The effect of chitosan on some food groups.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"330",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Liposuction and Fat Transfer",title:"Advanced Techniques in Liposuction and Fat Transfer",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Liposuction is the first cosmetic procedure to change beutification surgery from open extensive excision surgery into a more atraumatic closed one. It gave rise to the modern understanding of minimally scarring and minimally invasive surgery and changed the understanding and preferences of both patients and doctors. It also became the most common procedure in cosmetic surgery world-wide, practiced by an increased number of physicians from various specialties. The techniques of fat grafting, closely bound with liposuction, have found widespread application and fat stem cells seem to be changing the future of many areas in medicine. Turning the pages, the reader will find a lot of information about advances, tips and tricks, as well as important milestones in the development of the different methods available, such as classic, power, ultrasound, laser and radio-frequency assisted liposuction etc. Most useful anesthesia techniques are described and discussed, and guidelines have been established for medical indications. Special attention is paid to good patient selection, complications and risks.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-668-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6476-0",doi:"10.5772/856",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advanced-techniques-in-liposuction-and-fat-transfer",numberOfPages:242,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b46d7571b3a7f78d03a83f809c7a637f",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",publishedDate:"September 12th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/330.jpg",numberOfDownloads:69061,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:44,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 8th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 6th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",middleName:null,surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32585/images/1704_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Nikolay Serdev, MD, PhD is a renowned cosmetic surgeon. He has trained hundreds of doctors globally in minimally invasive aesthetic surgery and medical procedures as well as in his author techniques. \r\nHe is the creator of Scarless Serdev Suture® lifts of face and body and pioneer in many other mini-invasive cosmetic surgery techniques: ultrasound liposculpture of face, body and leg elongation and beautification; T-excision and columella sliding in rhinoplasty; non-surgical body contouring; and their combination with his own suture to facial rejuvenation, beautification and tissue volumising. He is also a world authority in ultrasound-assisted (VASER) body contouring and has trained doctors from around the world in its basic and advanced techniques. \r\nDr. Serdev is Honorary professor at the New Bulgarian University in Sofia and director of its program of qualification in Aesthetic Surgery. He divides his time between his clinic, the University and short travels for international meetings, live surgery demonstrations and hands-on courses in countries of all continents. \r\nHe is editor and author of several comprehensive textbooks in the field of Cosmetic and Plastic Surgery, including Liposuction, Sutures Lifts on Face and Body Areas, Thread vs Suture lift techniques, Rhinoplasty and has authored many chapters in aesthetic surgery and medicine books, as well as original papers in medical journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"20",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1143",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",slug:"cosmetic-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"19131",title:"Application of the Liposuction Techniques and Principles in Specific Body Areas and Pathologies",doi:"10.5772/24809",slug:"application-of-the-liposuction-techniques-and-principles-in-specific-body-areas-and-pathologies",totalDownloads:6515,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Diego Schavelzon, Louis Habbema, Stefan Rapprich, Peter Lisborg , Guillermo Blugerman, Jorge A. D’Angelo, Andrea Markowsky, Javier Soto, Rodrigo Moreno and Maria Siguen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19131",authors:[{id:"59070",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Schavelzon",slug:"diego-schavelzon",fullName:"Diego Schavelzon"},{id:"59224",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Markowsky",slug:"andrea-markowsky",fullName:"Andrea Markowsky"},{id:"59225",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Siguen",slug:"maria-siguen",fullName:"Maria Siguen"},{id:"59228",title:"Dr.",name:"Louis",surname:"Habbema",slug:"louis-habbema",fullName:"Louis Habbema"},{id:"59230",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Soto",slug:"javier-soto",fullName:"Javier Soto"},{id:"59677",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Rapprich",slug:"stefan-rapprich",fullName:"Stefan Rapprich"},{id:"59678",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Blugerman",slug:"guillermo-blugerman",fullName:"Guillermo Blugerman"},{id:"109661",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"D'Angelo",slug:"jorge-d'angelo",fullName:"Jorge D'Angelo"},{id:"110928",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Lisborg",slug:"peter-lisborg",fullName:"Peter Lisborg"},{id:"110931",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Moreno",slug:"rodrigo-moreno",fullName:"Rodrigo Moreno"}],corrections:null},{id:"19132",title:"Liposuction and Fat Graft to Enhance Facial Contour in Reconstructive Surgery - Nine Years Experience with the use of Peridural Cannula",doi:"10.5772/20334",slug:"liposuction-and-fat-graft-to-enhance-facial-contour-in-reconstructive-surgery-nine-years-experience-",totalDownloads:4238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Claudia Gutiérrez Gómez, Marcia Pérez Dosal and Alexander Cardenas Mejia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19132",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19132",authors:[{id:"38459",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Gutiérrez",slug:"claudia-gutierrez",fullName:"Claudia Gutiérrez"}],corrections:null},{id:"19133",title:"Novel Liposuction Techniques for the Treatment of HIV-Associated Dorsocervical Fat Pad and Parotid Hypertrophy",doi:"10.5772/22091",slug:"novel-liposuction-techniques-for-the-treatment-of-hiv-associated-dorsocervical-fat-pad-and-parotid-h",totalDownloads:5163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Harvey Abrams and Karen L. Herbst",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19133",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19133",authors:[{id:"46172",title:"Dr.",name:"Karen",surname:"Herbst",slug:"karen-herbst",fullName:"Karen Herbst"},{id:"54375",title:"Dr.",name:"Harvey",surname:"Abrams",slug:"harvey-abrams",fullName:"Harvey Abrams"}],corrections:null},{id:"19134",title:"Lipoplasty of the Back",doi:"10.5772/22818",slug:"lipoplasty-of-the-back",totalDownloads:2412,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Francisco Agullo, Sadri O. Sozer and Humberto Palladino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19134",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19134",authors:[{id:"49318",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadri",surname:"Sozer",slug:"sadri-sozer",fullName:"Sadri Sozer"},{id:"49319",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",surname:"Agullo",slug:"frank-agullo",fullName:"Frank Agullo"},{id:"128585",title:"Dr.",name:"Humberto",surname:"Palladino",slug:"humberto-palladino",fullName:"Humberto Palladino"}],corrections:null},{id:"19135",title:"Power-Assisted Liposuction (PAL) vs. Traditional Liposuction: Quantification and Comparison of Tissue Shrinkage and Tightening",doi:"10.5772/24288",slug:"power-assisted-liposuction-pal-vs-traditional-liposuction-quantification-and-comparison-of-tissue-sh",totalDownloads:4536,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gordon H. Sasaki, Ana Tevez and Erica Lopez Ulloa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19135",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19135",authors:[{id:"42812",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordon",surname:"Sasaki",slug:"gordon-sasaki",fullName:"Gordon Sasaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"19136",title:"Larger Infiltration/Aspiration Volumes, Plasma/ Subcutaneous Fluid Lidocaine Levels and Quantitative Abdominal Tissue Accommodation After Water-Assisted Liposuction (WAL): Comparative Safety and Efficacy to Traditional Liposuction (TL)",doi:"10.5772/21355",slug:"larger-infiltration-aspiration-volumes-plasma-subcutaneous-fluid-lidocaine-levels-and-quantitative-a",totalDownloads:3525,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gordon H. Sasaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19136",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19136",authors:[{id:"42812",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordon",surname:"Sasaki",slug:"gordon-sasaki",fullName:"Gordon Sasaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"19137",title:"Gynoid Lipodystrophy Treatment and Other Advances on Laser-Assisted Liposuction",doi:"10.5772/24545",slug:"gynoid-lipodystrophy-treatment-and-other-advances-on-laser-assisted-liposuction",totalDownloads:3950,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Alberto Goldman, Sufan Wu, Yi Sun, Diego Schavelzon and Guillermo Blugerman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19137",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19137",authors:[{id:"38432",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Blugerman",slug:"guillermo-blugerman",fullName:"Guillermo Blugerman"},{id:"58060",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Goldman",slug:"alberto-goldman",fullName:"Alberto Goldman"},{id:"58080",title:"Dr.",name:"Sufan",surname:"Wu",slug:"sufan-wu",fullName:"Sufan Wu"},{id:"58081",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Schavelzon",slug:"diego-schavelzon",fullName:"Diego Schavelzon"},{id:"128589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",surname:"Sun",slug:"yi-sun",fullName:"Yi Sun"}],corrections:null},{id:"19138",title:"Radio-Frequency Assisted Liposuction (RFAL)",doi:"10.5772/20831",slug:"radio-frequency-assisted-liposuction-rfal-",totalDownloads:5141,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Guillermo Blugerman, Malcolm D. Paul, Diego Schavelzon, R. Stephen Mulholland, Matthias Sandhoffer, Peter Lisborg, Antonio Rusciani, Mark Divaris and Michael Kreindel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19138",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19138",authors:[{id:"59070",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Schavelzon",slug:"diego-schavelzon",fullName:"Diego Schavelzon"},{id:"33827",title:"Prof.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Blugerman",slug:"guillermo-blugerman",fullName:"Guillermo Blugerman"},{id:"59069",title:"Mr.",name:"Malcom D.",surname:"Paul",slug:"malcom-d.-paul",fullName:"Malcom D. Paul"},{id:"59071",title:"Mr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Mulholland",slug:"stephen-mulholland",fullName:"Stephen Mulholland"},{id:"59072",title:"Mr.",name:"Matthias",surname:"Sandhoffer",slug:"matthias-sandhoffer",fullName:"Matthias Sandhoffer"},{id:"59073",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Lisborg",slug:"peter-lisborg",fullName:"Peter Lisborg"},{id:"59074",title:"Mr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Rusciani",slug:"antonio-rusciani",fullName:"Antonio Rusciani"},{id:"59075",title:"Mr.",name:"Mark",surname:"Divaris",slug:"mark-divaris",fullName:"Mark Divaris"},{id:"59076",title:"Mr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Kreindel",slug:"michael-kreindel",fullName:"Michael Kreindel"}],corrections:null},{id:"19139",title:"Ultrasound Assisted Liposculpture – UAL: A Simplified Safe Body Sculpturing and Aesthetic Beautification Technique",doi:"10.5772/25146",slug:"ultrasound-assisted-liposculpture-ual-a-simplified-safe-body-sculpturing-and-aesthetic-beautificatio",totalDownloads:4080,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nikolay P. Serdev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19139",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19139",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"19140",title:"Advanced Lipotransfer Techniques",doi:"10.5772/24745",slug:"advanced-lipotransfer-techniques",totalDownloads:7895,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Guillermo Blugerman, Roger Amar, Diego Schavelzon, Marco A. Pelosi II, Marco A. Pelosi III, Javier A. Soto, Anastasia Chomyszyn, Maurizio Podda, Andrea V. Markowsky, Jorge A. D’Angelo and Rodrigo Moreno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19140",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19140",authors:[{id:"59070",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Schavelzon",slug:"diego-schavelzon",fullName:"Diego Schavelzon"},{id:"59224",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Markowsky",slug:"andrea-markowsky",fullName:"Andrea Markowsky"},{id:"59225",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Siguen",slug:"maria-siguen",fullName:"Maria Siguen"},{id:"59230",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Soto",slug:"javier-soto",fullName:"Javier Soto"},{id:"109661",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"D'Angelo",slug:"jorge-d'angelo",fullName:"Jorge D'Angelo"},{id:"33827",title:"Prof.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Blugerman",slug:"guillermo-blugerman",fullName:"Guillermo Blugerman"},{id:"59221",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",surname:"Amar",slug:"roger-amar",fullName:"Roger Amar"},{id:"59222",title:"Dr.",name:"Anastasia",surname:"Chomyszyn",slug:"anastasia-chomyszyn",fullName:"Anastasia Chomyszyn"},{id:"59223",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"Podda",slug:"maurizio-podda",fullName:"Maurizio Podda"},{id:"59229",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",surname:"Pelosi Ii",slug:"marco-pelosi-ii",fullName:"Marco Pelosi Ii"},{id:"59679",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Moreno",slug:"rodrigo-moreno",fullName:"Rodrigo Moreno"},{id:"109659",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Pelosi Iii",slug:"marco-pelosi-iii",fullName:"Marco Pelosi Iii"}],corrections:null},{id:"19141",title:"Processing of Lipoaspirate Samples for Optimal Mesenchymal Stem Cells Isolation",doi:"10.5772/20373",slug:"processing-of-lipoaspirate-samples-for-optimal-mesenchymal-stem-cells-isolation",totalDownloads:9309,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Leandra Baptista, Karina Silva, Carolina Pedrosa and Radovan Borojevic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19141",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19141",authors:[{id:"38645",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandra",surname:"Baptista",slug:"leandra-baptista",fullName:"Leandra Baptista"},{id:"56758",title:"MSc",name:"Karina",surname:"Silva",slug:"karina-silva",fullName:"Karina Silva"},{id:"56759",title:"Prof.",name:"Radovan",surname:"Borojevic",slug:"radovan-borojevic",fullName:"Radovan Borojevic"},{id:"89316",title:"MSc.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Pedrosa",slug:"carolina-pedrosa",fullName:"Carolina Pedrosa"}],corrections:null},{id:"19142",title:"Stem Cell Enriched Fat Transfer",doi:"10.5772/34284",slug:"stem-cell-enriched-fat-transfer",totalDownloads:4536,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maurizio Ceccarelli and J. Víctor García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19142",authors:[{id:"99504",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"Ceccarelli",slug:"maurizio-ceccarelli",fullName:"Maurizio Ceccarelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"19143",title:"Complications of Liposuction",doi:"10.5772/24271",slug:"complications-of-liposuction",totalDownloads:7762,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Francisco J. Agullo, Humberto Palladino and Sadri O. Sozer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19143",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19143",authors:[{id:"49318",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadri",surname:"Sozer",slug:"sadri-sozer",fullName:"Sadri Sozer"},{id:"49319",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",surname:"Agullo",slug:"frank-agullo",fullName:"Frank Agullo"},{id:"128585",title:"Dr.",name:"Humberto",surname:"Palladino",slug:"humberto-palladino",fullName:"Humberto Palladino"},{id:"57330",title:"Dr.",name:"Humberto",surname:"Palladino",slug:"humberto-palladino",fullName:"Humberto Palladino"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5110",title:"Miniinvasive Techniques in Rhinoplasty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"795ab5e7adfc30a3907f52b636c45029",slug:"miniinvasive-techniques-in-rhinoplasty",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5110.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"2989",title:"Miniinvasive Face and Body Lifts",subtitle:"Closed Suture Lifts or Barbed Thread Lifts",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e9600ab8fe9125b2c41161d2ee91ff3",slug:"miniinvasive-face-and-body-lifts-closed-suture-lifts-or-barbed-thread-lifts",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2989.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7047",title:"Botulinum Toxin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a6791462a0bbc32c6da3218dcf5ac28",slug:"botulinum-toxin",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7047.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5346",title:"Body Contouring and Sculpting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79bcaa74382f64066fe10bf59e89be6d",slug:"body-contouring-and-sculpting",bookSignature:"Nikolay P. Serdev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5346.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"797",title:"Rhinoplasty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"81bc805ee420b3b2f35cc0a009b6566c",slug:"rhinoplasty",bookSignature:"Michael J. Brenner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/797.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63530",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Brenner",slug:"michael-brenner",fullName:"Michael Brenner"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7836",title:"The Art of Body Contouring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"983c155c9b836c8e4947bb3946694bc9",slug:"the-art-of-body-contouring",bookSignature:"Alexandro Aguilera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7836.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"162339",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandro",surname:"Aguilera",slug:"alexandro-aguilera",fullName:"Alexandro Aguilera"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"64554",slug:"erratum-treatment-of-resistant-hypertension-an-update-in-device-therapy",title:"Erratum - Treatment of Resistant Hypertension: An Update in Device Therapy",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64554.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64554",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64554",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64554",chapter:{id:"59188",slug:"treatment-of-resistant-hypertension-an-update-in-device-therapy",signatures:"Ghazal Quinn, Phillip John Gary, Christopher Damiano and Geoffrey\nTeehan",dateSubmitted:"May 10th 2017",dateReviewed:"January 10th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 7th 2018",datePublished:"November 14th 2018",book:{id:"6311",title:"Blood Pressure",subtitle:"From Bench to Bed",fullTitle:"Blood Pressure - From Bench to Bed",slug:"blood-pressure-from-bench-to-bed",publishedDate:"November 14th 2018",bookSignature:"Aise Seda Artis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6311.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"210880",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Teehan",fullName:"Geoffrey Teehan",slug:"geoffrey-teehan",email:"gteehan@comcast.net",position:null,institution:{name:"Lankenau Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"221168",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghazal",middleName:null,surname:"Quinn",fullName:"Ghazal Quinn",slug:"ghazal-quinn",email:"quinng@mlhs.org",position:null,institution:null},{id:"221169",title:"Dr.",name:"Phillip John",middleName:null,surname:"Gary",fullName:"Phillip John Gary",slug:"phillip-john-gary",email:"garyp@mlhs.org",position:null,institution:null},{id:"221170",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher",middleName:null,surname:"Damiano",fullName:"Christopher Damiano",slug:"christopher-damiano",email:"damianoc@mlhs.org",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"59188",slug:"treatment-of-resistant-hypertension-an-update-in-device-therapy",signatures:"Ghazal Quinn, Phillip John Gary, Christopher Damiano and Geoffrey\nTeehan",dateSubmitted:"May 10th 2017",dateReviewed:"January 10th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 7th 2018",datePublished:"November 14th 2018",book:{id:"6311",title:"Blood Pressure",subtitle:"From Bench to Bed",fullTitle:"Blood Pressure - From Bench to Bed",slug:"blood-pressure-from-bench-to-bed",publishedDate:"November 14th 2018",bookSignature:"Aise Seda Artis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6311.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"210880",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Teehan",fullName:"Geoffrey Teehan",slug:"geoffrey-teehan",email:"gteehan@comcast.net",position:null,institution:{name:"Lankenau Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"221168",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghazal",middleName:null,surname:"Quinn",fullName:"Ghazal Quinn",slug:"ghazal-quinn",email:"quinng@mlhs.org",position:null,institution:null},{id:"221169",title:"Dr.",name:"Phillip John",middleName:null,surname:"Gary",fullName:"Phillip John Gary",slug:"phillip-john-gary",email:"garyp@mlhs.org",position:null,institution:null},{id:"221170",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher",middleName:null,surname:"Damiano",fullName:"Christopher Damiano",slug:"christopher-damiano",email:"damianoc@mlhs.org",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6311",title:"Blood Pressure",subtitle:"From Bench to Bed",fullTitle:"Blood Pressure - From Bench to Bed",slug:"blood-pressure-from-bench-to-bed",publishedDate:"November 14th 2018",bookSignature:"Aise Seda Artis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6311.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8824",leadTitle:null,title:"Optical Lattice Solitons",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tBesides being used as a collapse arrest mechanism, external optical lattices can be used to construct solitons with various interesting features such as solitons with desired shapes. On the other hand, optical solitons in both 1D and 2D PT-symmetric (parity-time symmetric) complex lattices and solitons and multi-humped structures (dipoles and vortices) in lattices with irregularities such as edge dislocation and vacancy defect are also shown to exist. Moreover, triangular and rectangular similariton generations are recently reported in photonic lattices.
\r\n\tHowever, many questions concerning the shape and stability properties of lattice solitons remain open. For instance, do other types of lattice solitons in different geometrical structures exist as well? How does the lattice shape effect the solitons’ shape and soliton stability?
\r\n\tIn this book, we aim to present the recent developments in optical lattice soliton theory and applications.
\r\n\tTopics that will be included, but are not limited to:
\r\n\tOne-dimensional and two-dimensional lattice solitons in Kerr and saturable media
\r\n\tSolitons in Bose-Einstein condensates (BEC’s)
\r\n\tLinear, nonlinear and mixed linear-nonlinear optical lattice solitons
\r\n\tNonlocal nonlinear lattices
\r\n\tLattices with defects
\r\n\tSolitons in lattices with quadratic nonlinearities
\r\n\tSolitons in photonic-crystals and photonic-crystal fibers
\r\n\tSimilariton generation in optical lattices
\r\n\tPulse shaping in mode-locked lasers
\r\n\tLattice soliton interactions
The discovery of chitosan dates back to 1811 when Professor Henri Braconnot, director of the botanical garden in Nancy, France, isolated what he called “fungine” from fungal cell walls. About 30 years before the isolation of cellulose, in 1823, Odier conducted a study on insects and found that the same structure was present in insects as well as plants. Odier later named the fungine “chitin” a word derived from Greek that means membrane or envelope. The concept of chitin became more understandable when Lassaigne showed the presence of nitrogen in the structure of chitin in 1843. The term “chitosan” emerged following a discovery by Rouget in 1859. When heating chitin in a concentrated potassium hydroxide solution Rouget observed that the chitin became soluble with the chemical and heat treatment. Ledderhose described in 1878 that chitin consists of glucosamine. Hoppe-Seyler adapted the term chitosan from chitin in 1894. At the beginning of the 20th century, many studies on chitosan from sources of chitin were conducted. Rammelberg proved that chitosan was found in crab shells and fungi through his work in 1930. In addition, chitin was hydrolyzed in many ways and found to be a glucosamine polysaccharide. Studies on the formation of chitin and chitosan in mushrooms were performed with x-ray analyses in the 1950s. The first book on chitosan was published in 1951, 140 years after Braconnot’s first observations. In the early 1960s, studies were conducted on the ability of chitosan to bind red blood cells. In the same year, chitosan was also considered as a hemostatic agent. In the next 30 years, chitosan was used in treatment plants to provide asepsis water. In the last 20 years, research on chitosan has intensified due to its many important properties [1]. Today, chitosan has many industrial applications and after cellulose, it is the most common polysaccharide chitin in the world. As one of the most important derivatives of chitin, chitosan is a polycationic biopolymer obtained by partial or complete deacetylation (removal of an acetyl functional group from an organic compound) of chitin in an alkaline environment [2]. The only difference between cellulose and chitosan biopolymer is the presence of the acetyl (-NH2) functional group instead of the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group in the cellulose structure. This difference ensures that the chain structure of the chitosan biopolymer is polycationic. Many superior properties of chitosan arise from this polycationic structure. In addition to this advantage, the presence of both –OH and –NH2 groups in the chain structure of chitosan and the fact that these groups can be modified in different ways is a situation that highlights its uses [3]. Chitosan, which can be obtained in large quantities from many natural sources containing chitin, such as the exoskeleton of mushrooms, crayfish, shrimp, and crabs, is more advantageous than other biopolymers including chitin in terms of non-toxicity to organisms, easy biodegradability, and biocompatibility. For these reasons, chitosan is a natural, safe, cheap, raw material biopolymer used in many industrial areas such as food, medicine, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agriculture, wastewater treatment, and textiles. Besides having antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal properties, chitosan is also an effective agent in controlling and reducing the spread of diseases by promoting the defense system of plants. In addition, chitosan is being used for improvement in agriculture because it chelates metal ions in the environment (water, soil, etc.) and prevents the uptake of toxic metals in plants [4].
Chitosan is a natural and biodegradable biopolymer used in different industrial applications as an agent for flocculation and chelating, permeability control, and as an antimicrobial, among other processes. Predominantly produced today by the deacetylation of chitin on an industrial scale, chitosan is found in the exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects, and the cell walls of many fungi and some algae. Although the main source of chitin is crab, shrimp, crayfish, and shrimp residues, the importance of insect chitosan depends on the role insects play as a sustainable protein source. Insects are seen as an alternative to traditionally consumed proteins derived predominantly from traditional livestock (mainly cows, chickens, and pigs) and fish. In addition, using the insect as a protein source produces two by-products of interest to the industry, lipids that can be used as biofuels (30–40% total dry weight) as well as a residual material made of chitin with some bioactive properties from which chitosan can be produced [5].
Chitin and chitosan have interesting physicochemical, biological, and mechanical properties. One such property of chitosan is related to its antimicrobial activity. There are several studies demonstrating the antimicrobial and antifungal properties of chitosan and many derivatives [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Recently, the effect of the physical form of chitosan on its antibacterial activity against pathogenic bacteria was studied. Researchers examined chitosan coating as an inhibitor of
Chitosan is a commercial biopolymer produced predominantly from crab and shrimp residues. The physicochemical properties of chitosan affect the functional properties that differ according to crustacean type and preparation methods. Chitosan has been studied to compare the functionality of commercial products obtained from crustacean and insect chitosan as antimicrobials. The results indicated differences between commercial insect chitosan and crustacean chitosan with regard to their antimicrobial capacity. Generally speaking, crustacean chitosan with a pH of 5,0 during a 49-hour incubation period displayed a greater antimicrobial capacity than insect chitosan at the same pH. This behavior was seen mostly in Salmonella cases where crustacean chitosan resulted in more than 4 logarithmic decreases, whereas insect chitosan was only bacteriostatic resulting in about a 1 logarithmic decrease. The similar behavior was noticed for
Antimicrobial activity can be adversely affected by pH, and as such pH plays an important role in the antimicrobial capacity of chitosan. Low pH chitosan appears to have more antimicrobial activity than high pH chitosan [13]. A study was conducted to determine the effect of two different concentrations of chitosan at pH 6,5 and 5,5 on different pathogenic microorganisms, including
Several hypotheses have been proposed about the antimicrobial function of chitosan. Ionic interactions occcuring between the positive charges of amino groups and negative bacterial surface molecules under acid conditions change the membrane permeability which leads to cellular lysis. Interaction with necessary nutrients for bacteria could be another mechanism. Chitosan’s bactericidal effect may also be affected by the inoculum size to the bacteria growth [6]. In some studies, all compounds tested after 4 hours of incubation for an inoculum size of 103 cells/mL were bactericidal at any concentration of chitosan tested. In contrast, at a higher initial inoculum concentration, 0.1% (w/v) chitosan was only bacteriostatic. Regardless of the inoculum level, any chito-oligosaccharide mixture of 0.25% (w/v) was sufficient to reduce the starting population of
Included in the peptidoglycan layer on the cell surface, teichoic acid is vital for the growth of Gram-positive bacteria as well as for cell division. Chitosan and its derivatives can bind to teichoic acid on the surface of Gram-positive bacteria non-covalently. Chitosan’s effect on the cell membrane has not been clearly discovered yet; however, it is well-known that it affects the cell membrane because it has a greater hydrodynamic diameter than peptidoglycans’ pore size. Strangely, chitosan with a MW of 5 kDa suppresses DNA synthesis and promotes
As stated previously, pH can play a key role in chitosan’s antimicrobial activity, and the pKa of chitosan sequences from 6,3 to 6,5 [23]. Chitosan only dissolves in acidic aqueous environment where it becomes polycationic when the pH value is lower than the pKa amount. Polycationic chitosan molecules react with negatively charged cell wall molecules, including proteins, phospholipids, polysaccharides, and fatty acids because of the high intensity of amino groups found on the polymer surface, ultimately causing intracellular materials to leak. Chitosan exhibits higher antimicrobial activity at low pH values (< 6) because its amino group is ionized at low pH rates. Moreover, the positive charge of chitosan improves at low pH values, increasing the absorption of chitosan at the bacterial cell wall. Moreover, at upper pH values (> 6) the amino group of chitosan becomes aprotic, which may lead to precipitation from solution [24]. One study informed that chitosan’s antimicrobial activities against
In the early 1960s, chitosan’s ability to bind to red blood cells was investigated. At that time, it was also seen as a hemostatic agent. Chitosan has been used in water purification for the last 30 years. Since then, numerous studies have been conducted to find ways to use these materials. Today, chitosan is known as a dietary supplement for weight loss. In fact, it has been marketed for this purpose in Japan as well as Europe for about 20 years. Many people even call it “anti-fat” [25]. Chitosan has attracted great attention because of its increasing demand as a highly beneficial biopolymer in recent times. Chitosan, which is obtained by deacetylation of chitin with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), can be extracted from a variety of fungi, insects, and crustaceans. Basically, chitosan is a polymer consisting of randomly distributed units of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine with different deacetylation degree, acetylation type, and molecular weight which could be chemically modified to its derivatives. These derivatives affect antibacterial influence of chitosan and its solubility in acidic solutions. Chitosan’s three reactive functional groups are: the amino group at the C-6 position, the primary hydroxyl group at the C-6 position, and the secondary hydroxyl group at the C-3 position. The amino group at the C-6 position differs from chitosan obtained from chitin due to its chemical, physical, and biological functions [18]. Chitosan is a very useful and attractive biopolymer due to its diverse chemical structure. Structural diversity can be seen in MW ranging from low (100 kDa) to high (300 kDa) as well as DD ranging from chitin (< 60%) to chitosan (> 60%). The wide range of chitosan samples described in different studies is surprising. Moreover, there are various conflicts regarding the use of chitosan in different biological applications [26].
Speaking of the synthesis of chitosan derivatives, the most beneficial advantage of chitosan is that it can be chemically modified into a wide variety of derivatives. Due to the presence of a primary alcohol group and an amino group, N, O-modified chitosan, as well as O-modified chitosan, can be modified to N-modified chitosan. The main reason for the synthesis of different chitosan derivatives is to improve certain properties. For example, quaternized chitosan derivatives have improved antimicrobial activity and water solubility, while phosphorylated chitosan derivatives have improved solubility, and N-benzyl/N-alkyl chitosan derivatives show improved antimicrobial activity [27]. Today, chitosan can be modified using two methods: Selective and non-selective modifications. The hydroxyl group is less nucleophilic than the amino group; however, both groups can still interact with electrophiles, including isothiocyanates and acids. These reactions lead to the selective O-chitosan derivative to be synthesized by a one-point reaction, while the non-selective N, O-chitosan derivative is synthesized. An acidic solution like sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can be used in production of the O-chitosan derivative. The amino group is protonated by using an acidic solution, which makes the alcohol functional group more reactive. This reaction preserves 90–95% of the amino acids; it is also a very effective and easy way of obtaining the O-modified chitosan derivative. On the other hand, the selective chitosan derivative equiped using this method is just limited to electrophiles and can only react with the amino group [28, 29, 30].
Due to its low cost, biocompatibility, absence of toxicity, and biodegradability, chitosan has applications in various fields such as tissue engineering, cosmetics, biomedicine, and biotechnology. Chitosan can be used to clarify agent wastewater and remove dye or metal ions due to its potential to protonate the amino group [31]. It can widely be used in the food industry as a browning inhibitor in juices, an antioxidant in sausages, a purifying agent in apple juices, and an antimicrobial agent. Chitosan can also be used to deliver transmucosal proteins and peptides thanks to its ability to adhere to the mucosa and open epithelial cell connections. Finally, it can be used as a carrier of macromolecular drugs. Conventionaly, chitosan has been used in its natural form with some limitations such as low surface area, low porosity, and low solubility at neutral pH. The functionality of chitosan can be increased by producing different derivatives through various chemical and physical processes [18].
Today, while preserving the organoleptic and nutritional properties of food products, great importance is attached to microbiological food safety. To accommodate these processes, the food industry must use special packaging materials that protect the quality and safety of food. Moreover, new generation food packaging materials are expected to have antimicrobial properties which create an environment that delays or completely prevents microbial growth, thus extending the shelf life of food products. Antimicrobial materials can be classified into two broad categories: organic materials and inorganic materials [32, 33]. Of particular interest as inorganic materials are metals, metal phosphates, and metal oxides considered safe for human and/or animal use. Inorganic substances are stable under severe conditions. However, examples of organic antimicrobial materials include halogenated compounds, quaternary ammonium salts, and phenols. Also, recent studies have found that natural polymers like chitosan and its derivatives have antibacterial activities. Thus, chitosan is promising substance that can be used in food packaging due to its ability to prevent gas or aroma in dry status and to form an excellent film [18] and for this purposes chitosan is used in various foods to extend shelf life mentioned in Table 1.
Food | Impact / Finding |
---|---|
Apple, banana, citrus, mango, peach, carrot and lettuce coated with chitosan, Strawberry coated with chitosan, Lychee fruit | Decreased respiratory rate and ethylene production, caries control and softening delay were observed. |
Strawberry coated with chitosan | It has been observed that shelf life increases due to its antifungal properties and / or its ability to stimulate defense enzymes (chitinase and-1,3-glucanase). |
Lychee fruit | The browning is delayed by preventing the increase in polyphenol oxidase activity. |
Use of soluble chitosan as a purifier in apple, grape, lemon, and orange juice | Fruit juices are purer than bentonite and gelatin, and the acceptance of fruit juices has increased. |
To control the acidity of carrots and apple juice | It was observed to cause a significant decrease in titration acidity. |
Apple and pear juice | It has also been indicated it prevent enzymatic browning. |
Beef | It was determined that the value of thiobarbutyric acid (TBA) decreased by 70% compared to the control sample and had a positive effect on maintaining the red color of the meat during storage. |
Beef, fowl | It was determined that the addition of 3% chitosan-glutamate reduced the development of Clostridium perfringens spores. |
Pork products | It was determined that chitosanglutamate used at 0.3% level and 0.6% was an effective preservative and the total number of bacteria, yeast, mold and lactic acid bacteria decreased to 3 records as a result of storage at 4° C for 18 days. |
Sausage | It has been determined that chitosan reduces the use of sodium nitrite in sausage by half (150 ppm) without affecting quality and storage stability, and has also been found to reduce the amount of residual nitrite. |
Cheese | |
Mozzarella | It has been determined that when used with the Lysozyme enzyme for film and coating purposes, it inhibits the growth of E. coli, L. monocytogenes, |
Coated with chitosan (3% chitosan in 1% acetic acid) | Reported at least 2 weeks longer shelf life of eggs at 25° C according to the control sample. |
Coated with chitosan-lysozyme mixture |
The effect of chitosan on some food groups.
The antibacterial function of chitosan and its derivatives can be affected by different food ingredients. Charges and electrostatic forces on chitosan are the key factors enabling its antibacterial property; therefore, any food ingredient that can affect these factors inhibits chitosan’s antimicrobial activity. For instance, inorganic cations (Mg2+) inhibit the adhesion of
Chitosan is used as a food additive in many countries, including Japan, Korea, and Italy, due to its many properties. Today, customers demand safe and quality food products. The food industry’s need to extend the shelf life of food products has pushed research to identify improved preservation strategies [36]. The food industry is an area where important applications of chitosan are widely used. Reducing or preventing the number of chemicals in food is highly demanded in food industry. To meet this growing demand, chitosan can be used as an additive in food products. Chitosan can react with metals and prevent the initiation of lipid oxidation; therefore, it can be used as a secondary antioxidant. What’s more, the antioxidant effect of chitosan can be increased by combining it with many other naturally occurring ingredients. For example, combining chitosan with glucose enhances its antioxidant property, but it does not affect its antibacterial influence against
One of the factors affecting the antimicrobial activity of chitosan is the DD. An increase in DD means an increased number of amino groups on chitosan. As a result, chitosan has an increasing number of protonated amino groups in an acidic condition and is fully soluble in water, which increases the likelihood of interaction between chitosan and negatively charged cell walls of microorganisms. A variation of the deacetylation process resulted in the variation of MW as well as significant differences in the % DD of chitosan. It has been proven that chitosans with low MW (< 10 kDa) have more antimicrobial activity than natural chitosans. Low MW fractions have little or no activity. Chitosan with a MW ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 Da will be useful in inhibiting bacterial growth. In addition, chitosan with an average MW of 9300 Da, was effective against
Chitosan is also used as an encapsulation material to improve food processing. Encapsulation is an attractive technology for protecting chemicals to prevent unwanted changes. Encapsulation materials can be formed with one or more compounds, such as chitosan, maltodextrin, acacia gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate gelatin, and starch, which can be used as a mixture or alone, among others. Chitosan has also attracted attention due to its applications in food and pharmacy. The antimicrobial and antifungal activities of chitosan are some of the most intriguing properties for improving food preservation and reducing the use of chemical preservatives. One study reported the use of chitosan in combination with essential oils, using nanoencapsulation processes, which have the potential to be applied in food industries. Due to the fact that essential oils such as thymol, eugenol, and carvacrol found in thyme, clove, and thyme essential oils easily degrade in light, air, and high temperatures, nanoencapsulation has recently been developed as an effective technique to protect them from evaporation and oxidation [40].
The ion binding character of chitosan is another important quality. Chitosan has proven to have the best chelating properties among other natural polymers. Although hydroxyl groups may also be involved in absorption, the amino groups of chitosan are responsible for compound formation, in which nitrogen is a donor of electron pairs. The mechanism for collaborating the reactive groups with metal ions is very different and can link to the ion pattern, pH, and also the key ingredients of the solution. The constitution of compounds can also be reported based on Lewis’ acid–base theory: the metal ion (acting as an acid) is the acceptor of the double electron given by the chitosan (acting as the base) [41]. With regard to food applications of chitosan, information on the selective binding of essential metal ions to chitosan is important for its application as a cholesterol-lowering agent and its more controversial use as a weight loss agent [42].
Recently, researchers are increasingly interested in active food packaging materials, and there has been more interest in finding materials that provide biological activity to thin films as well as improving their properties. With the widespread use of non-fragile petroleum-based plastics, environmental pollution has become increasingly apparent. Most countries have placed restrictions on plastics, and there is an increasing demand for biodegradable functional packaging materials. Among the many natural biopolymers, chitosan has gained increasing attention thanks to its non-toxicity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, antibacterial activity, and excellent film-forming ability. Chitosan is a native cationic linear polysaccharide created of D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units prepared by partial deacetylation of chitin. Chitosan has excellent features that enable it to be used as wound dressing in the medical area, for tissue engineering, and as food packaging in the industrial area [8]. As a result, chitosan is one of the most important edible films used worldwide, produced by the deacetylation of chitin. Many native biopolymers can be used to compose edible films; however, among them chitosan attracts the attention for its excellent film-forming activity, flexibility, stability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, biodegradability, and commercial usability. Chitosan, which is a traditionally available polysaccharide with the deacetylation of chitin, was generally accepted as safe by FDA (United States Food and Drug Administration) in 2005 and was confirmed for use as a food supplement suitable for human diets [7].
The most prominent properties of chitosan, as a compound obtained by various methods, can be attributed to its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Scientific publications reporting the antimicrobial activity of chitosan are specified in Tables 2 and 3. Considering these properties, the use of chitosan as an edible film to extend the shelf life of foods has been studied by many researchers.
Chitosan or its derivatives | Preparation method and/or foods | Target microorganisms and/or findings |
---|---|---|
Modified chitosan | Chitosan obtained from shrimp chitin in three particle sizes by deacetylating with different concentrations of NaOH (30%, 40%, and 50%) under microwave irradiation for 10 minutes | The inhibitory effect was greater against |
In 1% acetic acid, 73.68% classical deacetylated chitosan, and 83.55% ultrasound-assisted deacetylated chitosan | Antimicrobial activities are directly proportional to the increasing degree of deacetylation. | |
Chitosan obtained by treating chitin with 50% NaOH and dissolved in 1% acetic acid without modification and with modification with ultraviolet or ozone | No difference was observed in the antibacterial properties of unmodified and modified chitosan. | |
Kitooligosaccharides | Chitin (338 kDa MW and 35% deacetylation grade) Kitooligosaccharide (chitin hydrolyzed with HCl) Kitooligosaccharide (HCl hydrolyzed chitosan, 80% deacetylation degree) | Chitin showed a bacteriostatic effect on |
Chitosan oligomers hydrolyzed with nitrous acid (NaNO2 + CH3COOH) and dissolved in 1% acetic acid | Inhibition was observed in the microorganisms tested, but sharp inhibition was detected against | |
Chitooligosaccharides of different molecular weights: > 100 kDa, 100 to 10 kDa, 10 to 1 kDa | Antimicrobial effects were attributed to the type of strains. There was no association with MW. | |
Chitooligosaccharides using papaya and dissolved in 0.25% acetic acid | All microorganisms tested were inhibited but a higher effect was reported for | |
Chitosan (0–2.0% w/w) | Surimi gel made from black catfish ( | Bacterial growth is inhibited. |
Chitosan solution prepared in 1% acetic acid | Culture tilapia ( | A shelf life of 6 days was observed for the control group, while a shelf life of 12 days was observed for samples treated with chitosan. |
Chitosan coating solution (1% and 2% w/v in 1% acetic acid) | Sardine | Shelf life increased to 7 and 9 days, respectively, for fillets treated with 1% and 2% chitosan compared to the control group, whose shelf life was 5 days. |
Chitosan coating solution (2% w/v in 1% acetic acid) | Rainbow trout ( | The shelf life of hot smoked fillets with a shelf life of 14–16 days, vacuum-packed and stored at +4 °C was extended to 24 days for fillets treated with chitosan. |
Chitosan coating solution prepared with 2% (w/v) chitosan in 1% acetic acid | Carp ( | A decrease was determined in the total number of aerobic organisms, psychrophilic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and |
1% (w/v) chitosan coating solution in 1% v/v acetic acid and 0.2% (w/v) bamboo leaves | Silver carp ( | The total number of living beings was higher in the control group stored at 4 °C for 24 days. |
Chitosan, deacetylated 2% (w/v) in acetic acid at 1% v/v Chitosan coating solutions with 1.5% cinnamon oil added | Rainbow trout ( | When chitosan only and chitosan with essential oil were added, the shelf life with chitosan was doubled compared to the control group. |
Chitosan-based edible coatings | Deepwater pink shrimp ( | The shelf life of shrimp treated with chitosan was extended by 3 days. |
Chitosan (2% w/v) prepared in 1% acetic acid added with thyme oil (1% w/v) | Butterfly-shaped rainbow trout ( | Compared to the control group, the shelf life of fillets treated with chitosan was extended by more than 15 days. |
(0.125% and 0.25% w/v) carvacrol added chitosan (2% w/v) | Tilapia ( | During the storage period of 21 days, total viable |
Studies revealing the antibacterial properties of chitosan, accordind to Olatunde et al. [43].
Microorganism Bacteria / Yeast / Mold | Foods |
---|---|
Sausage, Seafood | |
Meat, Seafood | |
Bread, Meat, Sausage | |
Milk, Fruits and vegetables, Meat | |
Sausage, Meat, Soybean Sprouts | |
Fruits and vegetables, Bread, Meat | |
Fruits and vegetables, Meat, Sausage, Seafood | |
Meat, Sausage, Seafood | |
Mayonnaise, Meat, Sausage | |
Bread, Meat, Sausage, Seafood | |
Bread, Meat, Sausage, Seafood | |
Seafood | |
Seafood | |
Seafood | |
Bread | |
Juice | |
Bread | |
Seafood | |
Seafood | |
Bread |
Antimicrobial activity of chitosan against some organisms in foods.
Chitosan is a versatile biopolymer that has a variety of commercial applications. However, individual research reports have used chitosans from various sources with varying physicochemical properties. Hence, the question arises as to how to globally produce chitosans with consistent properties. Each batch of chitosan produced from the same manufacturer may differ in its quality. Functional properties of chitosan vary with molecular weight and degree of deacetylation. With proper modification of chitosan, its functional properties and biological activities can be further enhanced, and more applications are being developed. Chitosan with different structures shows different biological activities and not all the biological activities are found in one kind of chitosan. Each special type of bioactive chitosan should be developed for its potential application. Moreover, many studies carried out on chitosan and chitooligosaccharide bioactivity have not provided detailed molecular mechanisms. Hence, it is difficult to explain exactly how these molecules exert their activities. Therefore, future research should be directed toward understanding their molecular-level details, which may provide insights into the unknown biochemical functions of chitosan. One major drawback of chitosan film is its high sensitivity to humidity, and thus, it may not be appropriate for use when it is in direct contact with moist foods. More research is needed to develop antimicrobial chitosan films that are less sensitive to humidity. Numerous researches conducted on food applications of chitosans have been done at a small or laboratory scale. Further research on quality and shelf life of foods, containing or coated with chitosan, should be conducted on scale-up with large volumes typical of commercial conditions.
Chitosan is a polysaccharide-based film applied to the outer surface of foods and is effective in controlling physiological, morphological, and physiochemical changes in foods. Chitosan films can control oxygen and moisture permeability and have antioxidant and antimicrobial effects on food. The most widely accepted hypotheses about the antimicrobial effect of chitosan are: 1) ionic surface interaction resulting in cell wall leakage; 2) inhibition of mRNA and protein synthesis by the penetration of chitosan into the nuclei of microorganisms; and 3) creating an external barrier, chelating metals and triggering suppression of microbial growth in essential nutrients. All of these situations are likely to occur at the same time but at different densities. The MW and DD are also important factors in determining such activity. Generally, the lower the MW and DD, the higher the effectiveness in reducing microorganism growth and proliferation. Despite the many advantages of chitosan, there are also various restrictions related to its use. The most important limitation of chitosan is its low solubility at neutral pH. To compensate for this deficiency, various chemical and physical processes have been used to increase its solubility.
Urban areas are composed of natural and constructed systems where the human population is more concentrated, and there are complex interactions between socioeconomic factors and biophysical processes [1, 2]. In a city, an ecological process often occurs in habitat patches, which are connected by corridors in a matrix of streets and buildings. The major ecological processes between/among habitat patches include immigration and dispersal agents, also, ecological corridors that can act as links or barriers for dispersal ability [2].
Due to transport networks cities are often the entry points of many alien species [3]. Moreover, in contrast with non-urban areas, urban ecosystems have different physical and chemical properties, which highly influence species distribution and ecosystems functioning [4, 5]. As a whole, urban areas have been usually considered novel in relation to their non-urban counterparts, which are comprised of a variety of fragmented habitats [4]. Overall, in this novel ecosystems the restoration ecology, conservation, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and climate change have been the most discussed topics in literature [6].
A bibliographic analysis of urban sustainability indicates that the topic of green infrastructure started to be in the attention of scientists in 2010, when, the awareness of issues associated with climate change was raised and the assessment of urban ecosystem services was more considered. During a period of five years (2010-2015), topics related to health and well-being were more interesting, and the motor theme of conversation became the priority of the scientists studying the importance of green infrastructures. This demonstrates the significant importance of green infrastructure and its association with sustainability [7, 8].
The term “Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI)” refers to engineered and non-engineered habitat structures in connection with natural and semi-natural areas and other environmental features, which are designed to deliver a wide range of services from nature to humans. Green infrastructure comprises different kinds of components (for example, parks, green roofs, urban forests, road verges) which according to several number of parameters (e.g., spatial scale, dimension, location) are categorized [9, 10].
The “Green Infrastructure” can perform several functions in the same spatial area. In contrast to gray (or conventional) infrastructure which usually has one single objective, GI is multifunctional which means it can promote win-win solutions or “small loss-big gain”, delivering benefits to a wide range of stakeholders and the public at large [10].
In line with Europe’s 2020 strategy, it can act as a catalyst for economic growth by inward investment and generating employment, reducing environmental costs, and providing health benefits among others. This can contribute to the recovery of Europe’s economy by creating green businesses and innovative approaches, representing around 5% of the job market. For instance, the Hoge Kempen National Park (6,000 ha) which is located in the eastern part of Belgium, the investment to carry out improvement projects is raised up to €90 million and generating €24.5 million per year in revenues from sustainable tourism alone. In Sweden, 10,000 m2 of green roofs were installed and an open storm-water system was built to improve the environment both for people and nature, the entire project cost around €22 million but the benefits that have been derived from this investment are already tracking up; for example, decreasing in rainwater runoff rates by half, significant saving energy by residents, increasing the biodiversity by half, unemployment has fallen from 30–6%, and turnover in tenancies is decreased substantially [10]. More example is Canada where the economic value of 13 ES in Canada’s Capital Region (Ottawa-Gatineau region) amounts to an average of 332 million dollars, and to a total economic value of over 5 billion dollars, annualized over 20 years [11].
Improving the knowledge about the importance of urban ecosystem services (ESs), and their value especially in the current trend of world urbanization is necessary. Thus, the role of city planners and other disciplines and their collaboration to integrate new findings associated with ESs is necessary [12]. ESs, directly and indirectly, influence human life and thus the economic activities. For examples, the maintenance of soil fertility can secure food production, and/or providing clean air and water through the absorption of pollutants by plants, and our mental and physical health may depend on the accessibility to green spaces [13].
We only consider the ecosystem services classified by the Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (or MAES), Urban ecosystem, 4th report (May 2016). This classification takes into account merely the ecosystem services which are more important and happen in urban areas. These ecosystem services (ESs) are including (i) provisioning services in which the food and water are the most valuable ones, (ii) regulating services including the regulation of air quality, flood and water flow regulation, also, noise and temperature reduction plus pollination, (iii) the cultural ecosystem services such as recreation, education and cultural heritage [14].
There is criticism this classification in which the supporting services is not taken into account. Those supporting services are so-called intermediate ecosystem services and comprise the habitats for species and maintenance of genetic diversity [15].
Apart from the above-mentioned classification system, the three other classifications are also available but they consider the assessment of ecosystem services on much big scale than cities. These three classifications are as follows; (1) CICES (the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services), (2) The MA (the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), and (3) TEEB (the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) [16, 17, 18].
The urban area often contain threatened species. The spatial structure of the urban landscape, especially patches features (e.g., patch size and their connectivity) are correlated with species richness and biodiversity [19].
More than three-quarters of Earth species are characterized to be extinct at short time intervals which is unprecedented. Mammalia, birds, and amphibians are the groups of animals that have become more popular for the assessment by scientists [20], while insects species have been poorly studied, despite their vital role in ecosystems and in turn well-being. Biodiversity loss of insects is reported as a worldwide phenomenon, (typically in Great Britain and other European countries), where four main drivers of this condition have been presented [21, 22]. Habit lost and fragmentation which is made by the human is considered as the main factor of global biodiversity loss, and then pollution, biological factors, and climate change. In the case of mammals and birds, habit change plays the same role in the reduction of their species [23, 24, 25].
Human settlement and infrastructure development is a threat to protected species and negatively impact on the many of the at-risk species [26]. Among those species, beneficial insects like honeybee colonies, birds, and mammals are more endangered. For example, beehives are at risk of collapse by mite parasites and viral infection. Thus the necessity of conservation strategies is a need in urban wildlife, where the species encounter anthropized environments that differ from the natural landscape. With this in mind that many species characteristics such as dispersal ability, sex, even body mass influence the species movement to urban areas. Passerine birds are a good example; where the urban colonization rate of these birds is associated with the color dichromatism [27, 28].
If we consider two groups of specialized and generalist species, the first group (specialized) tend to be more susceptible and poor in adaptation to the habitat changes in novel conditions as they have a special host, and their ability to recover quickly is less; thus, these species are more at risk of extinction. The second group (generalized species) are more adaptable to climate change and can successfully colonize the new environment/urban setting in a short time, showing plasticity, adaptability, and having access to a wide range of food and shelter requirements. Other factors such as invasive species has been reported to show cascading effects on the ecosystem and influence the species communities, and the diversity of many organisms, especially insects. For example, cattle grazing and recreational activities negatively impacted the distribution of a dragonfly (
Human activities like industrialization, and agricultural intensification, have changed the habitat structure of natural landscape, causing the reduction in food resources and shelter sites for many specialist species. Moreover, urbanization, causing the disappearance of many habitat specialists and their replacement with a few generalists adapted to the artificial human environment. Providing habitat quality and management contribute to biodiversity maintenance. A good example of habitat management is presented by Britain government where the area of flower grasslands was increased for the target populations of bumble species [25, 29].
There are several factors causing environmental pollution, declining biodiversity loss. Fertilization and pesticide application mostly occur in agricultural settings. In the case of urban settings, industrial sites, transportation, and sewage increase soil contamination by the heavy metals in green infrastructures, which can reduce not only belowground biodiversity but also influences the vegetation structure of lawns and grasslands patches [25].
Several studies reported the existence of neonicotinoid residues that contaminated the honey samples from
In Germany, over the 27 years of study, about 80% of the flying insect biomass losses were caused by increases in pesticide application [36]. In a study in Paris, urbanization made a significant reduction in the population of the bird species called “House Sparrows” [37].
Urban areas are under the pressures of population growth, urbanization and suburbanization processes, which interact with the climate, leading to the establishment of the urban climate. Urban climate is generally characterized by some particular features such as heat islands effects, dryness, urban flooding, cold, humidity and pollution, which can significantly affect human health [38]. Abiotic stress such as heat waves, drought, and flooding are the three most important factors, having not only socio-economic impacts but also constrains on global food security [39].
The urban heat and its extreme impacts on social and environmental aspects on urban residents together with climatic change arising from global warming, alleviating agricultural crops, influencing the resiliency of the urban greenery and therefore a risk for human health. The heat-related phenomena are related to heatwaves and drought which produce negative effects as heat-related illness and heat-related mortality [40, 41, 42]. Triggering certain types of diseases have been reported due to hydro climatic treat and long-term exposure to heat-related stresses, for example; respiratory, gastrointestinal, caused by low humidity, high temperatures and lack of water for personal hygiene, and household cleaning [43].
Water flooding is a serious problem in many cities of China. The concept of sponge city was developed for the first time in China in 2014 in order to deal with urban flooding and to attenuate urban runoff, and improve the purification in the concept of urban sustainability. The concept is being developed to make use of ‘blue’ and ‘green’ spaces in the urban environment to encourage stormwater management and control [44].
“
Global warming stimulates the decline of many beneficial insects, for example, wild bees and butterflies. However, global warming shows contrasting trends on the population density of butterflies in Finland. Despite this, the general trend of the world’s insect population exhibiting around 50 percent reduction. Likewise, the insect populations which are adapted to the cold climate have declined (e.g. dragonflies, stoneflies, and bumblebees), showing a general reduction in population density of pollinators such as wasps, ants, and beetles in Mediterranean regions [25, 46].
Connectivity is demonstrated to be a proxy for biodiversity, where species and other ecological flows are able to move through a landscape and gain diversity in their genetic structure, stabilizing the ecosystem. As a result of urbanization, habitat fragmentation leading to the extinction of the threatened species, making the network between urban green infrastructure more important. Therefore, modeling the connectivity between different urban patches in an urban area through designing green corridors is stated to be a realistic direction. Connectivity has two elements; structural and functional connectivity in which the structural connectivity is a useful indicator of functional connectivity, providing information on how to create a better connectedness of urban green spaces [47]. Different methods have been used to analyze the connectivity in an urban landscape. The graph theory method is the most useful tool by which the two concepts of inter and intra-patch connectivity is taken into account. This method is a robust metric, enabling to prioritization of the importance of each patch in the entire system [48].
Connectivity has three indices; (i) Number of links (L) between/among habitat patches (node) which provide information about the geographical distance between/among patches, showing the physical structure between patches, (ii) number of components (NC), where a component is a set of patches/nodes which are connected by links; a patch itself is also considered as a component, and (iii) the integral index of connectivity (IIC), which was proposed by Pascual-Hortal and Saura [48, 49]. The connectivity raises when the NL is higher and the NC is lower. Considering IIC, the degree of connectivity within a landscape can be estimated, and also the contribution of each patch into entire landscape connectivity which is the most useful tool, providing significant conceptual improvements in the decision process for planning [50, 51, 52]. The IIC shows the importance of every single patch in the overall connectivity which is based on graph structure and binary connection model, which means two patches are connected or not. Assessing this index is based on delta/d (dIIC) or the differences in the IIC value and ranges from 0 to 1 for each patch, indicating the importance of each patch with a higher value in the overall connectivity of the analyzed landscape. The dIIC value has three fractions and each fraction additively leads to the overall value. The three fractions are including dIICintra or intra-patch connectivity, dIICflux or inter-patch connectivity when a patch is directly connected to the other one; dIICconnector or stepping stone, which means if a patch/node contribute to the connection of other patches [53].
Microorganisms are a vital component of nature and can be found everywhere or so-called ubiquitous, from the human gut to natural ecosystems like oceans. They belong to bacteria, fungi, viruses, and micro-eukaryotes [54, 55]. In terms of environment, soil microbial communities are a key factor in the biochemical processes that support plant growth and other ecosystem services of GI features [56, 57]. At the urban level, the first assessment of subsurface microbial communities in a truly urban site was investigated in 1992 [58].
Edaphic variables are the factors related to the soil properties (e.g., soil pH) that affect the diversity and geographical distribution of microorganisms like soil bacterial communities; soil with lower pH (>4.5) has lower bacterial diversity [59]. As, in urban areas, the soil physical (moisture and texture) and chemical properties (pH, solid minerals, and organic matter) can influence microorganism communities [60, 61]. Notably, bacterial diversity is significantly correlated with human population density (as a proxy of anthropogenic activity) [62], indicating co-occurrence of human settlements and species-rich regions [63]; the reason for this relationship is unknown.
The results of human activities including heavy metals and other pollutants such as pesticides, fertilizers, salt, exposure to petroleum products impact the soil ecosystem, as these activities and products can alter the structure of soil bacteria communities and have a strong effect on their abundance and diversity [64, 65, 66].
Different urban soil types and their locations show that the Phyla Acidobacteria and Actinobacteria, are the most dominant soil bacteria [67]. On the other side, the most abundant fungi are related to the genera Glomus and Rhizophagus. The identified taxa are able to survive in distributed habitats and are associated with key ecosystem services (for example, decomposition and N cycling) [68].
Knowing microbial communities in GI features is important because it can help to guide urban planning for the purposes of improving urban biodiversity or bioremediation as a guide for future GI management. Identifying and understanding the dynamics of microbial communities in urban environments is thus essential for managing microbes beneficially in the context of urban sustainability [69]. Recently and in 2016 the project of Metagenomics and Meta-design of the Subways and Urban Biomes (MetaSUB) have started to characterize the composition of the microbial inhabitants of urban environments across the world. The aim of this international project is to support city planners, public health officials, and architectural designers and to quantify cities more responsive, safer places for people [70].
Growing the world’s population accelerates the increase of pollutants and consequently can jeopardize the people’s life by being exposure to pollutants. This can also proliferate the spread of pandemic and pathogenic microbiome. Therefore, it is imperative to adopt sustainable practices and enhance the health of the urban environment, considering the implementation of surveillance programs, discovering the genetic characterization and functional diversity of microbes in the cities [71, 72].
This chapter attempts to address the important concepts related to urban ecosystem. Urban areas are composed of natural and constructed systems. In a city, an ecological process including immigration and dispersal agents often occur in habitat patches, which are connected by corridors. Urban ecosystems have different physical and chemical properties, which highly influence species distribution, ecosystems functioning, and provide ample ecosystem services, representing sustainable tourism, saving energy, increasing the biodiversity, reducing environmental costs and providing health benefits for residents. Nowadays, however, urban development threatens human health and some elements of biodiversity, which is mainly caused by climate change especially urban heat island, environmental pollution, and habitat fragmentation. Green corridor is proposed to be pragmatic approach in connectedness of different groups of habitat structures and in turn genetic diversity. Subsurface microbial communities are also associated with major biochemical process which support plant growth and ensure key ecosystem services involving nitrogen cycling, biodegradation, and decomposition.
In an increasing urbanized world, adopting sustainable practices for communities are crucial for improving and maintaining urban environmental health. This could be helpful to guide urban planning for the purposes of improving urban biodiversity or bioremediation as a guide for future GI management. To do this, researchers from different disciplines, both in national and international collaborations can address many environmental issues and consequently human well-being in cities. To explore next, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary projects are required to untangle the current challenges associated with biodiversity, ecosystem services, and climate change in urban areas.
This chapter financed by the project “UPWR 2.0: international and interdisciplinary programme of development of Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences”, co-financed by the European Social Fund under the Operational Program Knowledge Education Development, under contract No. POWR.03.05.00-00-Z062/18.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\\n\\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\\n\\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \\n\\t\\t\\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t15 March 2022 | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\n\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 March 2022 | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[],filtersByRegion:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"10"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9985",title:"Geostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. Yarus, Dr. Marko Maucec, Dr. Timothy C. Coburn and Associate Prof. Michael Pyrcz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9985.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"78011",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey M.",surname:"Yarus",slug:"jeffrey-m.-yarus",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Yarus"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11486",title:"Climate Change - Recent Observations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"741543ff220f5cf688efbf12d3e2f536",slug:null,bookSignature:"Assistant Prof. Terence Epule Epule",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11486.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"348146",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Terence Epule",surname:"Epule",slug:"terence-epule-epule",fullName:"Terence Epule Epule"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11487",title:"Floods - Understanding Existing and Emerging Risk Drivers in a Climate Change Context",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c829bdd1a2a84b4b2c31ce5eaab865e2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Tiago Miguel Ferreira and Associate Prof. Haiyun Shi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11487.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"450075",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiago Miguel",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"tiago-miguel-ferreira",fullName:"Tiago Miguel Ferreira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11488",title:"GIS and Spatial Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fbb625cf1556787cd00be17e7137a5dc",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Jorge Rocha, MSc. Eduardo Gomes, Dr. Inês Boavida-Portugal and Dr. Cláudia M. Viana",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11488.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11489",title:"Satellite Systems - Applied Geodesy and Earth Observation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7c21d1a8ed9ad6be081d2e74d977d2bc",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Bihter Erol",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11489.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"75478",title:"Dr.",name:"Bihter",surname:"Erol",slug:"bihter-erol",fullName:"Bihter Erol"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11490",title:"Advances in Plate Tectonics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"412f2e209ff259650a5a1c7df151e3a7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gaurav D. Chauhan, Dr. Subhash Bhandari and Dr. M. G. Thakkar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11490.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"239938",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaurav",surname:"Chauhan",slug:"gaurav-chauhan",fullName:"Gaurav Chauhan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11491",title:"Current Perspectives on Applied Geomorphology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9f0fe8910dc02818cad71316650d297",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. António Vieira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11491.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"103627",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Vieira",slug:"antonio-vieira",fullName:"António Vieira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11492",title:"Space Exploration - Advances in Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2204ff2e64bffb84a4bf1b74bb38bfa1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hector Pérez-de-Tejada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11492.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"345070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",surname:"Pérez-de-Tejada",slug:"hector-perez-de-tejada",fullName:"Hector Pérez-de-Tejada"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11493",title:"Solar Radiation - Enabling Technologies, Recent Innovations, and Advancements for Energy Transition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0400d540d2b8fb55d4cc8590e1e58844",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mohammadreza Aghaei and Associate Prof. Amin Moazami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11493.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"317230",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammadreza",surname:"Aghaei",slug:"mohammadreza-aghaei",fullName:"Mohammadreza Aghaei"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11662",title:"Limnology - The Importance of Monitoring and Correlations of Lentic and Lotic Waters",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f1043cf6b1daae7a7b527e1d162ca4a8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Carmine Massarelli and Dr. Claudia Campanale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"315689",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmine",surname:"Massarelli",slug:"carmine-massarelli",fullName:"Carmine Massarelli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11833",title:"Ozone Research - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1e789b57319be85ed0a32e569967d822",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11833.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"190012",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Taner",surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11834",title:"Steppe Geography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"363517fa6f079daf94c51ea1b91fed2a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11834.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:42},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:62},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:123},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3}],offset:12,limit:12,total:34},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3340,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1845,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1096,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:995,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3791,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2982,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:559,editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:546,editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:539,editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:535,editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10871",title:"Computed-Tomography (CT) Scan",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"966d8cf74fa27eea1b9cbc9a6ee94993",slug:"computed-tomography-ct-scan",bookSignature:"Reda R. Gharieb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10871.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",slug:"brain-computer-interface",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11196",title:"New Updates in E-Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6afaadf68e2a0a4b370ac5ceb5ca89c6",slug:"new-updates-in-e-learning",bookSignature:"Eduard Babulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11196.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"10086",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Babulak",slug:"eduard-babulak",fullName:"Eduard Babulak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"86",title:"Physical Chemistry",slug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry",parent:{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"},numberOfBooks:53,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1225,numberOfWosCitations:2197,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1123,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2800,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"86",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10089",title:"Microwave Heating",subtitle:"Electromagnetic Fields Causing Thermal and Non-Thermal Effects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8f6a41e4f5ce0e9c48628516d7c92050",slug:"microwave-heating-electromagnetic-fields-causing-thermal-and-non-thermal-effects",bookSignature:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy I.",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-i.-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8085",title:"Photophysics, Photochemical and Substitution Reactions",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d12a01a39921705f78e98baf99705b4e",slug:"photophysics-photochemical-and-substitution-reactions-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Satyen Saha, Ravi Kumar Kanaparthi and Tanja V. Soldatovi?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226917",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyen",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"satyen-saha",fullName:"Satyen Saha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10054",title:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"853598dac262500c29850c27c5be6092",slug:"electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Marwa El-Azazy, Mart Min and Paul Annus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10054.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198210",title:"Dr.",name:"Marwa",middleName:"S.",surname:"El-Azazy",slug:"marwa-el-azazy",fullName:"Marwa El-Azazy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10026",title:"Electrodialysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffef55f8ffe48f096acaa5f6329ed76f",slug:"electrodialysis",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10026.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190012",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8111",title:"Foams",subtitle:"Emerging Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b0bd44cbe7220785e3fbbd1003364a82",slug:"foams-emerging-technologies",bookSignature:"Huijin Xu, Chen Yang and Dengwei Jing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213843",title:"Dr.",name:"Huijin",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"huijin-xu",fullName:"Huijin Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7743",title:"Redox",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f364cc129c1b9710ff56e0fad989bd9",slug:"redox",bookSignature:"Rozina Khattak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7743.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207213",title:"Prof.",name:"Rozina",middleName:null,surname:"Khattak",slug:"rozina-khattak",fullName:"Rozina Khattak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9199",title:"Sonochemical Reactions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72f3010437d022fd2a932421ff4a9200",slug:"sonochemical-reactions",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9199.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",middleName:null,surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8012",title:"Sorption in 2020s",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a89bf0c99155aa01dc2f2ba46cbdbb8b",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",bookSignature:"George Kyzas and Nikolaos Lazaridis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8012.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7735",title:"Surfactants and Detergents",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bca8bb6e94e26599889ff5e1190b0ed7",slug:"surfactants-and-detergents",bookSignature:"Ashim Kumar Dutta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7735.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"277477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashim",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Dutta",slug:"ashim-dutta",fullName:"Ashim Dutta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6830",title:"Microemulsion",subtitle:"a Chemical Nanoreactor",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be035517764096e6f36178f12a16ab12",slug:"microemulsion-a-chemical-nanoreactor",bookSignature:"Juan C. Mejuto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192394",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:"C.",surname:"Mejuto",slug:"juan-mejuto",fullName:"Juan Mejuto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8440",title:"Nanoemulsions",subtitle:"Properties, Fabrications and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d753b932aeea0109c1ab04d6745d4941",slug:"nanoemulsions-properties-fabrications-and-applications",bookSignature:"Kai Seng Koh and Voon Loong Wong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8440.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"222878",title:"Dr.",name:"Kai Seng",middleName:null,surname:"Koh",slug:"kai-seng-koh",fullName:"Kai Seng Koh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7478",title:"Photocatalysts",subtitle:"Applications and Attributes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26559479998a0a8d83546de0a220c87f",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",bookSignature:"Sher Bahadar Khan and Kalsoom Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7478.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245468",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher Bahadar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-bahadar-khan",fullName:"Sher Bahadar Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:53,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"41885",doi:"10.5772/48176",title:"Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons a Constituent of Petroleum: Presence and Influence in the Aquatic Environment",slug:"polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbons-a-constituent-of-petroleum-presence-and-influence-in-the-aquatic-en",totalDownloads:9526,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:107,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"Daniela M. Pampanin and Magne O. Sydnes",authors:[{id:"139987",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sydnes",slug:"sydnes",fullName:"Sydnes"},{id:"143899",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Pampanin",slug:"daniela-pampanin",fullName:"Daniela Pampanin"}]},{id:"40697",doi:"10.5772/51040",title:"Selective Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Waters and Waste Waters Using Ion Exchange Methods",slug:"selective-removal-of-heavy-metal-ions-from-waters-and-waste-waters-using-ion-exchange-methods",totalDownloads:19274,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:93,abstract:null,book:{id:"2549",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki and Dorota Kołodyńska",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"}]},{id:"33450",doi:"10.5772/37583",title:"Measurement of the Nanoscale Roughness by Atomic Force Microscopy: Basic Principles and Applications",slug:"measurement-of-the-nanoscale-roughness-by-atomic-force-microscopy-basic-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:21229,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:88,abstract:null,book:{id:"2282",slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-imaging-measuring-and-manipulating-surfaces-at-the-atomic-scale",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy",fullTitle:"Atomic Force Microscopy - Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale"},signatures:"R.R.L. De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"63161",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80495",title:"Modelling of Adsorption Kinetic Processes—Errors, Theory and Application",slug:"modelling-of-adsorption-kinetic-processes-errors-theory-and-application",totalDownloads:3829,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:86,abstract:"Adsorption has become a competitive method in the field of wastewater and air treatment. Adsorption kinetics is one of the main factors that must be understood before the applicability of any adsorbent. In every adsorption process, linear or non-linear analysis of the kinetics is applied. The goodness of fit index (coefficient of correlation or sum of squares) is applied to access the best model. The usage of linear or non-linear from of the adsorption kinetics has an impact on the distribution of error function. Almost in every adsorption study, linear forms have been used to conclude the best kinetic model that influence the adsorption mechanism—which might be an error. Therefore, this review highlights the mistakes in the usage of linear and non-linear models. The applicability of the adsorption kinetics in wastewater treatment is also illuminated.",book:{id:"7486",slug:"advanced-sorption-process-applications",title:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications"},signatures:"George William Kajjumba, Serkan Emik, Atakan Öngen, H. Kurtulus Özcan\nand Serdar Aydın",authors:[{id:"26340",title:"Dr.",name:"Kurtulus",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"kurtulus-ozcan",fullName:"Kurtulus Ozcan"},{id:"250972",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"serdar-aydin",fullName:"Serdar Aydin"},{id:"251149",title:"Dr.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Emik",slug:"serkan-emik",fullName:"Serkan Emik"},{id:"251150",title:"Dr.",name:"Atakan",middleName:null,surname:"Öngen",slug:"atakan-ongen",fullName:"Atakan Öngen"},{id:"251152",title:"Mr.",name:"George William",middleName:null,surname:"Kajjumba",slug:"george-william-kajjumba",fullName:"George William Kajjumba"}]},{id:"62303",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79374",title:"Modified Titanium Dioxide for Photocatalytic Applications",slug:"modified-titanium-dioxide-for-photocatalytic-applications",totalDownloads:3924,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:72,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been widely used as a photocatalyst in many environmental and energy applications due to its efficient photoactivity, high stability, low cost, and safety to the environment and humans. However, its large band gap energy, ca. 3.2 eV limits its absorption of solar radiation to the UV light range which accounts for only about 5% of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is also limited by the rapid recombination of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs. When used in water treatment applications, TiO2 has a poor affinity toward organic pollutants, especially hydrophobic organic pollutants. Several strategies have been employed to reduce its band gap energy, its electron-hole recombination rates as well as enhance its absorption of organic pollutants. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent works that have employed the doping, decoration, and structural modification of TiO2 particles for applications in photocatalysis. Additionally, we discuss the effectiveness of these dopants and/or modifiers in enhancing TiO2 photoactivity as well as some perspective on the future of TiO2 photocatalysis.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"John Moma and Jeffrey Baloyi",authors:[{id:"250026",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"250963",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Baloyi",slug:"jeffrey-baloyi",fullName:"Jeffrey Baloyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68496",title:"Moisture Sorption Isotherms and Isotherm Model Performance Evaluation for Food and Agricultural Products",slug:"moisture-sorption-isotherms-and-isotherm-model-performance-evaluation-for-food-and-agricultural-prod",totalDownloads:1909,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Moisture sorption characteristics of agricultural and food products play important roles in such technological processes as drying, handling, packaging, storage, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life, glass transition and estimation of drying time and texture and prevention of deteriorative reactions. They are useful in the computation of thermodynamic energies of moisture in the products. An understanding of moisture sorption phenomena in products, moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) determination techniques and moisture sorption isotherm model evaluation procedures would be useful in the development or selection, modeling and controlling as well as optimization of appropriate processes to make for enhanced efficiency. The phenomena addressed in this chapter are equilibrium moisture content (EMC)-water activity (aw) relationships and MSI types, temperature influence on isotherms and occurrence of moisture sorption hysteresis. MSI measurement techniques highlighted are the gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric (VPM), hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic and the use of AquaLab equipment. Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models (BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Halsey, modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost and modified Oswin) were selected, and their evaluation procedures using moisture sorption data were outlined. Static gravimetric technique involving the use of saturated salt solution appears to be the most widely used and recommended method of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products. Most of the MSI models can be fitted to moisture sorption data thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation, while others can be solved using such expression as second-order polynomial. Model goodness of fit can be determined using standard (SE) error of estimate, coefficient of determination (R2), mean relative percentage deviation (P) and fraction explained variation (FEV). The acceptance of a model depends on the nature of its residual plots. A model is considered acceptable if the residual plots show uniform scatter around the horizontal value of zero showing no systemic tendency towards a clear pattern. A model is better than another model if it has lower SE, lower P, higher R2 and higher FEV. Although it appears as if a generalized MSI model is yet to exist, it is recommended that the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema (NBA) model should be given thorough going and extensive testing on the MSI of different categories of food as it could prove true to its generalized model posture due to the fundamental nature of its derivation.",book:{id:"8012",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",title:"Sorption in 2020s",fullTitle:"Sorption in 2020s"},signatures:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",authors:[{id:"303694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ndubisi",middleName:null,surname:"Aviara",slug:"ndubisi-aviara",fullName:"Ndubisi Aviara"}]},{id:"63788",title:"Disinfection Methods",slug:"disinfection-methods",totalDownloads:3145,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Water must be made safe to drink, and an important step in ensuring water safety is disinfection. Disinfectants are added to water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. Ground water sources can be disinfected by “The Water Treatment Rule,” which requires public water systems for disinfection. Chlorination, ozone, ultraviolet light, and chloramines are primary methods for disinfection. However, potassium permanganate, photocatalytic disinfection, nanofiltration, and chlorine dioxide can also be used. Organic material is naturally present in water. Certain forms of chlorine can react with these organic materials and result in the formation of harmful by-products; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has anticipated maximum levels for these contaminants.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq, Zobia Afsheen, Amjad Khan and Amjad\nKhan",authors:[{id:"228353",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-saqib-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq"},{id:"246559",title:"Dr.",name:"Zobia",middleName:null,surname:"Afsheen",slug:"zobia-afsheen",fullName:"Zobia Afsheen"},{id:"246561",title:"Mr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"},{id:"271289",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"}]},{id:"41887",title:"Microbial Techniques for Hydrocarbon Exploration",slug:"microbial-techniques-for-hydrocarbon-exploration",totalDownloads:6400,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"M.A. Rasheed, D.J. Patil and A.M. Dayal",authors:[{id:"143475",title:"Dr",name:"Mohammed Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Rasheed",slug:"mohammed-abdul-rasheed",fullName:"Mohammed Abdul Rasheed"},{id:"144630",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayal",middleName:null,surname:"Anurodh",slug:"dayal-anurodh",fullName:"Dayal Anurodh"}]},{id:"58999",title:"The DFT+U: Approaches, Accuracy, and Applications",slug:"the-dft-u-approaches-accuracy-and-applications",totalDownloads:4351,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"This chapter introduces the Hubbard model and its applicability as a corrective tool for accurate modeling of the electronic properties of various classes of systems. The attainment of a correct description of electronic structure is critical for predicting further electronic-related properties, including intermolecular interactions and formation energies. The chapter begins with an introduction to the formulation of density functional theory (DFT) functionals, while addressing the origin of bandgap problem with correlated materials. Then, the corrective approaches proposed to solve the DFT bandgap problem are reviewed, while comparing them in terms of accuracy and computational cost. The Hubbard model will then offer a simple approach to correctly describe the behavior of highly correlated materials, known as the Mott insulators. Based on Hubbard model, DFT+U scheme is built, which is computationally convenient for accurate calculations of electronic structures. Later in this chapter, the computational and semiempirical methods of optimizing the value of the Coulomb interaction potential (U) are discussed, while evaluating the conditions under which it can be most predictive. The chapter focuses on highlighting the use of U to correct the description of the physical properties, by reviewing the results of case studies presented in literature for various classes of materials.",book:{id:"6193",slug:"density-functional-calculations-recent-progresses-of-theory-and-application",title:"Density Functional Calculations",fullTitle:"Density Functional Calculations - Recent Progresses of Theory and Application"},signatures:"Sarah A. Tolba, Kareem M. Gameel, Basant A. Ali, Hossam A.\nAlmossalami and Nageh K. Allam",authors:[{id:"175824",title:"Dr.",name:"Nageh",middleName:"K.",surname:"Allam",slug:"nageh-allam",fullName:"Nageh Allam"},{id:"398157",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah A.",middleName:null,surname:"Tolba",slug:"sarah-a.-tolba",fullName:"Sarah A. Tolba"},{id:"398158",title:"Dr.",name:"Kareem M.",middleName:null,surname:"Gameel",slug:"kareem-m.-gameel",fullName:"Kareem M. Gameel"},{id:"398162",title:"Dr.",name:"Basant A.",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"basant-a.-ali",fullName:"Basant A. Ali"},{id:"398163",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossam A.",middleName:null,surname:"Almossalami",slug:"hossam-a.-almossalami",fullName:"Hossam A. Almossalami"}]},{id:"40233",title:"Ammonia as a Hydrogen Source for Fuel Cells: A Review",slug:"ammonia-as-a-hydrogen-source-for-fuel-cells-a-review",totalDownloads:9207,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"2795",slug:"hydrogen-energy-challenges-and-perspectives",title:"Hydrogen Energy",fullTitle:"Hydrogen Energy - Challenges and Perspectives"},signatures:"Denver Cheddie",authors:[{id:"141157",title:"Dr.",name:"Denver",middleName:null,surname:"Cheddie",slug:"denver-cheddie",fullName:"Denver Cheddie"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"86",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X",scope:"\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{},overviewPageOFChapters:[],overviewPagePublishedBooks:[],openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"19",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Science",keywords:"Animal Science, Animal Biology, Wildlife Species, Domesticated Animals",scope:"The Animal Science topic welcomes research on captive and wildlife species, including domesticated animals. The research resented can consist of primary studies on various animal biology fields such as genetics, nutrition, behavior, welfare, and animal production, to name a few. Reviews on specialized areas of animal science are also welcome.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11415,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78543",title:"Pulmonary Vein: Embryology, Anatomy, Function and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100051",signatures:"Chan I-Ping and Hsueh Tung",slug:"pulmonary-vein-embryology-anatomy-function-and-disease",totalDownloads:172,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78564",title:"Anatomy of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta): The Essentials for the Biomedical Researcher",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99067",signatures:"Christophe Casteleyn and Jaco Bakker",slug:"anatomy-of-the-rhesus-monkey-macaca-mulatta-the-essentials-for-the-biomedical-researcher",totalDownloads:311,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77999",title:"Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (BALT) Histology and Its Role in Various Pathologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99366",signatures:"Tuba Parlak Ak",slug:"bronchus-associated-lymphoid-tissue-balt-histology-and-its-role-in-various-pathologies",totalDownloads:193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78242",title:"Genomic Instability and Cyto-Genotoxic Damage in Animal Species",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99685",signatures:"María Evarista Arellano-García, Olivia Torres-Bugarín, Maritza Roxana García-García, Daniel García-Flores, Yanis Toledano-Magaña, Cinthya Sofia Sanabria-Mora, Sandra Castro-Gamboa and Juan Carlos García-Ramos",slug:"genomic-instability-and-cyto-genotoxic-damage-in-animal-species",totalDownloads:133,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78503",title:"Biomechanics of the Canine Elbow Joint",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99569",signatures:"Thomas Rohwedder",slug:"biomechanics-of-the-canine-elbow-joint",totalDownloads:166,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78018",title:"Application of Noble Metals in the Advances in Animal Disease Diagnostics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99162",signatures:"Gabriel Alexis S.P. Tubalinal, Leonard Paulo G. Lucero, Jim Andreus V. Mangahas, Marvin A. Villanueva and Claro N. Mingala",slug:"application-of-noble-metals-in-the-advances-in-animal-disease-diagnostics",totalDownloads:108,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77455",title:"Marek’s Disease Is a Threat for Large Scale Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98939",signatures:"Wojciech Kozdruń, Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk and Natalia Styś-Fijoł",slug:"marek-s-disease-is-a-threat-for-large-scale-poultry-production",totalDownloads:246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"74655",title:"Taxon-Specific Pair Bonding in Gibbons (Hylobatidae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95270",signatures:"Thomas Geissmann, Simone Rosenkranz-Weck, Judith J.G.M. Van Der Loo and Mathias Orgeldinger",slug:"taxon-specific-pair-bonding-in-gibbons-hylobatidae",totalDownloads:382,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Southern California",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9973",title:"Data Acquisition",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9973.jpg",slug:"data-acquisition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",hash:"75ea6cdd241216c9db28aa734ab34446",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Data Acquisition - Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",editors:[{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",slug:"biometric-systems",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Biometric Systems",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8622",title:"Peptide Synthesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8622.jpg",slug:"peptide-synthesis",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaya T. Varkey",hash:"de9fa48c5248dbfb581825b8c74f5623",volumeInSeries:0,fullTitle:"Peptide Synthesis",editors:[{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7497",title:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7497.jpg",slug:"computer-vision-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Monika Elzbieta Machoy",hash:"1e9812cebd46ef9e28257f3e96547f6a",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",hash:"da2c90e8db647ead30504defce3fb5d3",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261466/images/system/261466.jpeg",institutionString:"Medical University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/468481",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"468481"},fullPath:"/profiles/468481",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()