemic times, is difficult. Nevertheless, one aspect appears clear by going through past and recent magnesium history: magnesium had survived continuous fluctuating demand; meanwhile, price volatility registered over time depended on the current (nonstructured and programmed) supply capacity over time and trade issues.
Several concerns about magnesium’s potential applications are today derived from false myths. Eighty years ago, Germans and (after) Americans employed magnesium for aircraft weight-saving, but today it is wrongly thought there are few proofs of its capabilities in realizing lightweight bodies. What is clear from the lesson learned in the past (and today) is that it is necessary to dramatically increase the primary magnesium supply with modern low impacting big plants. Looking at recent history, we are probably on the right track. As learned from the past, prices are not volatile once the supply is stable, and the magnesium’s demand (driven by automakers primarily) rises.
The authors appreciated the input and feedback by members of the International Magnesium Association (IMA) founded in 1943 with the mission of promoting the use of magnesium in material selection and to encourage innovative applications.
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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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