\r\n\tThis book aims to comprise the current state of the art of the drying operations, at a laboratory and industrial scale, through the presentation of chapters that cover the fundamentals and applications of the different drying methods such as convective, freeze (lyophilization), osmotic, supercritical, vacuum- and irradiation-assisted drying. The comparison, analysis, modeling, and scale-up of the diverse type of dryers are also topics under the scope of the book. Besides, the engineering aspects of drying are considered, specifically the drying kinetics and the transport phenomena during the process, as well as energy consumption, operating costs, equipment safety, and environmental controls.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-110-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-109-0",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3ebb761607fa27f2d32dd269ee2f2c0f",bookSignature:"Dr. Israel Pala-Rosas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8540.jpg",keywords:"convective drying, freeze drying, supercritical drying, cabinet tray dryer, drum dryer, equilibrium moisture, bound moisture, drying kinetics, drying constant, dryer design, dryer scale-up",numberOfDownloads:112,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 1st 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 22nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 21st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 9th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 9th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"284261",title:"Dr.",name:"Israel",middleName:null,surname:"Pala-Rosas",slug:"israel-pala-rosas",fullName:"Israel Pala-Rosas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:"Israel Pala-Rosas is Biochemical Engineer by the Instituto Tecnológico de Tehuacán (ITT), Master in Chemical Engineering by the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP) and Doctor in Sciences in Chemical Engineering by the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Química e Industrias Extractivas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (ESIQIE-IPN). \r\n\r\nCurrently, Israel Pala develops research at ESIQIE-IPN and at the Laboratorio de Procesos Catalíticos of the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Azcapotzalco (UAM-A).\r\n\r\n His interest lies in, but is not limited to, the research and development of catalytic and biotechnological processes for the transformation of biomass to value-added compounds and biofuels, regarding the synthesis, characterization, and testing of catalysts, as well as the design and analysis of (bio)chemical reactors. 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\n
1. Morphological transition of a conductive molecular organization with non-covalent from nanonetwork to nanofiber
\n
\n
1.1. Introduction
\n
Although the synthesis of the Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) film was first reported by Blodgett in 1934 [1], this technique has attracted a lot of attention in recent years, following its application in the formation of two-dimensional lamellae in linear polymers [2]. While there is a long history of development of this technique beginning with the studies on the optical and electronic properties of the LB films by Khun et al. [3, 4], direct observation of the folding of polymer chains in LB films using atomic force microscopy was a significant milestone, which revealed the phenomenon of “morphogenesis at the interface” [5, 6]. For the several examples of “morphogenesis at the interface,” the formation of nanofibers [7], nanowires [8, 9], nanospheres [10], nanocoils [11], nanoribbons [12], sea-island structures [13, 14], rods [15], gyroids [16], lamellae [17], and honeycombs [18] are noteworthy. Simultaneous control of the mesoscopic morphology (at the sub-micron level) of a non-covalent molecular organization, along with control of the molecular arrangement and packing structure (at the sub-nanometer level), is essential for the construction of next-generation quantum devices and medical materials. In other words, the molecular arrangement and morphology need to be controlled at different dimensional scales.
\n
In this chapter, the formation of a nanofiber morphology at the mesoscopic scale and the molecular level stacking of a tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) derivative with a chiral group were investigated by the method of one-dimensional molecular film growth (Figure 1(a)). The fabrication of a nanometer-scale thin film having a fibril texture, which was achieved by incorporating a phenyl group in the TTF derivatives, has been reported previously [19]. However, the strong interactions between the molecules, which is a consequence of the competing forces of π–π interactions (of TTFs and phenyl rings) and hydrogen-bonding (of urethane bonding units), inhibited accurate morphological control. Therefore, in our previous study, we attempted to substitute the phenyl ring with the bulky and chiral borneol group [20], in order to minimize these strong intermolecular interactions. However, since TTF derivatives containing borneol groups are amorphous, top-down fabrication of thin films and control of the molecular arrangement were quite difficult.
\n
Organized molecular films [21] have been developed as potential candidates for the synthesis of biomimetic models [22] and molecular electronic devices [23, 24], which are of considerable technological interest [25–29]. In addition to the interaction of lipids and proteins with hydrocarbons, various amphiphiles containing functional groups (including π- and d-electron systems), and polymerizable groups have been synthesized to obtain monolayer assemblies with well-defined molecular arrangements [30]. Therefore, this technology could potentially provide an effective means for attaining hierarchically precise and regular structures.
\n
Figure 1.
(a) Formation of nanofiber morphology at mesoscopic scale and molecular level stacking and (b) chemical structure of TTF-4Bor.
\n
In the present chapter, a new, conducting, four-armed amphiphilic compound (a TTF derivative with chiral borneol groups (TTF-4Bor, Figure 1(b) [20]) was synthesized. The monolayer behavior, molecular arrangement, and surface morphology of organized molecular films of TTF-4Bor were investigated by analysis of the surface pressure–area (π–A) isotherms, in-plane and out-of-plane X-ray diffraction (XRD) profiles, and atomic force microscopy (AFM) images. Further, morphogenesis was encouraged by applying the one-dimensional growth method to an LB film of TTF-4Bor in distilled water, under low surface pressure conditions. The size of the nanofibers thus obtained was controlled by variation of the subphase temperature. Since the internal structure of the mesoscopic nanofiber is comprised of stacked TTF planes at a molecular level, effective electrical conduction is expected along the direction of stacking.
A three-necked flask with a stirrer was purged with nitrogen, followed by the addition of L(-)-borneol (compound 1, 20.5 g, 1.33 mmol), 2-chloroethyl isocyanate (compound 2, 16.8 g, 159 mmol), and anhydrous tetrahydrofuran (THF, 300 mL). To this, 24 drops of dibutyltin dilaurate were added, and the mixture was stirred overnight in an oil bath at 50°C. The solvent was then evaporated under reduced pressure, and the residue was purified by column chromatography over silica gel (chloroform/ethyl acetate = 9:1). The product (compound 3) was obtained as a white solid with a yield of 84% (29.07 g, 112 mmol).
\n
Scheme S1.
Synthesis of TTF-4Bor.
\n
Synthesis of Compound 4: To a 500-mL four-necked flask (with a stirrer, purged with nitrogen), shredded sodium (23.0 g, 1.00 mol) and carbon disulfide (180 mL, 3 mol) were added and stirred. Then, the four-necked flask was placed in an ice bath, and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) (200 mL) was added in drops over 4 h through a dropping funnel. The mixture was removed from the ice bath, brought to room temperature, and stirred overnight. This was again cooled in an ice bath, and methanol (50 mL) was added slowly through a dropping funnel. The contents of the four-necked flask were then transferred to a 3 L conical flask, and a mixture of methanol (200 mL) and deionized water (250 mL) was added in drops, followed by the gradual addition of a solution of zinc chloride (20 g, 0.15 mol) in concentrated aqueous ammonia (500 mL). To this, a solution of tetraethylammonium bromide (106 g, 0.50 mol) in deionized water (500 mL) was added in drops over a period of 4 h (in two portions), and the mixture was stirred overnight. This was suction-filtered through a Kiriyama funnel, and the residue was washed with water (500 mL), isopropanol (200 mL), and diethyl ether (200 mL). This residue was dissolved in acetone, and the resulting solution was evaporated under reduced pressure. Red crystals of the desired product (compound 4) were obtained with 97.6% yield (87.7 g, 0.12 mol).
\n
Synthesis of Compound 5: In a 100-mL three-necked flask (with stirrer, purged with nitrogen), compound 4 (5.53 g, 7.70 mmol), compound 3 (10.00 g, 38.49 mmol), and DMF (90 mL) were added and stirred overnight in an oil bath at 125°C. Following concentration of the reaction mixture, the organic layer was extracted thrice with chloroform and distilled water, and dried using anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The magnesium sulfate was removed by filtration, and the filtrate was purified by column chromatography over silica gel (chloroform/ethyl acetate = 47:3). The desired product (compound 5) was obtained as a yellow solid with 72.3% yield (7.19 g, 11.15 mmol).
\n
Synthesis of Compound 6: To a 100-mL three-necked flask (with a stirrer, purged with nitrogen), compound 5 (1.00 g, 1.55 mmol), chloroform (9.70 mL), acetic acid (3.23 mL), and mercury acetate (II) (1.72 g, 4.13 mmol) were added, and this mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. The mixture was then subjected to Celite filtration, and the filtrate was extracted thrice using chloroform and distilled water. The chloroform layer was washed thrice with a saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution and dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. This mixture was purified by column chromatography over silica gel (ethyl acetate). The desired product (compound 6) was obtained as a yellow solid with a yield of 84.1% (0.82 g, 1.3 mmol).
\n
Synthesis of Compound 7 (TTF-4Bor): In a 50-mL three-necked flask (with a stirrer, purged with nitrogen), a mixture of compound 6 (0.82 g, 1.30 mmol) and triethyl phosphite (1.5 mL) was heated in an oil bath at 120°C with stirring for half day. The triethyl phosphite was removed under reduced pressure, and the remaining solid was purified by column chromatography over silica gel (hexane/ethyl acetate = 3:2). The desired final product (compound 7, TTF-4Bor, Figure 1(b)) was obtained as a yellow solid with a yield of 63% (0.51 g, 0.41 mmol). The chemical structure of this compound has been determined by NMR and IR spectroscopy previously [20].
\n
\n
\n
1.2.2. Formation of monolayers of TTF-4Bor on the water surface
\n
Monolayers were formed by spreading a toluene solution of TTF-4Bor (∼1.0 × 10−4 M) on the surface of distilled water (resistivity: approximately 18.2 MΩ cm). After evaporation of the toluene for 5 min, surface pressure–area (π–A) isotherms were recorded at compression speeds ranging from 0.8 to 4.8 cm2 min−1. The air/water interface was kept at a constant temperature of 15°C by circulation of thermostated water around the trough. Measurement of the monolayer properties and LB film transfer were carried out in a USI-3-22 Teflon-coated LB trough (USI Instruments).
\n
\n
\n
1.2.3. Study of the surface morphology and estimation of the molecular arrangement
\n
The surface morphologies of the transferred films were observed using a scanning probe microscope (Atomic Force Microscopy, SII Nanotechnology, SPA300 with SPI-3800 probe station), and microfabricated rectangular Si cantilevers with integrated pyramidal tips, by applying a constant force of 1.4 N m−1. In this chapter, AFM observations were carried out in the tapping mode. XRD samples were transferred onto a glass substrate by the LB method (20 layers, subphase temperature of 15°C, and surface pressures of 5 and 35 mN m−1). The large spacing between the layers in the films was measured using an out-of-plane X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku, Rint-Ultima III, CuKα radiation, 40 kV, 30 mA) equipped with a graphite monochromator. The in-plane spacing of the two-dimensional lattice of the films was determined using an X-ray diffractometer with different geometrical arrangements [31, 32] (Bruker AXS, MXP-BX, CuKα radiation, 40 kV, 40 mA, a customized instrument) and equipped with a parabolic-graded multilayer mirror. The X-rays were incident at an angle of 0.2°, and the films were scanned at a speed of 0.05°/80 s, as a result of which the in-plane XRD measurements had monomolecular resolution.
\n
\n
\n
\n
1.3. Results and discussion
\n
\n
1.3.1. Monolayer behavior and surface morphology of TTF-4Bor
\n
Figure 2 shows the π–A isotherms of a TTF-4Bor monolayer at the air/water interface at 15°C, along with the estimated collapse surface pressure and the limiting area. TTF-4Bor forms an expanded phase at low surface pressures and an extremely condensed phase at high surface pressures. These results indicate that the TTF-4Bor film undergoes a two-dimensional transition, from parallel to normal orientation on the water surface.
\n
Figure 2.
Surface pressure–area isotherm at the air/water interface for the TTF-4Bor monolayer.
\n
Figure 3 shows the AFM images of LB monolayers of TTF-4Bor (Z-type) on mica, transferred at 35 and 10 mN m−1. At low surface pressures, sparsely dotted nanodomains with a height of about 1 nm are observed, confirming the flat-on orientation of the molecular planes. In the high pressure regions, however, submicron network domains are formed, and the height information indicates that the conformation of the TTF derivatives is normal to the plane of the film. It has been suggested that the mesoscopic morphogenesis is attained by aggregation, which is based on the competition between the π–π interaction of the TTF molecular planes, and the strong interaction of hydrogen bonds between the urethane bonding sites. This hypothesis is supported by the infrared (IR) spectra (Figure 3(c)), which exhibit a shift of the band attributed to the carbonyl group toward lower wavenumbers, indicating the formation of hydrogen bonds [19, 20].
\n
Figure 3.
AFM images of Z-type monolayers of TTF-4Bor transferred at (a) 35 mN m−1 and (b) 10 mN m−1; (c) IR spectra of LB multilayers of TTF-4Bor transferred at 35 mN m−1 on a CaF2 substrate.
\n
\n
\n
1.3.2. Molecular arrangement in organized molecular films of TTF-4Bor
\n
In order to estimate the crystallinity and periodicity of the molecules in multilayers of TTF-4Bor, in-plane and out-of-plane XRD analyses of LB multilayers were carried out. In-plane XRD profiles of multilayers transferred at 35 and 10 mN m−1 are shown in Figure 4. This technique provides information regarding molecular arrangement at a sub-nanometer scale, and the internal fine structure of the mesoscopic morphology. At low surface pressures, a clear periodic structure was not observed, indicating that the film might be amorphous. On the other hand, in the LB multilayers formed at high surface pressures, a clear periodic structure with regular molecular packing was confirmed. The short spacing value of 4.1 Å appears to correspond to the stacking of the TTF molecular planes based on π–π interactions. A similar in-plane packing system based on π–π interactions, established by in-plane XRD, was reported in conducting organized molecular films of metal (dmit)2 charge transfer complexes [33]. Dense stacking of molecular planes has been known to induce electrical conductivity along the direction of stacking.
\n
Figure 4.
In-plane XRD profiles of LB multilayers (20 layers) of TTF-4Bor transferred at (a) 35 mN m−1 and (b) 10 mN m−1.
\n
Figure 5 shows the out-of-plane XRD profiles for LB multilayers (20 layers) of TTF-4Bor, transferred at 35 and 10 mN m−1. In the multilayers fabricated under high surface pressure conditions, a d0 0 1 layer corresponding to the end-on orientation of TTF-4Bor was observed along the c-axis. The formation of the highly regular layered structure is believed to have occurred during the transfer of the interfacial monomolecular film to a solid, by the LB method. At low surface pressures, a layer spacing of ∼5 nm is observed in the multilayers, which exhibit molecular organization along with disorder in the ab-plane, and regularity along the c-axis. Therefore, rearrangement of the molecular groups is expected to take place during multilayer formation, along with a change in the conformation from flat-on to end-on, resulting in layered regularity in the c-direction. These results are summarized in Figure 6.
\n
Figure 5.
Out-of-plane XRD profiles of LB multilayers (20 layers) of TTF-4Bor transferred at (a) 35 mN m−1 and (b) 10 mN m−1.
\n
Figure 6.
Schematic illustration of the (a) molecular arrangement of TTF-4Bor along the c-axis and (b) molecular stacking model of LB multilayers of TTF-4Bor in the ab-plane.
\n
\n
\n
1.3.3. Morphological changes from a two-dimensional film to nanofibers of TTF-4Bor
\n
At present, there are limitations in the ability to achieve one-dimensional growth of a nanofiber consisting of tightly stacked electrically conducting molecules. Although stacked conducting molecular planes are obtained at high surface pressures, morphologies at the mesoscopic scale are too developed due to the strong forces of aggregation, with the presence of long-range order between molecules, as a result of the competitive effect of π–π interactions and hydrogen bonding. Hence, although the molecules cannot be arranged under low surface pressure conditions, the disordered molecular groups can be rearranged by multilayer formation, owing to their strong aggregation tendency. In this chapter, the technique of one-dimensional growth at the air/water interface was adopted, which involved transfer of the film at low surface pressures with reduction of the compression speed (by a factor of 8), inducing a spontaneous growth structure at the interface. Figure 7 shows a comparison of the π–A isotherms, at different compression speeds (4.8 and 0.6 cm2 min−1), and a schematic illustration of molecular aggregation. The tendency to expand at low pressures and condense at higher pressures is conspicuous in the π–A isotherms measured at a low compression rate (0.6 cm2 min−1).
\n
Figure 7.
Surface pressure–area isotherms at different compression speeds (4.8 cm2 min−1 [dashed line] and 0.6 cm2 min−1 [solid line]) of monolayer of TTF-4Bor at the air/water interface.
\n
Figure 8.
AFM images of Z-type monolayers of (a) nanofiber and (b) helical nanofiber forms of the one-dimensional growth TTF-4Bor. (c) In-plane XRD profiles of LB multilayers (20 layers) of TTF-4Bor (at 10 mN m−1 and compression speed 0.6 cm2 min−1), and (d) a schematic model for their molecular packing.
\n
In Figure 8, AFM images of the Z-type monolayers of TTF-4Bor after one-dimensional growth are shown, along with the in-plane XRD profiles of multilayers of TTF-4Bor transferred at 10 mN m−1 with a compression speed of 0.6 cm2 min−1. In this system, there is a clear transition from a mesoscopic morphology to a nanofiber shape (thickness ∼70 nm). While many of the nanofibers are linear (Figure 8(a)), some fibers exhibit a branching morphology (Figure 8(b)) and some others grew as a right-handed spiral. This morphological formation is expected to have occurred to minimize the steric hindrance from the four functional groups in the TTF derivative. This material exhibited circular dichroism (CD) for every adsorption band [20], and the Cotton effect centered around 380 and 530 nm was attributed to the helical dipole coupling between TTF rings through the formation of a network of hydrogen bonds [34–38]. In-plane XRD reveals multilayers of these integrated nanofiber films, with the formation of stacked conducting molecular planes with a spacing of 4.1 Å (Figures 8(c) and (d)). It is expected that the promotion of spiral morphogenesis based on steric hindrance of chiral functional groups is dependent on the enhancement of the molecular mobility at the air/water interface. Therefore, the formation of nanofibers was studied at different subphase temperatures (Figure 9). It is seen that an increase in the subphase temperature results in an increase in the diameter of the fibers, rather than the formation of the helical structure, which could be due to an increase in the aggregation force between the molecules. The diameters of the nanofibers formed at 15, 20, and 25°C, are 70, 125, and 190 nm, respectively. From the π–A curves, these correspond to aggregates of 20–40 molecules at 15°C, 30–60 molecules at 20°C, and 50–90 molecules at 25°C. The nanofiber morphology was retained upon inclusion of 2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F4-TCNQ) acceptor molecules to this system at a molecular ratio of 1:1 (Figure 10). Since F4-TCNQ is not amphiphilic, mixing it with the TTF derivative results in the formation of a charge transfer (CT) complex and interfacial nanofiber films. The retention of the nanofiber morphology after the inclusion of F4-TCNQ is because the structural formation is related to the stacking arrangement of the TTF molecular planes, and first-order spontaneous growth of mesoscopic nanofibers. The CT complex exhibited a broad absorption band in the IR region (2500–3500 cm−1), which was attributed to a CT between the electron-donating TTF and the electron-accepting F4-TCNQ moieties [39–41]. Figure 10 shows the color change of the solution to support the CT complex formation, and further, the AFM image and in-plane XRD profile also show evidences of maintaining of a mesoscopic fiber form and stacking of a conductive molecular plane. In addition, Figure 10(c) also shows UV spectrum of charge transfer complex of TTF-4Bor:F4-TCNQ = 1:1 in solution. Absorption band near 300 nm corresponds to the TTF-4Bor, and the band of 400 nm except the shoulder peak corresponding to F4-TCNQ. Absorption band at 700–800 nm corresponds to the anionic radical of the F4-TCNQ, and shoulder-shaped absorption band around 400 nm corresponds to the cationic radical of TTF [41]. From the above, the formation of a charge-transfer complex in solution is supported.
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As detailed in this chapter, the amphiphilic TTF derivative with chiral borneol groups are closely packed in the nanofiber morphology at the air/water interface. Although the densely packed molecular arrangement is easily attained by standard film fabrication methods at high surface pressures, mesoscopic nanofiber morphology is obtained by spontaneous one-dimensional growth at the air/water interface (Figure 11). The dense stacking structure of these molecular planes induces electrical conduction, and nanofibrous morphogenesis can be deployed in quantum devices, medical applications, etc. It can be seen that the control of the mesoscopic morphology at the air/water interface provides several variations and possibilities in the chapter of molecular organization, such as helical morphogenesis and size control of nanofibers [42].
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Figure 9.
AFM images of Z-type monolayers of the one-dimensional growth of TTF-4Bor transferred at (a) 15°C, (b) 20°C, and (c) 25°C.
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Figure 10.
(a) AFM image of Z-type monolayer, (b) in-plane XRD, and (c) IR and UV–Vis spectra of the LB multilayers (20 layers) of TTF derivative/F4-TCNQ = 1:1 charge transfer complex.
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Figure 11.
Schematic models for the formation of spiral morphology at the mesoscopic scale, and molecular level stacking of TTF-4Bor by the one-dimensional growth method.
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1.4. Conclusions
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In this chapter, monolayer behavior on the surface of water, mesoscopic morphological formation, and molecular arrangement in LB multilayers of the conductive TTF derivative with chiral groups were investigated. For this purpose, π–A isotherms, in-plane and out-of-plane XRD, and AFM measurements were carried out. From the AFM analysis, the formation of submicron networks and nanofiber morphology of the conducting molecular organization was confirmed at different monolayer compression rates. The in-plane and out-of-plane XRD measurements elucidated the formation of highly ordered layered structures and close-stacking of molecular planes due to π–π interactions.
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Nanofibers of the TTF derivative were obtained by applying the one-dimensional growth method at low compression speeds and low surface pressure conditions. Under these conditions, the formation of helical nanofibers was also observed. These mesoscopic helical nanofibers, whose internal structure consists of stacked conducting planes, are expected to display spontaneous electrical conduction by electromagnetic induction. Hence, these materials are likely candidates for future innovation in the molecular device and healthcare industries.
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2. Morphological control of crystalline nanofiber derived from amphiphilic diamide derivative which induces the thixotropic ability
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2.1. Introduction
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In the molecular and materials chemistry, the concept of “hierarchy [43]” is very important. In usual, the molecular level orientation and arrangements beyond the level of mesoscopic morphogenesis cannot affect the level of the macroscopic physical properties. However, there are cases that molecular groups with crystalline array achieved a fibrous growth by the cooperative phenomenon of molecules, and its network form occurs thixotropic ability [43]. If this crystalline fiber network contacts to other medium and induces the increase of that viscosity, the corresponding molecule is acting as a thixotropic agent beyond the size hierarchy of materials.
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In addition, current nanotechnology in the chemistry and biophysics fields has undergone a remarkable development through the “discovery of the nanosized architecture” such as carbon nanotubes [44], “their deployment to the nanocomposite materials [45–48]”, and “re-attention to the bottom-up technologies as the classical LB method [1]”. Performance enhancement of analytical techniques, such as scanning probe microscopy and X-ray diffraction, has also helped strongly to the development of nanoscience.
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By the way, the thixotropic phenomenon, which solidification and the flow are, respectively, occurred by standing and application of an external forces, is observed in familiar mayonnaise, ketchup, etc. Commercially available anti-sedimentation agent and liquid dripping inhibitors are also used as thixotropic agents. In addition, an additive which can be solidified the cooking waste oil and discarded it as a solid is also corresponding to a thixotropic agent. Traditionally, the main raw material of the thixotropic agent was 12-hydroxystearic acid. In this case, an occurrence origin of thixotropic properties is the fiber growth by 12-hydroxystearic acid molecule at micrometer level. The increase in viscosity has occurred by the contact of this developed microfiber to the corresponding medium. In other words, relationship between fiber growth and occurrence of thixotropic properties is almost equal. However, although the 12-hydroxy stearic acid can form a fibrous morphology in the view of molecular science, stearic acid does not form a fibrous form. It is well-known that stearic acid is the standard material of monolayer on the water surface, and corresponding LB film. Although stearic acid is a crystalline compound, its mesoscopic form is a sheet-like morphology. In other words, the influence of the hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups at the 12-position to the formation of the fibrous morphology is remarkable. However, the hydrogen bonding itself is also interaction at the molecular level. It cannot be asserted to affect the mesoscopic morphogenesis and macroscopic thixotropic by only the presence of a simple hydrogen bonding. However, hydrogen bonding “between biological polymers that forms the human body” and “between the polyamide fibers which is raw materials of a garment,” reality induces the macroscopic physical properties. In order to attain an understanding of these phenomena, the material evaluation by the hierarchical point of view will be essential by making full use of nano-technological analysis developed in recent years. In addition, discussion ability that be considered in connecting these phenomena will be extremely important. However, discussion to the 12-hydroxystearic acid itself has already been a thing of the past on the development of academic field of modern chemistry.
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In the present chapter, amphiphilic diamide derivative which obtained by condensation reaction of 12-hydroxystearic acids and hexamethylenediamine was synthesized. The monolayer behavior, molecular arrangement, and surface morphology of organized molecular films of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons were investigated by analysis of the π–A isotherms, in-plane and out-of-plane XRD profiles, and AFM images. Further, morphogenesis was encouraged by applying the epitaxial growth to a spin-cast film of diamide derivative. The form of the nanofibers thus obtained was indicated the linearly developed shape. Since the internal structure of the mesoscopic nanofiber is comprised of packed hydrocarbons at a molecular level, effective molecular packing is expected along the fiber growing direction.
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2.2. Experimental section
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2.2.1. Synthesis and characterization of amphiphilic diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons
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In order to obtain the material used in this chapter, a condensation reaction of 12-hydroxystearic acid and hexamethylenediamine (2 mol: 1 mol) was performed. The obtained material was purified by recrystallization, and a removal of impurity checked by thermal analysis. Figure 12(a) shows thermogravimetric (TG) curves of this material under the N2 purge and in the air atmosphere. Under the N2 purge and in the air atmosphere, the decreasing of weight of material is started at 250 and 350°C, respectively. Further, there is a residual of heated material until 500°C and in the air atmosphere. That is to say, this material decomposes like a certain polymer at 250°C and do not sublimate as substance with low molecular weight. In other words, it finds that this compound is an extreme high heat resistance by the influence of hydrogen bonding. Figure 12(b) shows differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) thermogram of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons. Only one transition peaks in both heating and cooling processes exist at around 150 and 135°C, respectively. In the case of unpurified sample, transition peaks of reacted substances in heating process are indicated at around 77 and 42°C. Therefore, it was considered that unreacted 12-hydroxystearic acid and hexamethylenediamine have been removed by recrystallization purification.
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Figure 12.
(a) TG curves of diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons used in this study under the N2 purge and in the air atmosphere. (b) DSC thermogram of purified diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons (scanning rate; 10°C min−1).
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2.2.2. Characterization of bulk and their spin-cast film
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The spin-cast films of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons and the mixture with organo-modified layered silicate were formed from xylene– ethanol (9/1, v/v) mixed solution over 100°C. Organo-modified montmorillonite (MMT) was fabricated by surface modification method with natural MMT and long-chain quaternary ammonium cation at oil/water interface [49]. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurement to the both bulk and cast film samples is performed by X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku, Rint-Ultima III, CuKα radiation, 40 kV, 30 mA) equipped with a graphite monochromator. Infrared (IR) spectra of the sample are measured by IR spectrometer (Bruker AXS TENSOR II).
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2.2.3. Formation of monolayers of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons on the water surface
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Monolayers were formed by spreading from a CHCl3 solution including a small amount of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) of diamide derivate having two-stearic chains with –OH groups (∼1.0 × 10−4 M) on the surface of distilled water (resistivity: approximately 18.2 MΩ cm). After evaporation of the CHCl3 for 5 min, surface pressure-area (π–A) isotherms were recorded at compression speeds ranging from 4.8 cm2 min−1. The air/water interface was kept at a constant temperature of 3.5, 12, and 15°C by circulation of thermostated water around the trough. Measurement of the monolayer properties and LB film transfer were carried out in a USI-3-22 Teflon-coated LB trough (USI Instruments). Further, mixed monolayers on the aqueous buffer solution including Na+ ion of diamide derivative and organo-MMT have been formed by co-spreading method of CHCl3 solution with small amount of TFA and toluene solution, respectively.
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2.2.4. Study of the surface morphology and estimation of the molecular arrangement
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The surface morphologies of the transferred films were observed using a scanning probe microscope (Atomic Force Microscopy, SII Nanotechnology, SPA300 with SPI-3800 probe station), and microfabricated rectangular Si cantilevers with integrated pyramidal tips, by applying a constant force of 1.4 N m−1. In this chapter, AFM observations were carried out in the tapping mode. XRD samples were transferred onto a glass substrate by the LB method (20 layers, subphase temperature of 15°C, and surface pressures of 35 mN m−1). The large spacing between the layers in the films was measured using an out-of-plane X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku, Rint-Ultima III, CuKα radiation, 40 kV, 30 mA) equipped with a graphite monochromator. The in-plane spacing of the two-dimensional lattice of the films was determined using an X-ray diffractometer with different geometrical arrangements [31, 32] (Bruker AXS, MXP-BX, CuKα radiation, 40 kV, 40 mA, a customized instrument) and equipped with a parabolic graded multilayer mirror. The X-rays were incident at an angle of 0.2°, and the films were scanned at a speed of 0.05°/20 s, as a result of which the in-plane XRD measurements had monomolecular resolution.
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2.3. Results and discussion
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2.3.1. Molecular arrangement and packing of diamide derivative including two-stearic chains with –OH groups
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Figures 13(a) and (b) shows the powder XRD profiles and IR spectrum of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons in bulk. In powder XRD profile, the developed layer spacing is indicated in low angle side. In this case, the long spacing peaks until fifth-order reflection are clearly confirmed. Furthermore, bands of stretching vibration of N–H and O–H are shifted to relative low angle side in IR spectra by the influence on the hydrogen bonding. In addition, amide I and II bands are clearly confirmed at around 1640 and 1550 cm−1.
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Figure 13.
(a) Powder X-ray diffraction profile of diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons in bulk. (b) IR spectra of diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons in bulk.
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Figure 14 shows the schematic illustration of two kind of possibility of molecular arrangement of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons in bulk. In the case of model in Figure 14(a), molecules form the extended chain conformation. On the other hand, bilayer structure is formed like a general surfactant molecules in Figure 14(b). In both case, it finds that intermolecular hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups and amide groups have formed by the results of IR. There are two kinds of possibility of molecular orientation that first-order reflection corresponds to tilted single-layer spacing or bilayer spacing. In this stage, both possibilities cannot be rejected. However, authors support bilayer conformation as Figure 14(b) according to the nature of this type of amphiphilic materials.
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Figure 14.
Schematic illustration of two kind of possibility of molecular arrangement of diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons in bulk. (a) An extended chain model. (b) Double layered structure model.
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2.3.2. Monolayer behavior and surface morphology of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons
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Figure 15 shows the π–A isotherms of monolayer on the water surface of a diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons at 3.5, 12, and 15°C. At 15°C, isotherm of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons indicates the overshoot shoulder and plateau region near the 10 mN m−1. On the other hand, the number of two-dimensional phase transition increases in isotherms below 12°C. The origin of these two-dimensional phase transition can be inferred by the AFM measurement to monolayers which are transferred on the solid substrate. Figure 16 shows the AFM images of LB monolayers of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons (Z-type) on mica, transferred at 7, 10 and 35 mN m−1. At low surface pressures region after first transition, continuously dotted nanodomains are observed. Next, thin fibrous morphology is confirmed after the second transition. Finally, in the high pressure regions, the developed fiber is formed as their monolayer feature. Therefore, it finds that an each two-dimensional transitions are corresponds to morphological changes of monolayer of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons.
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Figure 15.
Surface pressure–area isotherms of monolayer on the water surface of diamide derivatives having two-hydrocarbons at 3.5, 12, and 15°C subphase temperature.
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Figure 16.
AFM images of monolayer on solid substrate of two-chain-type diamide derivatives transferred at (a) 35 mN m−1, (b) 15 mN m−1, and (c) 7 mN m−1 with corresponding isotherm at 12°C.
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2.3.3. Molecular arrangement in organized molecular films of diamide derivative having two hydrocarbons
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In order to estimate the crystallinity and periodicity of the molecules in multilayers of diamide derivative having two hydrocarbons, out-of-plane and in-plane XRD analyses of LB multilayers were carried out. Figures 17(a) and (b) shows the out-of-plane XRD profiles for LB multilayers (20 layers) which are transferred at 35 mN m−1. In the multilayers fabricated under high surface pressure conditions, it seems that a layer spacing along the c-axis at d0 0 1 = 53.2 Å is corresponding to the bilayer spacing. The shape of first-order reflection is unclear by the influence on the direct beam. However, third-order reflection has also been confirmed. It is expected that highly order layer structure has formed. In-plane XRD profiles of multilayers transferred at 35 mN m1 are shown in Figure 17(c). This technique provides information regarding molecular arrangement at a sub-nanometer scale, and the internal fine structure of the mesoscopic fiber morphology. In the LB multilayers formed at crystalline phase, a clear periodic structure with regular molecular packing was confirmed. The short spacing values of 4.4 and 4.1 Å appear to correspond to the packing of the long hydrocarbon chains based on van der Waals interactions. A similar in-plane packing system based on van der Waals interactions between chains, established by in-plane XRD, was reported in organized molecular films of long-chain fatty acid [31]. The packing of hydrocarbons are assigned to two-dimensional orthorhombic system. These results are summarized in Figure 18. Due to the nature of the wide angle X-ray diffraction, the exact value of the first-order period (bilayer spacing) corresponds to three times of d0 0 3 value (48.3 Å) calculated from the third-order reflection, rather than d0 0 1 value calculated from the first-order reflection. It finds that formation of the developed layer structure and sub-cell is the feature of this crystalline LB film. Further, bilayer conformation in this LB film is similar to the expected model of this molecule in the bulk state.
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Figure 17.
(a, b) Out-of-plane and (c) in-plane XRD profiles of LB multilayers of two-chain-type diamide derivatives transferred at 35 mN m−1 and 12°C.
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Figure 18.
Schematic models of layer structure and sub-cell of hydrocarbons in LB multilayers of two-chain-type diamide derivatives.
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2.3.4. Liner morphological growth of nanofibers in a spin-cast film of diamide derivative having two hydrocarbons from layered silicate
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At present, there are limitations in the ability to achieve one-dimensional growth of a nanofiber consisting of tightly packed molecules. Although the packed molecules are obtained in the two-dimensional interfacial film at high surface pressures, morphologies at the mesoscopic scale are too entangled and undulated due to the strong forces of aggregation, with the presence of long-range order between molecules, as a result of the competitive effect of van der Waals interactions and hydrogen bonding. Hence, if formation of the packed molecular arrangement is accelerated by the external forces at molecular level, the mesoscopic fiber growth might be linearly and hierarchically developed. In this chapter, the technique of epitaxial growth from harmless layered material in the mesoscopic spin-cast film was adopted, which used general organic solvent with relative low harmful effect at high temperature, inducing a spontaneous growth structure at the interface. Figure 19(a) and (b) shows AFM images of spin-cast film of diamide derivative and their composite with 1 wt% organo-modified MMT, respectively. From the comparison between these figures, it is confirmed that essential entanglement and wavy fibers have been performed the one-dimensional growth and changed to the linear shape in the spin-cast film by organo-MMT addition. As shown the results of XRD of Figure 20 in the Supporting Information, a organo-MMT is also the developed layer-organization with 38 Å double-layered period [50]. Here, it will consider the interaction between organo-modified MMT and two-chain-type diamide derivative.
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Figure 19.
AFM images of spin-cast films of (a) neat diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons and (b) their composite with 1 wt% organo-modified MMT.
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Figure 20.
(a) Powder X-ray diffraction profile of organo-modified MMT used in this study [50]. (b) Schematic illustration of layer structure of organo-modified MMT in bulk.
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Figure 21(a) indicates the π–A isotherms of the mixed monolayer of two-chain-type diamide derivative: organo-modified MMT = 3:1 and 1:1. Compared to behavior of an each original monolayers, since a change in the collapsed surface pressure occurs, it can be understood the existence of interaction between components. In AFM observation to this mixed monolayer transferred on solid substrate, the fibers of diamide derivative are in contact with the organo-MMT without phase separation, which can be understood to be a system of an ideal mixing (Figure 21(b)). Next, the results of XRD of spin-cast films of Figure 19 are shown (Figure 22(a)). (Here, since the presence of the organo-MMT is a very small amount, they are not observed as the IR signal and this spectrum indicates very similar features to that in bulk as shown the IR result of Figure 23 in the Supporting Information.) From the comparison between both profiles, it finds that the third-order reflection has appeared and the intensity of the second-order reflection slightly decreased by organo-MMT addition. Considering from the concept of odd–even effect of high-order reflection, it seems that “an expression of the higher-order reflection” and “the occurrence of odd–even tendency” indicate an enhancement of regularity (Figure 22(b)). As the supporting of this speculation, the intensity of out-of-plane XRD profile of diamide derivative–organo-clay = 1:1 mixed multilayers clearly is increased to the one of the film of single diamide derivative, which is based on the enhancement of regularity along the c-axis by addition of organo-clay (Figure 22(c)). A schematic diagram which summarizes the above discussion has shown in Figure 24. That is to say, it is found that the epitaxial growth along the (0 0 l) plane based on the similar long-spacing value of about 4 nm is induced from the affinity of diamide derivative and the long-alkyl chain on the montmorillonite surface.
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Figure 21.
(a) Surface pressure–area isotherms of mixed monolayer on an aqueous buffer solution with Na+ ion of diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons:organo-MMT = 1:1 at 12°C. (b) AFM image of Z-type mixed monolayer on solid of diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons–organo-MMT = 1:1 transferred at 3 mN m−1.
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Figure 22.
(a) XRD profiles of spin-cast films of neat diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons and their composite with 1 wt% organo-modified MMT. (b) Simulation of XRD profiles of the layered materials influenced by an odd–even effect. (c) Out-of-plane XRD profiles of LB multilayers of neat diamide derivatives having two hydrocarbons and 1:1 mixed monolayer with organo-modified MMT.
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Figure 23.
IR spectrum of mixed spin-cast film of two-chain-type diamide derivative with 1 wt% organo-modified MMT.
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Figure 24.
Schematic illustration of epitaxial growth of nanofiber morphology of two-chain-type diamide derivative from organo-modified MMT in spin-cast film.
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2.4. Conclusions
\n
In this chapter, monolayer behavior on the water surface, mesoscopic morphological formation, and molecular arrangement in LB multilayers of the diamide derivative having two hydrocarbons were investigated. For this purpose, π–A isotherms, in-plane and out-of-plane XRD, and AFM measurements were carried out. From the AFM analysis, the formation of nanofiber morphology of the thixotropic molecular organization was confirmed at different surface pressures. The in-plane and out-of-plane XRD measurements elucidated the formation of highly ordered layered structures and close-packing of molecular chains due to van der Waals interaction.
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Nanofibers of the two-chain-type diamide derivative were obtained by applying the epitaxial growth method in spin-cast film. Under these conditions, the formation of linearly developed nanofibers was also observed. These mesoscopic extended nanofibers, whose internal structure consists of the packed long-alkyl chain, are expected to display cooperative thixotropic ability by fiber growth. Hence, these materials are likely candidates for future innovation in an additive, waste oil treatment agent, and paint industries.
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Acknowledgments
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The authors greatly appreciate Mr. Eiichi Sato, Kusumoto Chemicals Ltd., and Dr. Yoko Tatewaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology for their kind providing of samples. The authors also thank Mr. Kyohei Ohmura and Mr. Takahiro Kikkawa, Saitama University for his kind help of data analysis.
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\n',keywords:"crystalline nanofiber, TTF derivative, diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons, thixotropic ability, one-dimensional growth",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51249.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51249.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51249",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51249",totalDownloads:981,totalViews:193,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 29th 2015",dateReviewed:"April 14th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 19th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, a study on two kinds of examples of functional nanofibers has been introduced. In the first section, the formation of nanofiber morphology at a mesoscopic scale and molecular level stacking of a tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) derivative with a chiral group were investigated by the one-dimensional growth method in interfacial molecular films. Monomolecular films of a TTF derivative with a chiral borneol group display a two-dimensional phase transition at the air/water interface. The formation of nanonetwork domains is attributed to the organized aggregation of the TTF derivatives, which is a result of strong intermolecular interactions. In the second section, the formation of nanofiber morphology at a mesoscopic scale and molecular level packing of an amphiphilic diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons were investigated by the in interfacial molecular films. It has found that the growth of this nanofiber morphology is encouraged by the application of the epitaxial growth in the spin-cast film with 1 wt% layered silicate having long hydrocarbons. As mention above, it is found that mesoscopic morphological formation of super-hierarchical structure of the nanofibers having a crystalline arrangement at Å level can be induced conductivity and the thixotropy at macroscopic level.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51249",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51249",book:{slug:"nanofiber-research-reaching-new-heights"},signatures:"Manami Iizuka, Rie Yamato and Atsuhiro Fujimori",authors:[{id:"68378",title:"Dr.",name:"Atsuhiro",middleName:null,surname:"Fujimori",fullName:"Atsuhiro Fujimori",slug:"atsuhiro-fujimori",email:"fujimori@fms.saitama-u.ac.jp",position:null,institution:{name:"Saitama University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"183234",title:"Ms.",name:"Rie",middleName:null,surname:"Yamato",fullName:"Rie Yamato",slug:"rie-yamato",email:"monomolecular@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"186140",title:"Ms.",name:"Manami",middleName:null,surname:"Iizuka",fullName:"Manami Iizuka",slug:"manami-iizuka",email:"high_tension_biscuit_eating@yahoo.co.jp",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Morphological transition of a conductive molecular organization with non-covalent from nanonetwork to nanofiber",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Experimental section",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1. Synthesis of TTF-4Bor (Scheme S1)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.2.2. Formation of monolayers of TTF-4Bor on the water surface",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.2.3. Study of the surface morphology and estimation of the molecular arrangement",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"1.3. Results and discussion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"1.3.1. Monolayer behavior and surface morphology of TTF-4Bor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"1.3.2. Molecular arrangement in organized molecular films of TTF-4Bor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"1.3.3. Morphological changes from a two-dimensional film to nanofibers of TTF-4Bor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"1.4. Conclusions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"2. Morphological control of crystalline nanofiber derived from amphiphilic diamide derivative which induces the thixotropic ability",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.1. Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.2. Experimental section",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.2.1. Synthesis and characterization of amphiphilic diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.2.2. Characterization of bulk and their spin-cast film",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.2.3. Formation of monolayers of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons on the water surface",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.2.4. Study of the surface morphology and estimation of the molecular arrangement",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"2.3. Results and discussion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.3.1. Molecular arrangement and packing of diamide derivative including two-stearic chains with –OH groups",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"2.3.2. Monolayer behavior and surface morphology of diamide derivative with two hydrocarbons",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"2.3.3. Molecular arrangement in organized molecular films of diamide derivative having two hydrocarbons",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"2.3.4. Liner morphological growth of nanofibers in a spin-cast film of diamide derivative having two hydrocarbons from layered silicate",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"2.4. Conclusions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Blodgett K. Monomolecular Films of Fatty Acids on Glass. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1934;56: 495–495. doi:10.1021/ja01317a513'},{id:"B2",body:'Kumaki J, Kawauchi T, Yashima E. Two-Dimensional Folded Chain Crystals of a Synthetic Polymer in a Langmuir–Blodgett Film. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005;127:5788–5789. doi:10.1021/ja050457e'},{id:"B3",body:'Mann B, Kuhn H. Tunneling through Fatty Acid Salt Monolayers. J. Appl. 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B: Condens Matter 1979;19:730–741. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.19.730'},{id:"B42",body:'Bradshaw D, Claridge JB, Cussen EJ, Prior TJ, Rosseinsky MJ. Design, chirality, and flexibility in nanoporous molecule-based materials. Accounts Chem. Res. 2005;38:273–282. doi:10.1021/ar0401606'},{id:"B43",body:'Barnes HA. Thixotropy—A review. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 1997;70:1–33. doi:10.1016/S0377-0257(97)00004-9'},{id:"B44",body:'Karimi-Maleh H, Tahernejad-Javazm F, Ensafi AA, Moradi R, Reza, Mallakpour S, Beitollahi H. A high sensitive biosensor based on FePt/CNTs nanocomposite/N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-3,5-dinitrobenzamide modified carbon paste electrode for simultaneous determination of glutathione and piroxicam. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2014;60:1–7. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2014.03.055'},{id:"B45",body:'Karimi-Maleh H, Biparva P, Hatami M. A novel carbon paste electrode based on NiO/CNTs nanocomposite and (9,10-dihydro-9,10-ethanoanthracene-11,12-dicarboximido)-4-ethylbenzene-1,2-diol as a mediator for simultaneous determination of cysteamine, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and folic acid. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2013;48:270–275. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2013.04.029'},{id:"B46",body:'Karimi-Maleh H, Tahernejad-Javazmi F, Atar N, Lutfi M, Gupta VK, Ensafi AA. A novel DNA biosensor based on a pencil graphite electrode modified with polypyrrole/functionlized multiwalled carbon nanotubes for determination of 6-mercaptopurine anticancer drug. 2015;54:3634–3639. doi:10.1021/ie504438z'},{id:"B47",body:'Moradi R, Sebt SA, Karimi-Maleh H, Sadeghi Roya, Karimi F, Bahari A, Arabi H. Synthesis and application of FePt/CNTs nanocomposite as a sensor and novel amide ligand as a mediator for simultaneous determination of glutathione, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and tryptophan. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2013;15:5888-5897 DOI: 10.1039/C3CP00033H'},{id:"B48",body:'Fujimori A, Yamato R, Kikkawa T, Tatewaki Y. Morphological Transition of a Conductive Molecular Organization with Non-covalent from Nanonetwork to Nanofiber. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 2015;448:180–188. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2015.02.024'},{id:"B49",body:'Fujimori A, Arai S, Kusaka J, Kubota M, Kurosaka K. Formation and Structure of Langmuir–Blodgett Films of Organo-modified Alminosilicate with High Surface Coverage. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 2013;392:256–265. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2012.08.075'},{id:"B50",body:'Fujimori A, Kusaka J, Nomura R. Formation and Structure of Organized Molecular Films for Organo-modified Montmorillonite and Mixed Monolayer Behavior with Poly(L-lactide). Polym. Eng. Sci. 2011;51:1099–1107. doi:10.1002/pen.21912'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Manami Iizuka",address:null,affiliation:'
Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Saitama, Japan
Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Saitama, Japan
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D. Rud, N. I. Kuskova, L. I. Ivaschuk, L. Z. Boguslavskii and A. E. Perekos",authors:[{id:"64659",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Rud",fullName:"Alexander Rud",slug:"alexander-rud"},{id:"69807",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalja",middleName:null,surname:"Kuskova",fullName:"Natalja Kuskova",slug:"natalja-kuskova"},{id:"69810",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyubov",middleName:null,surname:"Ivaschuk",fullName:"Lyubov Ivaschuk",slug:"lyubov-ivaschuk"},{id:"69813",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonid",middleName:null,surname:"Boguslavskii",fullName:"Leonid Boguslavskii",slug:"leonid-boguslavskii"},{id:"69814",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatolii",middleName:null,surname:"Perekos",fullName:"Anatolii Perekos",slug:"anatolii-perekos"}]},{id:"25344",title:"New Methods and New Types of Functionalised Nanocomposites Intended for the Ecological Depollution of Waters",slug:"new-methods-and-new-types-of-functionalised-nanocomposites-intended-for-the-ecological-depollution-o",signatures:"Nicoleta Petrea, Petrişor Zamora Iordache,Rodica Mihaela Lungu, Ioan Safta, Razvan Petre and Andrada Pretorian",authors:[{id:"94041",title:"MSc.",name:"Nicoleta",middleName:"S.",surname:"Petrea",fullName:"Nicoleta Petrea",slug:"nicoleta-petrea"},{id:"118325",title:"Dr.",name:"Petrisor",middleName:"Zamora",surname:"Iordache",fullName:"Petrisor Iordache",slug:"petrisor-iordache"},{id:"121342",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan",middleName:null,surname:"Safta",fullName:"Ioan Safta",slug:"ioan-safta"},{id:"118736",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodica Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Lungu",fullName:"Rodica Mihaela Lungu",slug:"rodica-mihaela-lungu"},{id:"118739",title:"BSc.",name:"Razvan",middleName:null,surname:"Petre",fullName:"Razvan Petre",slug:"razvan-petre"},{id:"119357",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrada",middleName:null,surname:"Pretorian",fullName:"Andrada Pretorian",slug:"andrada-pretorian"}]},{id:"25345",title:"Review of Nanocomposite Thin Films and Coatings Deposited by PVD and CVD Technology",slug:"review-of-nanocomposite-thin-films-and-coatings-deposited-by-pvd-and-cvd-technology",signatures:"Krzysztof Lukaszkowicz",authors:[{id:"16860",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Lukaszkowicz",fullName:"Krzysztof Lukaszkowicz",slug:"krzysztof-lukaszkowicz"}]},{id:"25346",title:"Polymer/Montmorillonite/Silver Nanocomposite Micro- and Nanoparticles Prepared by In-Situ Polymerization and Electrospraying Technique",slug:"polymer-montmorillonite-silver-nanocomposite-micro-and-nanoparticles-prepared-by-in-situ-polymerizat",signatures:"Jeong Hyun Yeum, Jae Hyeung Park, Jae Young Choi Jong Won Kim, Sung Kyou Han and Weontae Oh",authors:[{id:"18597",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeong Hyun",middleName:null,surname:"Yeum",fullName:"Jeong Hyun Yeum",slug:"jeong-hyun-yeum"}]},{id:"25347",title:"Designing Nanostructured Carbon Xerogels",slug:"designing-nanostructured-carbon-xerogels",signatures:"Esther G. Calvo, J. Ángel Menéndez and Ana Arenillas",authors:[{id:"14045",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Menéndez Díaz",fullName:"J. Angel Menéndez Díaz",slug:"j.-angel-menendez-diaz"},{id:"15134",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Arenillas",fullName:"Ana Arenillas",slug:"ana-arenillas"},{id:"27457",title:"Ms.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"G.Calvo",fullName:"Esther G.Calvo",slug:"esther-g.calvo"}]},{id:"25348",title:"Carbon and Silicon Fluorescent Nanomaterials",slug:"carbon-and-silicon-fluorescent-nanomaterials",signatures:"Joaquim G. G. Esteves da Silva",authors:[{id:"16117",title:"Dr.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"Esteves da Silva",fullName:"Joaquim Esteves da Silva",slug:"joaquim-esteves-da-silva"}]},{id:"25349",title:"Bioinspired Metal Nanoparticle: Synthesis, Properties and Application",slug:"bioinspired-metal-nanoparticle-synthesis-properties-and-application",signatures:"Sujoy K. Das and Enrico Marsili",authors:[{id:"62940",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrico",middleName:null,surname:"Marsili",fullName:"Enrico Marsili",slug:"enrico-marsili"},{id:"62942",title:"Dr.",name:"Sujoy",middleName:"K",surname:"Das",fullName:"Sujoy Das",slug:"sujoy-das"}]},{id:"25350",title:"Biorecycling of Precious Metals and Rare Earth Elements",slug:"biorecycling-of-precious-metals-and-rare-earth-elements",signatures:"Kevin Deplanche, Angela Murray, Claire Mennan, Scott Taylor and Lynne Macaskie",authors:[{id:"64033",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Deplanche",fullName:"Kevin Deplanche",slug:"kevin-deplanche"},{id:"68806",title:"Prof.",name:"Lynne",middleName:null,surname:"Macaskie",fullName:"Lynne Macaskie",slug:"lynne-macaskie"},{id:"68807",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",middleName:null,surname:"Mennan",fullName:"Claire Mennan",slug:"claire-mennan"},{id:"68809",title:"Ms.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Murray",fullName:"Angela Murray",slug:"angela-murray"},{id:"68810",title:"Mr.",name:"Scott",middleName:null,surname:"Taylor",fullName:"Scott Taylor",slug:"scott-taylor"}]},{id:"25351",title:"Molecular Design and Supramolecular Assemblies of Novel Amphiphiles with Special Molecular Structures in Organized Molecular Films",slug:"molecular-design-and-supramolecular-assemblies-of-novel-amphiphiles-with-special-molecular-structure",signatures:"Tifeng Jiao, Sufeng Wang and Jingxin Zhou",authors:[{id:"63887",title:"Prof.",name:"Tifeng",middleName:null,surname:"Jiao",fullName:"Tifeng Jiao",slug:"tifeng-jiao"},{id:"101752",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jingxin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",fullName:"Jingxin Zhou",slug:"jingxin-zhou"},{id:"102745",title:"Dr.",name:"Sufeng",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Sufeng Wang",slug:"sufeng-wang"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"69424",title:"School-University Partnership for Evidence-Driven School Improvement in Estonia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89513",slug:"school-university-partnership-for-evidence-driven-school-improvement-in-estonia",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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The Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 [1] aims to implement a learning and teaching approach that supports each learner’s individual and social development, learning skills, creativity, and entrepreneurship in the work of all levels and types of education. To achieve this demanding goal, new teaching practices should be developed in collaboration between universities and schools. This also means that every school should focus on their students’ individual needs—instead of implementing already existing approaches, new solutions should be created or modified to fit into local context. When adapting new teaching and learning methods, important questions arise: what is the impact of these approaches and what other factors are influencing the outcomes.
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In this new situation, schools continuously develop their practices, analyze the needs of teachers’, and find ways for their professional development. Hansen and Wasson [2] have pointed out that there is a need to change teachers’ professional development format—instead of traditional participation in training courses, teachers should be supported in developing and improving their existing practice through teacher inquiry. Nowadays, capacity building, inquiry-oriented practice, and data-driven decisions are considered as central themes of educational improvement [3, 4]. Concepts like practitioner research and teacher inquiry have been widely used for several decades—yet schools still face difficulties in using evidence for school improvement processes [1].
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In the age of big data, it is difficult to imagine any educational improvement that does not include data as a key pillar [6]. Developing evidence-driven school improvement processes through school-university collaboration is one option for helping schools work with evidence. Therefore, school-university joint programs are initiated and the Future School Program was launched in Estonia. The aim of the Future School Program is to support whole-school innovation and sustainable improvement of teaching practices by enhancing the teaching and learning culture through school-university co-creation of new methodologies and implementation of evidence-driven innovation.
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In this chapter, we analyze how to strengthen the evidence-driven school improvement in school-university partnership program. Following questions are discussed:
How evidence-driven school improvement is actualized in school development programs?
What are the enablers and barriers of using evidences in school development program?
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2. Evidence-driven school improvement: theoretical underpinnings
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Nowadays, educational innovation is not only the “business” of scholars—practitioners are actively involved and discussions about educational improvements revolve around the importance of evidence and data. Different authors use distinct terminology [7] evidence-informed education [8], evidence-informed practices [9], evidence-based practice [10], evidence-based education [11, 12], data-based decision-making [13, 14], data-informed practice [15], data-driven decision-making [16, 17], data-based decision-making [18], data use [7, 19, 20, 21] and practice-informed evidence [22]. The main idea behind these concepts seems to be concurrent; however, the use of different terms is not incidental. One of the broadest explanation has been given by Davies [23], who sees evidence-based education as a set of principles and practices, which can alter the way people think about education, the way they go about educational policy and practice, and the basis upon which they make professional judgments and deploy their expertise—but it is not the provider of readymade solutions to the demands of modern education. In the following sections, we compare and analyze how different concepts supplement each other and how the evidence-based improvement can be identified for the schools.
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To start with, we need to unravel the concepts of evidence as they are widely used. Evidence is a kind of information, which points to the truth or validity of a claim and is the joint starting point for all authors; opinions differ on how truth or validity is achieved. It is assumed that the main source of evidence practitioners should consider when making decisions in social science research, namely experimental research and randomized controlled trials [10, 11, 24]. The idea that research can make a major contribution to improving practice stems from the assumption that it is systematic and rigorous and provides explicit evidence, which can be assessed objectively [10]. It can be concluded that one sub-concept of evidence-based education concentrates on implementation of research results, especially implementation of these teaching techniques and methods, which have been found to have a positive effect on students’ assessment results. In the following, we distinguish this sub-concept as a research-based school development.
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Research-based evidence as a source for school development and teachers’ professional development has been criticized from different aspects. The disapproval of research-based evidence has been argued with the nature of research, its generalizability, and objectivity. It is recognized that professional judgments cannot be made without taking into consideration the value-based foundation of education [11]. However, research findings merely inform practitioners about what the general outcomes are of different kinds of decisions [24], and there are a variety of formal and informal sources of information that also contribute to the decision-making process [10, 24]. Schools and teachers cannot wait until the valid and reliable research results say how to implement new teaching practices.
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Evidence-based education operates at two levels. First is to utilize existing evidence from worldwide research and literature on education and associated subjects [23]. This gives a broader base for professional knowledge-in action [15]. The second level is to establish sound evidence where existing evidence is lacking or of questionable, uncertain, or weak in nature [23]. It requires acquiring, using, critiquing, and creating the evidence base by the lived experience of observing and assessing students in particular contexts on a regular basis [15]. This type of professional knowledge relies on multiple values, tacit judgment, local knowledge, and skill; research usually cannot supply what the notion of evidence-based practice demands of it—specific and highly reliable answers to questions about what works and what does not [10]. In this case, the basis for innovating instruction is the data what the context offers. The data about the students, their background, their previous achievements, as well as teaching processes, and school organizational existence is wide and the potential of this data is unused.
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The definition of data is broad. The focus is on raw data that must be organized, filtered, and analyzed to become information, then combined with stakeholder understanding and expertise to become actionable knowledge. The data not only enclose student test results, but also any other form of structurally collected qualitative or quantitative data on the functioning of the school, such as outcomes, inputs, processes, and perceptions [13, 25]. In short, data are the information that is collected and represent some aspect of schools [26]. If the evidence incorporates the question and the answer, the data comprehend only the question and the potential of the answer. The evidence incorporates the interpretive and evaluative elements, which are missing from the data. In conclusion, we distinguish the second sub-concept of evidence-driven school improvement as a data informed.
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In addition to the data-informed and research-based dimensions of evidence, the distinction of the outcomes can be identified [7]. The expected outcomes of the evidence usage describe the goals for which the evidence is used, more specifically, the aspect of the school culture which is expected to be improved and changed according to the conclusions made from the evidence.
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Discussions of evidence-based or evidence-informed practice refer to teachers, their classroom activities, and interactions with students [7, 9]. The data and evidence use are implemented with the goal of improving instruction. The quality of teachers’ instruction is an important influence on student achievement, and using data for improving instruction can enhance student achievement [13].
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Data and evidence can also be used to inform decision-making in school management and leadership levels. This process is often called data-based or data-driven decision-making [13, 16]. Data-driven decision-making is the purposeful process of selecting, gathering, and analyzing relevant data to define school problems, develop alternatives, estimate outcomes of the alternatives, and choose the preferred alternative [16]. Data do not objectively guide decisions on their own—but people do. To do so, they select particular pieces of data to negotiate arguments about the nature of problems as well as the potential solutions [14]. The use of data is not only a matter of new competencies and skills, it is more about the new culture to arise. Good things do not happen thanks to data—it should be supported by data-informed leaders. Leaders should take the responsibility to evaluate what types of data are useful and for what purposes [17]. Organizational practices have an important role in affecting the way that people in organizations think and work, so it is possible to shift patterns of practice by creating organizational supports and incentives that give greater prominence to the consideration of research findings and their implications [8]. In such a case, the data and evidence can be used for school development purposes and it refers to schools using data to improve themselves; for instance, student satisfaction surveys and exam results can be used to evaluate the extent to which the school is achieving its goals [13]. The processes of decision-making and interpretation happen in parallel; this way, there is potentially a higher coherence among the data, the decision, contextual factors, as well as the risk of misinterpretation or biased interpretation.
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In conclusion, we have identified two dimensions of the concept of evidence-driven school improvement (Figure 1). One of the dimensions is the input dimension, which refers to different inputs of the evidence: the evidence can be data informed or research based. The data-informed evidence can appear from assessment results, characteristics of teaching staff, national or school surveys, etc. The research-based evidence can be the result of some experimental study or qualitative study on teachers’ behavioral patterns. The second dimension characterizes the output of evidence: whether the evidence is influencing decisions made for school development, incorporating the organizational aspects like the structures, communication, or decisions made for the improvement of instruction by the teacher, usually in the interaction with the student and used educational method.
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Figure 1.
Dimensions of evidence-driven school improvement and some examples.
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Studies of data use have analyzed the factors influencing evidence-driven school improvement, and based on the synthesis of recent studies [13], it can be concluded that these factors are organizational characteristics, user characteristics, and data characteristics. Organizational factors include the shared vision and clear norms for data usage, encouragement by the school leader, possible expert support, time, and conditions provided for collaboration between teachers. Data use depends on the user characteristics of teachers. In order to use data, teachers need to have the knowledge and skills needed to analyze and interpret different forms of data; they need to understand the quality criteria for data use and data-use concepts; and they need skills to diagnose student-learning needs and adjust instruction accordingly. Data characteristics are identified as access to student relevant data, and the usability and high quality of data. It is important to note that these factors can be enablers or barriers depending on the goal of the data use. The study [13] shows that data use for school development is influenced by organizational and data characteristics, but data use for improving teaching and learning is influenced by organizational and user characteristics.
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Additionally, the evidence-driven school improvement implemented in school-university partnerships is influenced by the character of the relationship. The partnership can be as two types of relationships between schools and universities: one type of partnership can be labeled as transactional and refers to a relationship, which is driven by individual purposes—in this case, the organizations remain unchanged; the second type is transformational partnership, where the parties come together to pursue a common purpose and create the possibility of growth and change through mutual interaction as they apply their resources to address complex problems [27]. Studies [7, 17, 25, 28] investigating strategies of school-university partnerships for supporting evidence-driven school improvement have identified four key domains: (1) human support, (2) leadership, (3) technology support, and (4) designed routes.
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One possibility to offer human support is to use coaches. In order for coaching on data use to be effective, teachers needed to believe that the coach possesses strong interpersonal skills, content, and pedagogical knowledge that would be useful for them to learn. Facilitation of coaches includes assessing teachers’ needs, modeling how to interpret and act upon data, and observing teachers while they attempt to engage in the data-use process. Another possibility is to support professional development, but from previous studies, it is evident that the structured training in how to use data is not common in schools. A third approach to human support is networking with a university: either the researcher guides the process of data analysis and brings a theoretical framework to the practice or relies primarily on workshops and ongoing consultancy.
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Schools make efforts to have technology support: data systems that organize and analyze interim assessment data, and data warehouses with current and historical student data. It is acknowledged that the trainings for school teams on data use are rare and focus primarily on technological support and how to access the data management system. Technological support needs to be combined with other strategies.
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School leadership—principals are key players in facilitating data use among teachers, they play an important role in allocating resources and time to enable teachers to use data effectively. Their espoused beliefs about data use are critical as well, so they help set the tone for data use among in school teams. For the school leader, it is important to have a whole school perspective on the improvement initiated. If the instructional and organizational improvements are not aligned, it is confusing and unmotivating for the teachers to participate. It is important to communicate for the teachers why the evidence is being collected in classroom level and how it helps to monitor the big picture of the improvement and data are not used to blame-and-shame teachers. The evidence-driven school improvement cannot be implemented without data-literate and research-wise school leader, so the crucial target to support strategies is the leaders in schools.
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Schools are required to follow norms and designed routes—specific data-driven decision-making practices—when developing their school improvement plans or for teachers to follow when using data to guide instruction. One of the primary ways that is used to build teachers’ capacity to use data is providing structured time for collaboration. This includes adoption of data-discussion protocols in order to ensure that discussions about data occurred and that actions were taken on the basis of these conversations.
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Factors that influence the successful implementation of a school development program with the aim to support evidence-driven school improvement have been studied. Schools are more successful, if the entire school team participates in the program, the school staff is stable and the school leader provides their teachers with sufficient time and materials. It is concluded that school leaders and trainers should pay attention to developing clear guidelines and agreements on the execution of evidence-driven school improvement activities [18].
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3. Methodology
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3.1 Context: overview of the school improvement program
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The research context is formed around the school improvement program established at the Tallinn University. The program aims to support the evidence-driven improvement in Estonian schools for improving teaching and learning culture. Five schools applied (Table 1), based on their interest, to join the program in 2018/2019. Each school team consisted of 5–6 members, whereas 1–2 of them where members of the management and each school formulated their own student-centered goal for the improvement they aimed to achieve.
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Table 1.
Characteristics of schools participating in the school improvement program.
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3.1.1 Evidence-driven improvement process
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In the first phase of the program, each school prepared an action plan for improvement. Before creating the action plan, an analysis of the state of the school, built on existing evidence, had to be carried out. Some of the schools used data collected at the national level (satisfaction surveys, students’ study results, and existing research studies) to understand the current situation, defining the problem, and formulating the action plan. When analyzing the evidence, three school teams changed their initial goals because they did not find clear evidence about the problem they thought the school had or they identified another problem based on the evidence. During program activities, schools had to monitor and reflect on their own activities to understand their improvement processes. Each team agreed upon their own approach and tools for monitoring and data collection, which were discussed with their university coach. In addition to the regular monitoring, each school had to design their own action research plan, carry out the study in a classroom setting, analyze the collected data, and come up with suggestions on how the data will be used in the next decision-making steps.
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3.1.2 School-university partnership
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The program consisted of elements of human support, support for leadership, and designed joint activities. The school team—where the school leader was a compulsory member—participated in monthly seminars, where the next steps of the program were explained through theoretical underpinnings and practical suggestions. The seminars were used in the program, because the studies have shown that supporting professional development is essential in raising data-literacy skills of educational practitioners [25]. The networking aspect of the seminars is also effective to support for schools. Between seminars, the school team was supported by their university assigned coach. The coach is recognized as one of the key elements in offering human support [25]. Each step was scaffolded with the special task designed according to principles of change management and evidence-driven improvement. Data use can be improved by data-use routines, ensuring that it is a recurrent and patterned interaction that guides how people engage with each other and data [7].
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3.2 Data collection and analysis
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We followed the case-study approach, which has been acknowledged as an appropriate method in educational studies about evidence use [28]. Case studies do not aim to produce generalizable theories, but aim to provide practical wisdom, which is “about understanding and behavior in specific situations” [29]. That was also the aim of our study—to better understand the collaborative practices supporting schools in implementing evidence-driven school improvement.
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Data were collected throughout the program and after the completion of the program. A variety of data gathering techniques that are summarized in Table 2 were used.
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Table 2.
Overview of data collection.
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Data were analyzed based on the framework from theoretical underpinnings, where different dimensions of evidence use for school improvement were defined (Table 3). Instructional-level decision-making refers to the teachers’ decisions to improve their own teaching, assessment, feedback, etc. Organizational-level decisions refer to the decisions made by school management or school improvement team to improve school-level processes, practices, curriculum design, etc.
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Table 3.
Profiles of the cases based on dimensions of evidence-driven school improvement.
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Evidence-driven practices of the five cases were classified according to nine possible profiles of evidence-driven school improvement. These profiles were created according to criteria defined from the dimensions of evidence-driven school improvement. The criteria were the following:
Whether the school collected (a) data-informed evidence, (b) research-based evidence, or (c) both. We classified the school as using data-informed evidence when the data were collected by the school or made available for the schools by other stakeholders, and analysis was done by the school team based on their own research and improvement interest. We classified the school as using research-based evidence when the data have been collected, analyzed, and published by researchers, and the results are used by schools in their improvement process.
Whether the school analyzed the results with the goal (a) to improve school management, (b) to improve instruction in the classroom, or (c) both. The school was classified to use evidence on management level when the school team made decisions about communication, professional development, work organization, procedures, etc. We classified the evidence as used for the instructional improvement if the conclusions and recommendations were targeted toward teachers and their activities.
\n
\n
\n
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4. Results
\n
Evidence-driven practices as part of the school improvement were tightly embedded into the different phases of program activities. Next, the schools’ practices to actualize the evidence-driven school improvement, the challenges, and enablers of the process will be analyzed and discussed. The aim was to understand the following: to what extent schools used evidence collected from wider research, whether they collected or analyzed data based on their own research interests, and was the results used in organizational-level or instructional(teacher-student)-level decision-making processes.
\n
Based on teams’ reflections, interviews and analysis of the documents schools were profiled as follows (Table 4): usage of data-informed evidence, research-based evidence, or both to make decisions in the instructional level or organizational level or both.
\n
Table 4.
The schools evidence-driven profiles.
\n
\n
4.1 Data-informed decision-making in organizational level
\n
The aim for school 1 was to improve the teachers’ collaboration and through that improve the students’ learning experience, for that a new initiative was established as “collaboration day.” Based on the reflections and document analysis, the school team focused mainly on collecting data from teachers and students to understand the usability and effectiveness of the collaboration format—questionnaire for the teachers and students after each collaboration day, students’ self-analysis, and observation sheets. Evidence regarding well-established methods and theoretical underpinnings were less emphasized by this school in their improvement process. The main outcome for the school team was that the intervention supported teachers’ collaboration and integration of subjects:
\n\n
Teachers are more involved in collaborative learning: the number of teachers participating in more than 1–2 integration projects has increased by about 20%; teachers make more suggestions to colleagues for collaboration.
\n\n
The majority of the decisions based on the collected and analyzed data were done in management level: improving the format of the collaboration days, identifying the needs for teacher training, sharing practices, and supporting documentation of the integration projects.
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4.2 Research-based and data-informed decision-making in organizational level
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School 4 focused on students’ engagement in extracurricular activities. Interventions were carried out in teacher-student level and students’ engagement was analyzed with observation sheets. Students’ motivation was analyzed and teachers’ feedback was collected with self-analysis:
\n\n
We analyzed what emerged from the teachers’ work analysis and students\' motivation questionnaire.
\n\n
Theories and studies regarding students’ learning motivation to support engagement were used as evidence to plan the interventions and data collection:
\n\n
We used motivation theories, introduced by the university, to plan our intervention.
\n\n
Decisions were made mainly in the management level: observation process and techniques need to be improved:
\n\n
Not everything is always visible—how to go on with the improvement of the observation sheet.
\n\n
More focus on supporting teachers’ sharing of experiences and good practices was put.
\n
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4.3 Research-based and data-informed decision-making in instructional and organizational level
\n
The aim of the school 2 was to implement different learning strategies to support the development of students’ learning to learn skills. For monitoring the process, several data collection techniques were used: teachers’ empowerment survey, survey about teachers’ understanding of learning to learn skills, and teachers’ interviews about different strategies. Students’ self-analysis about the learning process was carried out; students learning skills and reading strategies were tested. Evidence from national-level satisfaction surveys was used when planning the activities and later analyzed:
\n\n
National survey 2018 was used to plan the activities; National survey 2019 was used to analyze the state of the school.
\n\n
Approved training programs about reading and meaningful learning were used when designing interventions in collaboration with the university team. To support the collaborative culture, a teachers’ professional learning community was initiated and research on teachers’ professional community was used to support teachers’ collaborative learning. Teachers in this group were also studied:
\n\n
We conducted interviews with the teachers’ part of the learning community.
\n\n
Decisions were made in management level (training and management support for teachers’ to implement the new strategies to support students’ learning to learn skills) and in instructional processes (new strategies will be implemented and students’ self-analysis process more systematically enhanced).
\n
School 3 aimed to raise the students’ motivation to learn through more systematic integration of the lessons and outside of the classroom activities. Self-determination theory was used as a research ground in different activities:
\n\n
In designing and conducting action research, we relied on self-determination theory.
\n\n
To analyze the effectiveness of the interventions, data were collected with the students’ survey after each intervention (based on self-determination theory) and teachers’ feedback. Evidence from the national-level students’ satisfaction survey was used for planning interventions. Decisions regarding the future activities were made in students’ level: focusing on explaining the goals of different learning activities to enhance the meaningfulness, enhancing students’ skills to give feedback:
\n\n
Students may not have taken the feedback seriously; the purpose of the survey should be better explained to the students.
\n\n
In management-level lesson, observations based on self-determination theory were developed.
\n
The aim of the school 5 was to implement the meaningful learning experience for the seventh grade students through integrating more real-life situations to classroom activities. For data collection, an instrument was created to analyze to what extent students understand what they learn and how it supports their professional growth. Also, all the students were tested with scientific tests:
\n\n
Grade 7 students took a motivation test and a social skill and learning to-learn skill test.
\n\n
Students and teachers gave weekly feedback, and teachers analyzed the students’ evaluation sheets:
\n\n
In addition to the paper-based feedback, we also received feedback from students electronically, which makes feedback for teachers more concise.
\n\n
Also oral feedback was collected from teachers and students for more in-depth analysis of the new experiences. Some evidence about the studies on integration of subjects was also used. To some extent, research results were also read by the team:
\n\n
We read some research about integration of the subjects.
\n\n
Decisions were made mainly on management level: improving evaluation sheets, reformulating learning outcomes to make them easier for the students to understand. In the instructional level, teachers will focus more in the future to create shared understanding with the students about what learning outcomes mean and what students are actually expected to learn:
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The teacher does not refer to the relation of the subject\'s learning outcome to everyday life, the result—teacher formulates the links between the learning outcomes together with the students.
\n\n
Also the plan to create individual learning paths for the students is in the focus for the future activities.
\n
Our analysis indicates that all five schools participating in our program focused on collecting data and finding research evidence on the management level and three schools worked with evidence in the instructional processes. Four schools out of five focused on improving students’ learning experience; one school focused on teachers’ collaboration, but still with the aim to implement integration projects to improve teaching practices in the classroom level. It can be also concluded that all schools used data as part of their own studies to understand the effectiveness of the interventions, but the usage of the research evidence did not happen systematically in all of the cases. Schools collected data from both students and teachers; the instruments were mainly prepared by the schools themselves. In a few cases, additional data were collected with research instruments proposed by the university (testing the skills of the students for instance). Decisions made based on the data and research results were mainly focused on management level: improving everyday processes, data collection techniques, formalizing methodologies, and better supporting teachers’ collaboration. Some important decisions were also made on the student level: enhancing feedback skills, goal-setting of learning activities, enrichment of classroom activities, etc.
\n
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4.4 The enablers and barriers using evidence in school improvement program
\n
Schildkamp and colleagues [5, 13] have proposed several factors influencing data use by school teams; they distinguish data use for accountability, school development, and instruction. In our research, we mainly focused on data use for school improvement and classroom-level instruction. Deriving from Schildkamp et al. [5, 13], we analyze the enablers and barriers of data use from the perspective of organizational, user and data characteristics.
\n
Organizational characteristics include the shared vision, which includes a joint understanding about the nature of good teaching, student learning, and ways to evaluate the student learning. As our program focused on school improvement, building shared understanding about the change and ways to monitor the process were crucial. Schildkamp et al. [13] emphasize that effective data use also requires collaboration—teachers should share and discuss their students’ results and their own functioning with students, parents, and teachers. In our case, all of the schools focused on improving teachers’ collaboration and different solutions were found to find time to share experiences as part of the program activities. However, school 2—which created a teachers’ professional learning community where the collected data were analyzed and results discussed—stood out among others for its evidence-driven school improvement practices. In our study, it was learnt that for the schools, it was difficult to design and conduct empirical studies (in action-research form) on their own (It is a very complex process for the school to develop research-based inquiry.) This was emphasized by the school that collaborated more tightly with the university experts to carry out research activities. On the other hand, same schools used more systematically research-based evidence in their improvement process than schools who used less university support in their activities. Therefore, the collaboration between the school team and university became very important in our study. Research data were used, but schools needed help in this regard, because it was challenging for the schools to understand what research data they could use and for what purposes and how to adapt the research-based solutions for their school settings. In our program, it was the role of the coaches to found experts, refer to the relevant studies, share validated tests and observation sheets to adapt, collect research data, etc. This relates well with Schildkamp et al. [13] user characteristics as well—data literacy of the teachers is something that needs promotion. It is not easy for the teachers to have the inquiry mindset, skills to collect data, interpret, and act based on the data. Mandinach [21] has concluded that pedagogical data literacy is the ability to transform information into actionable instructional knowledge and practices by collecting, analyzing, and interpreting all types of data to help specify educational steps by combining an understanding of data with standards, disciplinary knowledge and practices, curricular knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and an understanding of how children learn. Once teachers are prepared to work with the data, data characteristics—quick and convenient access to accurate data—also become very important. In our study, data-collection instruments were mainly prepared in collaboration with the university coaches and experts or by school teams themselves. It can be concluded that planning the data collection in collaboration with the university is something that schools can apply during the program activities. However, analyzing data quickly for feedforward purposes is something that needs further planning. For instance, school 4 who developed paper-based observation sheet learned that such documentation format does not support instant decision-making for classroom-level instruction. And school 1 changed their paper-based surveys to electronic surveys in the middle of the program for more efficient data analysis purposes.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Further perspectives and practical implications
\n
Our study indicated that in school-university partnerships, schools are able to acquire easier the mindset of evidence-driven improvement based on data collection, analysis by school team, or evidence from theoretical and methodological underpinnings. However, there are some aspects that need to be considered.
\n
\n
5.1 Human support
\n
A coach has been suggested as one possibility to offer human support, which was also applied in the current program, and it can happen in school-university partnerships where the university coach guides the process. Facilitation by coaches includes assessing teachers’ needs, modeling how to interpret and act upon data and observing teachers while they attempt to engage in the data-use process. It is recommended to design trainings for the school team with the following learning outcomes: learning the capabilities of the data system, understanding and using a cycle of instructional improvement, avoiding common data analysis mistakes, data transparency and safety, fostering a culture of data use, interpreting data in context, and using data to modify instruction. From the perspective of human support in the school-university partnership, our experience highlights the importance of the university coach. The school teams recognized the coaches help with practical questions and choices. This opens the discussion on the role of the coach in the school-university partnership. The university coach is often conceptualized in the literature as a data coach [7] or researcher [30] who pays attention primarily on evidence use. It may be too narrow of an approach if the final aim is to find and co-create innovative teaching and leading practices for school improvement. Yet, in our case, the profiles of the schools evidence-driven school improvement show that finding and selecting appropriate research-based evidence needs strengthening in the school improvement program. Also the main focus of the coaches was on bringing in theoretical frameworks, fostering a culture of evidence use and understanding the cycle of inquiry. The data analysis mistakes or accuracy was less emphasized by the schools. However, it was mentioned by one of the schools that they actually would like to get feedback if their inquiry design, data collection, and analysis are adequate.
\n
\n
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5.2 Technology support
\n
When technology training exists, it often focuses primarily on technological support and how to access the data management system. Studies show that schools pay efforts to have data systems that organize and analyze interim assessment data and data warehouses with current and historical student data. Our study indicated that elements to scaffold teachers to conduct teacher-led inquiry in the technology-enriched classroom as suggested by Hansen and Wasson [2] can be better supported. In our program, the data were collected rather traditionally—tests, surveys and questionnaires, mainly, and paper-based observation sheets. Focusing more on process-oriented data collection—with a variety of tools and efficient ways for classroom observations—timely access to students’ learning results might influence the use of data for improving the classroom instruction. The growing use of technology as part of teachers’ practice opens up the possibility for a change from researcher-centered studies to teacher-centered approaches to inquiry [2].
\n
\n
\n
5.3 Leadership
\n
School principals are key players in facilitating data use among teachers—they play an important role in allocating resources and time to enable teachers to use evidence effectively. Their espoused beliefs about data use are critical, as they help to set the tone for data use in school teams. School leaders also have access to a variety of data, performance indicators, and study results; making these available for the teachers is important to enhance the data culture in the organization. However, we recognized that during the program, schools mostly used the data they gathered by themselves and the use of data gathered by or for the national or municipality level was used rarely. This raises the question of the capabilities to interpret such data by the school team, and capabilities to support and coach this interpretation by the university coaches. Moreover, our coaches could recognize some hesitations and doubts for using such data by the school teams because of the meaningfulness of the data gathered in this manner. We recognize the effective use of national data as an improvement area for the school development program.
\n
\n
\n
5.4 Norms and designed routes
\n
The schools are required to follow specific data-driven decision-making practices when developing their school improvement plans or for teachers to follow when using data to guide instruction. Providing structured time for collaboration is one of the primary ways that schools try to build teachers’ capacity to use data. This includes adoption of data-discussion protocols in order to ensure that discussions about data occurred and that actions were taken on the basis of these conversations. Our program focused on understanding how can we better support schools in working with the data; in the next iteration of the program, we can more systematically focus on supporting the development of practices to create norms and routes for more systematic evidence-driven school improvement.
\n
Our study demonstrated that in school-university partnership, when schools are scaffolded, evidence-driven practices are more widely adopted by the schools as part of the school improvement process. However, we also learned that the need for teachers to obtain complex data skills is becoming more and more important. Understanding about the inquiry process is just one angle of the challenge; also the understanding of how to read, interpret, critically evaluate, and act based on data is as important. In this iteration, the program did not systematically emphasize designing practices for collecting evidence from data and from the research, which could be better supported in the future. Also, we learned that schools understand quite well how to improve the practices in the school level based on collected evidence. Synergy between instructional-level data collection and decision-making, and organizational-level improvement can, however, be enhanced. In the future, it is important to analyze the impact of using classroom data in novel pedagogical and assessment approaches, and for teacher’s professional development to determine if it changes the students’ learning.
\n
Our study also informs us how to improve initial teacher education and school principals’ preparation in Estonia. The main practical implication is rooted in the dimensions of evidence-driven school improvement. Currently, in initial teacher education, students are expected to carry out action research project during their internship period. Individually they learn how to collect data in the teaching process. They do not experience how their collected data from classroom interventions could feed the school improvement process and what is the relation between classroom-level evidence with school-level evidence. It can be concluded that it needs strengthening the dimension of evidence for school improvement in the initial teacher training. Additionally, current initial teacher training tends to prepare future teachers to collect action research data rather traditionally through surveys and interviews, but the usage of the learning analytics solutions as part of the inquiry could enable to monitor the practices more efficiently. Simultaneously, in principals’ training program, topics like evidence-driven school improvement and schools’ self-evaluation are rather theoretical. However, school principals need skills how to collect, analyze, interpret, and integrate data about instructional interventions conducted by teachers to plan improvements in school-level processes.
\n
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This research has received funding from the European Social Fund program “Development of Competence center for educational innovations in Tallinn University” and European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant no. 669074 (CEITER).
\n
\n',keywords:"data-informed evidence, research-based evidence, evidence-driven school improvement, school-university partnership",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69424.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69424.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69424",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69424",totalDownloads:57,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 14th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 3rd 2019",datePrePublished:"October 15th 2019",datePublished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"It has been acknowledged that evidence-driven practices may lead schools to improved instructional practices, student learning, or organizational improvement; still the evidence is underused by the teachers or school leaders. This study focuses on analyzing how to strengthen the evidence-driven school improvement in school-university partnership programs. Five schools learnt over a period of one school year in collaboration with the university coaches how to collect evidence in classroom and organizational level for improvement process. The results of our study illustrate profiles of the schools based on the usage of data-informed evidence, research-based evidence, or both to make decisions in the instructional and organizational level. Enablers and barriers of data use from the perspective of organizational, user, and data characteristics to implement evidence-driven practices are discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69424",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69424",signatures:"Kätlin Vanari, Kairit Tammets and Eve Eisenschmidt",book:{id:"9040",title:"Pedagogy and Pedagogical Challenges",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pedagogy and Pedagogical Challenges",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Kirsi Tirri and Dr. Auli Toom",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9040.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"234399",title:"Prof.",name:"Kirsi",middleName:null,surname:"Tirri",slug:"kirsi-tirri",fullName:"Kirsi Tirri"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Evidence-driven school improvement: theoretical underpinnings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Context: overview of the school improvement program",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Evidence-driven improvement process",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 School-university partnership",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Data collection and analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Data-informed decision-making in organizational level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Research-based and data-informed decision-making in organizational level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3 Research-based and data-informed decision-making in instructional and organizational level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.4 The enablers and barriers using evidence in school improvement program",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Further perspectives and practical implications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 Human support",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2 Technology support",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.3 Leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.4 Norms and designed routes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Estonian Ministry of Education and Research. Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020. 2015 Available from: https://www.hm.ee/en/estonian-lifelong-learning-strategy-2020 [Accessed: August 12, 2019]'},{id:"B2",body:'Hansen C, Wasson B. Teacher inquiry into student learning: The TISL heart model and method for use in teachers’ professional development. Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy. 2016;11:24-49'},{id:"B3",body:'Hargreaves A, Shirley D. The international quest for educational excellence: Understanding Canada’s high performance. Education Canada -Toronto. 2012;4:10'},{id:"B4",body:'Louis K, Stoll L. Professional Learning Communities: Divergence, Depth and Dilemmas. London/New York: Open University Press/McGraw Hill; 2007'},{id:"B5",body:'Schildkamp K, Smit M, Blossing U. Professional development in the use of data: From data to knowledge in data teams. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. 2017:1-19'},{id:"B6",body:'Datnow A, Park V. Data-Driven Leadership. Chichester, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons; 2014. 165 p'},{id:"B7",body:'Coburn C, Turner E. Research on data use: A framework and analysis. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives. 2011;9(4):173-206'},{id:"B8",body:'Levin B. Leadership for evidence-informed education. School Leadership and Management. 2010:303-315. Available from: https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.tlu.ee/doi/full/10.1080/13632434.2010.497483 [Accessed: July 05, 2019]'},{id:"B9",body:'Parr JM, Timperley HS. Teachers, schools and using evidence: Considerations of preparedness. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice. 2008;15(1):57-71'},{id:"B10",body:'Hammersley M. Some Questions about Evidence-Based Practice in Education. 2001 Available from: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001819.htm [Accessed: June 30, 2019]'},{id:"B11",body:'Biesta GJ. Why ‘what works’ still won’t work: From evidence-based education to value-based education. Studies in Philosophy and Education. 2010;5:491'},{id:"B12",body:'Slavin RE. Evidence-based education policies: Transforming educational practice and research. Educational Researcher. 2002;31(7):15-21'},{id:"B13",body:'Schildkamp K, Poortman C, Luyten H, Ebbeler J. Factors promoting and hindering data-based decision making in schools. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. 2017;28(1):242-258'},{id:"B14",body:'Spillane JP. Data in practice: Conceptualizing the data-based decision-making phenomena. American Journal of Education. 2012;118(2):113-141'},{id:"B15",body:'Jimerson JB. How are we approaching data-informed practice? Development of the survey of data use and professional learning. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability. 2016;28(1):61-87'},{id:"B16",body:'Childress M. Data-driven decision making: The development and validation of an instrument to measure principals’ practices. Academic Leadership: The Online Journal. 2009;7(1):18'},{id:"B17",body:'Datnow A, Hubbard L. Teacher capacity for and beliefs about data-driven decision making: A literature review of international research. Journal of Educational Change. 2016;17(1):7-28'},{id:"B18",body:'van Geel M, Visscher AJ, Teunis B. School characteristics influencing the implementation of a data-based decision making intervention. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. 2017;28(3):443-462'},{id:"B19",body:'Breiter A, Karbautzki L. Data Use in Schools—A Cross-Country Study. Institute for Information Management, University of Bremen; 2012. 24 p. Available from: https://www.ifib.de/publikationsdateien/ICSEI_2012_WAB_1792909_Breiter_%26_Karbautzki_Data_Use_in_Schools.pdf [Accessed: September 30, 2019]'},{id:"B20",body:'Park V, Daly AJ, Guerra AW. Strategic framing: How leaders craft the meaning of data use for equity and learning. Educational Policy. 2013;27(4):645-675'},{id:"B21",body:'Wayman JC, Wilkerson SB, Cho V, Mandinach EB, Supovitz JA. Guide to Using the Teacher Data Use Survey. 2016. 60 p'},{id:"B22",body:'Bryk AS. 2014 AERA Distinguished lecture: Accelerating how we learn to improve. Educational Researcher. 2014;44(9):467-477'},{id:"B23",body:'Davies P. What is evidence-based education? British Journal of Educational Studies. 1999;47(2):108-121'},{id:"B24",body:'Spillane JP, Miele DB. Evidence in practice: A framing of the terrain. In: Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. 2007;106(1):46-73'},{id:"B25",body:'Marsh JA. Interventions promoting educators’ use of data: Research insights and gaps. Teachers College Record. 2012:1-48'},{id:"B26",body:'Schildkamp K, Karbautzki L, Vanhoof J. Exploring data use practices around Europe: Identifying enablers and barriers. Studies in Educational Evaluation. 2014;42:15-24'},{id:"B27",body:'Butcher J, Bezzina M, Moran W. Transformational partnerships: A new agenda for higher education. Innovative Higher Education. 2011;36(1):29-40'},{id:"B28",body:'Sheard MK, Sharples J. School leaders’ engagement with the concept of evidence-based practice as a management tool for school improvement. Educational Management Administration and Leadership. 2016;44(4):668-687'},{id:"B29",body:'Thomas G. How to Do your Case Study. A Guide for Students and Researchers. London: Sage; 2011'},{id:"B30",body:'Geijsel FP, Krüger ML, Sleegers PJC. Data feedback for school improvement: The role of researchers and school leaders. Australian educational researcher (Australian association for Research in Education). 2010;37(2):59-75'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kätlin Vanari",address:"katlin.vanari@tlu.ee",affiliation:'
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In February 2001, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at National Chi Nan University (NCNU) in Taiwan as an Assistant Professor. In August 2004, he was promoted to serve as an Associate Professor. From July to August of 2004 and from August 2005 to July 2006, he held the visiting associate professorship in the Department of Electrical Engineering at Stanford University. In August 2006, he joined the faculty in the Department of Communication Engineering at National Central University (NCU) in Taiwan, R.O.C. as an Associate Professor. In August 2008, he was promoted to serve as a Full Professor. In January 2011, he became a Distinguished Professor. From August 2011, he is serving as the chairman of Department of Communication Engineering at NCU. His research interests include wireless transmission technologies, signal processing for communications and synchronization techniques.\n\n\tProfessor Lin has been serving as an Associate Editor for the IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology since 2008. He is serving as an Associate Editor for the IEEE Signal Processing Letters and as the Lead Guest Editor for the IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology (Special Issue on Telematics Advances for Vehicular Communication Networks) in 2011. He has served as a Technical Program Committee Member for numerous IEEE conferences and as a reviewer for IEEE and IET journals.\n\nProfessor Lin has published more than 20 papers in prestigious journals, presented more than 20 papers at international conferences and has one patent. Almost all of the publications are single-authored and based on his independent work. He also served as the Vice Chair of Meetings and Conferences Committee for 2008-2009 and served as the Vice Chair of Membership Development Committee for the 2010-2011 IEEE AP ComSoc. Professor Lin has won many awards, including the Dr. Wu Da-You Research Award from the National Science Council (NSC), Executive Yuan, the 2003 Award for Outstanding Faculty from the Ministry of Education, the Young Scientist Award issued by URSI, the Outstanding Researcher Award from the IEEE ComSoc APB, the Investigative Research Award from the Pan Wen Yuan Foundation, and the Taiwan Merit Scholarships Program from Executive Yuan, Taiwan. Professor Lin also won the 2009 Ten Outstanding Young Persons Award of Taiwan. Professor Lin is a Fellow of the IET and a Senior Member of IEEE.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"30915",title:"Dr.",name:"Felip",surname:"Riera-Palou",slug:"felip-riera-palou",fullName:"Felip Riera-Palou",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"37265",title:"Prof.",name:"Nadieh",surname:"Mohammadi Moghaddam",slug:"nadieh-mohammadi-moghaddam",fullName:"Nadieh Mohammadi Moghaddam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41668",title:"Prof.",name:"Guillem",surname:"Femenias",slug:"guillem-femenias",fullName:"Guillem Femenias",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"52454",title:"MSc.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Mohebbi",slug:"mohammad-mohebbi",fullName:"Mohammad Mohebbi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"58652",title:"MSc",name:"Kao-Peng",surname:"Chou",slug:"kao-peng-chou",fullName:"Kao-Peng Chou",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"58688",title:"Mr.",name:"Han-Kui",surname:"Chang",slug:"han-kui-chang",fullName:"Han-Kui Chang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"58824",title:"Prof.",name:"Meng-Lin",surname:"Ku",slug:"meng-lin-ku",fullName:"Meng-Lin Ku",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"58825",title:"Ms.",name:"Yu-Ting",surname:"Sun",slug:"yu-ting-sun",fullName:"Yu-Ting Sun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"58826",title:"Mr.",name:"Li-Wen",surname:"Huang",slug:"li-wen-huang",fullName:"Li-Wen Huang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Open Access Funding
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Dissemination and Promotion
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Indexing and listing across major repositories
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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