Common myofascial pain syndromes caused by the shortened muscle syndrome
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Chronic pain is common with relatively high incidence and low recovery rates [1]. Chronic pain can cause disability, mild to severe suffering and a serious problem to the health of the public. Chronic pain is localized to the musculoskeletal system in the majority of patients [2]. The most reported forms of chronic musculoskeletal pain are frequently back pain. However non-specific spinal disorders are not possible to identify a pathomorphological source of the problem despite a thorough diagnostic work-up such as simple radiography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, electromyography and nerve conduction test [1]. There are many potential causatives and aggravating factors associated with non-specific spinal disorders. Though laboratory and radiologic tests provide a myriad of information including the musculoskeletal and nerve system and give important clues for the diagnosis, structural abnormalities and clinical symptoms do not match commonly in clinical practice [3]. Unfortunately some patients do not improve despite administering conservative treatment and then the various interventional therapies, including medical treatment and/or surgery, and they find themselves in search of a more effective pain relief.
Deep dry needling is one of the alternative treatment modalities for these patients who do not respond to drug therapy and clinical intervention [4]. Previous clinical study demonstrated that dry needling into the trigger points (MTrPs) of myofascial pain syndrome is as effective as the injection of local anesthetics in inactivating them [5]. Especially, there appears to be growing interest in the intramuscular stimulation (IMS) for myofascial pain of radiculopathic origin developed by the Canadian physician Dr. Chan Gunn [6]. According to Gunn’s approach, dry needling should be performed not only in muscle at the site of pain but also in the paraspinal muscles of the same spinal segment that innervates the painful muscles as causes and treatment targets of chronic pain. IMS is the technique for needle insertion and mechanical stimulation into trigger points or motor units of muscle belong to both anterior and posterior primary rami of spinal nerve root which require treatment.
In this chapter, we introduce IMS as an alternative and effective method for the management of chronic pain.
Dry needling methods have empirically been developed to treat musculoskeletal disorders. In 1942, Dr. Janet Travell and colleagues firstly published the method by intramuscular infiltration with procaine hydrochloride [7]. The wider use of dry needling started after Lewit’s publication [5], where it was emphasized that the needling effect was distinct from that of the injected substance and the effect of injections was primarily caused by the mechanical stimulation of myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) with the needle. In addition, in numerous randomized clinical trials [8-9], no difference was found between injections of different substances and dry needling in the treatment of MTrPs.
Several models of dry needling have developed during the last 3 decades. The radiculopathy model is based on empirical observations by Dr. Gunn[10], named IMS to distinguish this approach from other methods of dry needling. IMS technique is based on the premise that myofascial pain syndrome is always the result of peripheral neuropathy or radiculopathy, defined as a condition that causes disordered function in the peripheral nerve [6].
In the radiculopathy model, based on Cannon and Rosenblueth’s Law of Denervation Supersensitivity [11], denervated tissues develop supersensitivity. When a portion from a chain of nerve units is irritated, the receptor sensitivities to chemical stimuli in that point and the zones below it (muscles, skin, blood vessels, ligaments and tenoperiostea) become abnormally increased and these effects are maximized at the directly damaged sites [10]. The most common sites of supersensitivity are skeletal muscles. Indeed supersensitivity leads to muscle shortening when a nerve unit is injured, and by which myofascial pain syndrome is induced [10]. In the musculature, shortened muscles can physically cause a large variety of pain syndromes by its relentless pull on various structures [12] [Fig. 1] [Table 1]. Muscular evidence of radiculopathy is almost found in the distribution of both dorsal and ventral rami of affected segmental nerves. Shortening of the paraspinal muscles (particularly the multifidi muscles) innervated by dorsal ramus of affected segmental nerves leads to disk compression and narrowing of the intervertebral foramina, or direct pressure on the nerve root, which subsequently results in peripheral neuropathy and the development of supersensitive nociceptors and pain [Fig. 2].
The shortened muscles cause the tendinitis, tenosynovitis and chondromalacia by increased traction at mechanically overloading the tendons and joints.
The shortened paraspinal muscles compress upon the nerve root by narrowed disc space and neural foramen.
Radiculoapthy can be often accompanied by partial denervation. Chronic attrition from the spondylosis is the most common among the causes of nerve damage, such as trauma, metabolic, degenerative, toxic, and other conditions [13]. The spondylosis has the structural disintegration and morphologic alterations that occur in the intervertebral disc, with pathoanatomical changes in surrounding structures. The spinal nerve root, because of its vulnerable position, is notably prone to injury from pressure, stretch, angulation, and friction due to pathoanatomical changes in spondylosis. Other causes of radiculopathy, such as arachnoiditis, neuroma, and intraspinal tumors are much less common. The spondylosis increases with age, and causes repeated major and minor injuries to a segment nerve leading to unresolved clinical residuals which may, or may not, produce pain [14].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Achilles tendonitis | \n\t\t\tGastrocnemii, soleus | \n\t\t
Bicipital tendonitis | \n\t\t\tBiceps brachii | \n\t\t
Bursitis, pre-patellar | \n\t\t\tQuadriceps femoris | \n\t\t
Capsulitis, frozen shoulder | \n\t\t\tAll muscles acting on the shoulder | \n\t\t
Carpal tunnel syndrome | \n\t\t\tpronator teres, the sublimis bridge, Trophedema in the forearm and carpal tunnel | \n\t\t
Cervical fibrositis | \n\t\t\tCervical paraspinal muscles | \n\t\t
Chondromalacia patellae | \n\t\t\tQuadriceps femoris | \n\t\t
De Quervain\'s tenosynovitis | \n\t\t\tAbductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis | \n\t\t
Facet syndrome | \n\t\t\tMuscles acting across the facet joint | \n\t\t
Fibromyalgia | \n\t\t\tMultisegmental (diffuse myofascial pain syndrome). | \n\t\t
Hallux valgus | \n\t\t\tExtensor hallucis longus and brevis | \n\t\t
Headaches- frontal | \n\t\t\tUpper trapezius, semispinalis capitis, occipitofrontalis | \n\t\t
Headaches-temporal | \n\t\t\tTemporalis, trapezius | \n\t\t
Headaches-vertex | \n\t\t\tSplenius capitis & cervicis, upper trapezius, semispinalis capitis, occipitofrontalis | \n\t\t
Headaches-occipital | \n\t\t\tSub-occipital muscles | \n\t\t
Infrapatellar tendonitis | \n\t\t\tQuadriceps femoris | \n\t\t
Intervertebral disc | \n\t\t\tMuscles acting across the disc space | \n\t\t
Juvenile kyphosis and scoliosis | \n\t\t\tUnbalanced paraspinal scoliosis muscles (e.g., iliocostalis thoracis and lumborum) | \n\t\t
Low back sprain | \n\t\t\tParaspinal muscles | \n\t\t
Plantar fascitis | \n\t\t\tFlexor digitorum brevis, lumbricals | \n\t\t
Piriformis syndrome | \n\t\t\tPiriformis muscle | \n\t\t
Rotator cuff syndrome | \n\t\t\tSupra-and infraspinati, teres minor, subscapularis | \n\t\t
\'Shin splints\' | \n\t\t\tTibialis anterior | \n\t\t
Temporomandibular joint | \n\t\t\tMasseter, temporalis, pterygoids | \n\t\t
Tennis elbow | \n\t\t\tBrachioradialis, carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi radialis brevis and longus, ext. digitorum, anconeus, triceps. | \n\t\t
Torticollis (acute) | \n\t\t\tSplenius capitis & cervicis. | \n\t\t
Common myofascial pain syndromes caused by the shortened muscle syndrome
In addition, radiculopathy itself contributes to degenerative conditions. Neuropathy degrades the quality of collagen [15]. The amount of collagen in soft and skeletal tissues is also reduced. Because collagen lends strength to ligament, tendon, cartilage, and bone, neuropathy can expedite degeneration in weight-bearing and activity-stressed parts of the body which include the spine and joints.
Clinical features of radiculopathy differ from those of denervation such as loss of sensation and reflexes. The effects of radiculopathy vary according to the type of sensory, motor, autonomic, or mixed dysfunction and distribution of the nerve fibers involved.
In radiculopathy, symptoms and signs are generally present in the territories of both posterior and anterior primary divisions of the affected nerve root. Clinical features of radiculopathy are projected to dermatomal, myotomal, and sclerotomal target structures supplied by the affected neural structure. The clinical characteristics can give rise to sensory, motor, autonomic, or mixed dysfunction.
Muscle shortening has painful spots on compression that are associated with hypersensitive palpable nodules in the taut band of skeletal muscle. The spots can cause tenderness, characteristic referred pain, motor dysfunction and autonomic phenomena. These can be tender, especially over motor points. Tender points can be found throughout the myotome and especially in paraspinal muscles.
Autonomic vasoconstriction of affected parts is colder in a noticeable manner. Increased permeability in blood vessels can lead to the trophedema that is edema in local subcutaneous tissue. The trophedema especially shows a characteristic feature like orange-peel skin over affected regions by rolling or squeezing an area of skin and subcutaneous tissue. The skin is tight and wrinkles absent. The consistency of subcutaneous tissue is firmer. The trophedema is not pitting to digital pressure, but to a blunt instrument pressure with the end of a matchstick. Excessive sweating as sudomotor activity may follow painful movements. The pilomotor reflex is often hyperactive and visible as goose-bumps in affected dermatomes.
The tendinous attachments to bone are thickened due to shortening muscle, which causes enthesopathy at the tenoperiosteal insertion.
The physical examination should always be preceded by a clinical history. It is important to inspect for any postural asymmetries, assess the range of motion for limitation, and examine the soft tissues for clinical features of radiculopathy. The spinal examination should be performed scrupulously according to segmental examination to elicit the signs that correspond to the affected spinal segments. The spinal segmental examination includes assessment for facet joint tenderness, tenderness to posteroanterior pressure on the spinous process, transverse pressure against the spinous process, and pressure against the interspinous ligamentum. This examination can identify the responsible spinal segments.
Because segmental radiculopathy primarily causes the significant changes in muscle, the examination of the segmental nerve supply to muscles is the clue to diagnosis. The changes in muscles are the most consistent increased muscle tone, tenderness over motor points and palpable taut bands, and result in restricting a range of joint motion. During examination according to the distribution of both dorsal and ventral rami of affected segmental nerves, each muscle must be palpated. Moreover, because many paraspinal muscles are compound and extend throughout most of the length of the vertebral column, the entire spine must be examined even when symptoms are localized to one region. The contracture caused by shortened muscles due to radiculopathy is invisible to X-rays, CT scans or MRI.
Laboratory and radiologic findings are generally not helpful for diagnosis of radiculopathy. Thermography reveals decreased skin temperature in affected dermatomes due to autonomic dysfunction. Other diagnostic observation is to find goose-bumps and orange-peel skin by rolling or squeezing an affected area. And the tenoperiosteal tenderness is present only when periosteal insertion is affected and is often painful to palpation only without giving the patient any pain spontaneously.
IMS is a system of dry needling that is based on a radiculopathy model for chronic pain. The key to IMS treatment is the release of muscle shortening. The fundamental Needling points for effective treatment are always situated to muscular motor points or musculotendinous junctions. These points generally coincide with palpable taut bands that are tender to digital pressure and are generally referred to as MTrPs. The muscles with tender points are generally shortened from contracture. Needling points generally belong to the same segmental level as presenting symptoms and signs. Tender points are distributed in a segmental or myotomal fashion, in muscles of both anterior and posterior primary rami which is indicative of radiculopathy. Practitioners purposely seek out tender and tight muscle bands in affected segments for needling.
The needles inserted in the plungers are made of a fine, flexible, solid and stainless steel like acupuncture needle [Fig 3, 4]. Its lengths are 4, 6, and 8 cm (diameter: 0.25, 0.3 and 0.4 mm respectively). The absolute size of needle is dependent on the muscle and the depth of the motor point being treated. IMS needles are longer, finer, and whippier than hypodermic needles and are particularly suited for deep muscle exploration. The plunger is sterilized by autoclaving.
Types of needles and plungers according to the length of needles.
The needle is inserted in the plunger.
When the needling point is identified, standard precautionary techniques for asepsis are followed (hands scrubbed, no gloves, and skin cleansed with alcohol). The thumb and index finger of the physician’s nondominant hand holding plunger remain unmoved to guide the needle [Fig. 5]. The direction of needle insertions using plunger is perpendicular to the skin with the objective of penetrating the motor units. When the index finger of the physician’s dominant hand on the non-needle end of plunger pushes the needle, it quickly penetrates the skin to 2 ~ 3 mm depth [Fig. 5 A]. And then IMS needle is followed several times by pecking and twirling movements [Fig. 5 B]. Therefore IMS allows stimulation of deeper motor units by using a manual plunger for inserting, pecking and twirling of the needle.
The technique of intramuscular stimulation. (A) Needle penetrates the skin. (B) Needle is pecked & rotated.
The fine, flexible needle transmits feed-back information on the nature and consistency of the tissues that it is penetrating. When the needle penetrates normal muscle, it meets with little hindrance. When it penetrates a contracted muscle, there is firm resistance, and the needle is grasped by the muscle. When an attempt is made to withdraw the needle, the grasp resists withdrawal. Leaving the grasped needle in situ for 5 to 20 minutes can lead to the release of a persistent contracture.
Following needling, muscle contracture, vasoconstriction and tenderness can disappear within seconds or minutes. Other signs, like trophedema may diminish more gradually, sometimes even taking days to disappear, but ultimately, all signs vanish following successful treatment.
There is limited evidence supporting that IMS has an overall treatment effect when compared with standardised care. The result of the meta-analysis searching all studies regardless of the language to include all the available clinical evidence on IMS included 5 randomized controlled trials (RCT) [16, 17]. The represented conditions had MPS of upper and lower half body, MPS of the upper trapezius muscle, chronic shoulder pain, tension-type headaches and chronic lower back pain. However, the large scale, good quality placebo controlled researches in IMS are needed for RCTs because of the limited sample size and poor quality of these studies.
Release of these muscles by stimulation of motor units with dry needling is usually necessary to restore joint range and relieve pain [10].Dry needling can cause a decrease in spontaneous electrical amplitude and subsequent relaxation via either a direct local electrical stimulus or via a reflex mechanism [18]. As the needle is introduced into muscle tissue, it can cause a shortened muscle to visibly fasciculate and subsequently relax [10]. In addition as the muscle is injured by the needle then a “current of injury” follows, this current of injury was first described in 1797 by Galvani. Injury potentials of several microamperes are generated and can persist and provide stimulation for days until the miniature wounds heal. It was demonstrated that denervation supersensitivity in animal muscle may be reduced or abolished by electrical stimulation [19].
In addition, twirling the needle causes muscle fibers cling to the needle to wind around its shaft. The rotation of a needle grasped by muscle shortening can produce intense stimulation. Unlike traction or manipulation, this stimulation is very precise and intense because the needle is precisely placed in a taut muscle band. Rotational motion is converted to linear motion which shortens the muscle fibers locally. This shortening of muscle fibers by twirling the needle activates muscle spindles and Golgi Tendon Organs and may cause subsequent muscle relaxation via local spinal reflexes. Therefore the needle rotation may induce neuroplastic changes as the pulling of collagen fibers and the transduction of the mechanical signal into fibroblasts can lead to a wide variety of cellular and extracellular events, including mechanoreceptor and nociceptor activation and eventually to neuropeptide liberation [20].
Needling also induces a sympatholytic effect that spreads throughout the body segment, releasing vasoconstriction. Pain in muscles, tendons and joints caused by excessive muscle tension is eased when the shortened muscles are relaxed. Subjective improvement can objectively be confirmed the increase in the motion of range, reduction of joint effusion and any decrease in muscle tenderness within minutes.
Dry needling delivers to the injured area the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) which induces deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis and stimulates collagen formation [21].
One intervention of dry needle stimulation to a single MTrP evokes short term segmental antinociceptive effects [22]. MTrP stimulation by dry needling may evoke antinociceptive effects by modulating segmental mechanisms.
No serious adverse effects were reported and the frequency of minor adverse effects occurred [23, 24, 25]. Several adverse effects associated specifically with dry needling include soreness after needling, local hemorrhages at the needling site and syncopal responses, and rarely reported a pneumothorax. Post-needling soreness is the most common due to local hemorrhages at the needling site and can be prevented by sufficient compression after treatment [26]. In addition, the thinner pointed-tipped IMS needles used for inserting trigger points can induce less tissue injuries than the thick and hollow needles with a beveled and cutting edge.
IMS differs from chinese traditional acupuncture using superficial dry needling [table 2]. Unlike chinese traditional acupuncture, IMS requires a medical examination searching for early signs of radiculopathy, the knowledge of anatomy and a medical diagnosis, and uses neuroanatomical points that are found in a segmental pattern, instead of using traditional acupuncture points that is non-scientific meridians.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Theory | \n\t\t\tWestern medicine’s understanding of the neurophysiology of pain and a greater knowledge of anatomy, muscle balancing and biomechanics | \n\t\t\tAn ancient Chinese philosophy into non-scientific meridians | \n\t\t
Diagnosis | \n\t\t\tMedical examination, and laboratory and X-ray test | \n\t\t\tInspection and pulse diagnosis | \n\t\t
needle placement | \n\t\t\tInto deep muscles | \n\t\t\tInto the superficial or subcutaneous tissues | \n\t\t
Needling techniques | \n\t\t\tPecking and twirling movements with plunger | \n\t\t\tStraight insertion | \n\t\t
Treatment site | \n\t\t\tMotor points of the shortened muscle, and its corresponding spinal segment | \n\t\t\tpre-mapped out points in the body and meridians | \n\t\t
Effect of treatment | \n\t\t\tSubjective and objective effects are usually experienced right after the treatment | \n\t\t\tAny effects are not experienced. | \n\t\t
The difference between IMS and Acupuncture
Many patients suffering from chronic pain have associated musculoskeletal pain which is not readily detectable with laboratory and radiologic tests. This pain may be due to both peripheral and central sensitization mechanisms. A radiculopathy model is offered to explain these syndromes. This model enables many apparently dissimilar musculoskeletal pain syndromes to be grouped under one etiologic classification such as radiculopathy. IMS is an alternative system of dry needling for treatment of chronic pain based on neurophysiologic concepts.
The mandibular central and lateral incisors have a single conical root. The root dimensions of both incisors vary corresponding to the crown. They are narrow in mesiodistal dimension and wide in labiolingual dimension and taper uniformly on both proximal sides from the CEJ to the apex. The apical end may curve slightly to the distal. Longitudinal root depressions can be seen in both incisors from the mesial and distal views. Multiple comparisons revealed that, among all permanent teeth, mandibular central incisor has the shortest root. Furthermore, in contrary to maxillary incisors, the root of mandibular lateral incisor is longer than that of mandibular central incisor [1]. It has been reported that the average lengths of mandibular central incisor and lateral incisor roots are 12.6 mm (7.7–17.9) and 13.5 (9.4–18.1), respectively [2]. Kim et al. [3] measured the mandibular incisor root lengths using CBCT in Korean population and found that no significant differences in crown and root lengths were noted between the CBCT-based and direct measurements. The R/C ratios were higher for the mandibular lateral incisors (1.4 ± 0.1) than mandibular central incisors (1.3 ± 0.1) [4]. Therefore, crown lengthening may not be possible in the case of traumatic fracture or iatrogenic orthodontic extrusion due to the short root length in these teeth. Variations in root length between males and females have been reported. According to Zorba et al. [5], it was observed that root length was greater in males than in females. Haghanifar et al. [6] found similar results when comparing crown and root lengths between males and females. He found that females had longer crowns while males had longer roots.
Many authors reported that the external crown and root morphology of mandibular central and lateral incisors are similar [2, 7, 8]. Mandibular incisors usually have a single root, which is wider buccolingually than mesiodistally and tapers toward the apex. The lateral incisor root is larger than that of the central incisor in mesiodistal and labiolingual directions [8, 9]. Variation in number of roots has not been reported in literature. However, Loushine et al. [10] have found two rooted mandibular lateral incisors. However, the shape may vary from conical to round in different populations. Sexual variation in the number and shape of roots has not been reported [9]. Mandibular incisor roots are commonly reported to be straight and in rare occasions curved in the apical region. Curvature can be in the mesial, distal, labial, or lingual direction [9].
Orban stated that the shape of the root canal “to a large degree, conforms to the shape of the root. A few canals are round and tapering, but many are elliptical, broad and thin” [11].
The internal anatomy of permanent mandibular incisors does not usually reproduce the simplicity of external anatomy. Its internal anatomy is complicated by the presence of lingual canals, lateral canals, isthmus, and apical deltas [12]. The pulp cavity is the central cavity within a tooth and is entirely enclosed by dentin except at apical foramen. It is divided into coronal portion (pulp chamber) and radicular portion. The pulp chamber is wide and ovoid labiolingually and it tapers incisally. The size of the pulp chamber is not constant throughout life. It decreases in size with aging as a result of secondary dentin deposition [13]. The pulp horn is well developed in this tooth. The root canal systems of these single-rooted teeth often have a single root with a single root canal. However, studies have shown that the root canal anatomy of these teeth is not simple. It may not be single and straight as it appears on the periapical radiograph. Indeed, these teeth have a high prevalence of bifurcation, second canals, lateral canals, and apical deltas which would complicate surgical and nonsurgical endodontic treatment. Mandibular incisor’s anatomy presents a challenge when an endodontic access is made, because of its small size and high prevalence of two canals. The main reason for failure in endodontic treatment of mandibular incisors is the inability to detect the presence of a second canal which can then not be prepared and filled during treatment [14]. In literature, the incidence of mandibular incisor teeth with more than one canal has been reported to range from 11 to 68% [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The differences between these morphology studies may be related to variations of examination methods, classification systems, sample sizes, and ethnic background of tooth sources. Many researchers have studied the prevalence of a second canal in mandibular permanent incisors on different populations and showed that the root canal morphology varies with race, sex, and age [20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
Routine clinical radiographs may mislead clinicians to be under an impression that all root canals are round in shape. A high prevalence of oval root canals in human teeth was reported [25, 26].
The pulp canal of the permanent mandibular central incisor is wider buccolingually than mesiodistally [9]. These dimensions are not constant along the root from the orifice till the apex. Oval canals and long oval canals are the most common canal shape seen in the coronal and middle third [27]. As we approach the apex, the canal shape becomes more rounded [28]. This canal shape morphology corresponds to the shape of the root.
The root canal morphology of mandibular central and lateral incisors is very similar. Although they have only one root and a high prevalence of Type 1 root canal morphology, surgical and nonsurgical root canal treatment may fail in these teeth if there is a lack of awareness in their internal anatomy which is complicated by the presence of the lingual canal, bifurcation, lateral anatomy, and isthmus [17, 29]. The morphological characteristics of the root canal system were studied using a number of techniques [18, 27, 30]. The prevalence of a second canal in mandibular permanent incisors is different between populations. Vertucci [18] reported that the incidence of the presence of a second canal was 25.7% among American population, whereas the incidence in Chinese population for the mandibular central and lateral incisors was 5.71 and 27.36%, respectively [31], 30% in Saudi population [32], 26.2% in north Jordanian population [33], and 36.25% in North-East Indian population [34]. In Iranian population, the incidence of mandibular central and lateral incisors having two canals was 27.3 and 29.4%, respectively [35]. The highest incidence (63%) of a second canal in mandibular incisors has been reported in a study in Turkish population [19].
Rankine-Wilson and Henry [36] filled the root canals of mandibular anterior teeth with radio-opaque material, sectioned them in a horizontal plane, and exposed radiographs. They reported two canals in 40.5% of mandibular incisors. Later, Vertucci [18] studied the root canal morphology of 300 extracted mandibular anterior teeth using the clearing technique. In 30% of mandibular central incisors and in 25% of mandibular lateral incisors, there was a second canal. On the other hand, higher prevalence of a second canal in Chinese population was reported in lateral mandibular incisors 25.5% compared with 10.9% in central mandibular incisors [37].
Many researches have shown that root canal systems also vary according to gender. In Turkish population, Sert and Bayirli [19] reported the incidence of second canal in central incisors in females (70%) was higher than in males (65%). Also in Turkish population, Arslan et al. [38] found the frequency of mandibular incisors with a second root canal in males (63%) was higher than in females (35%). The differences among both studies may be due to the fact that Sert and Bayirli examined the root canal morphology in vitro, whereas Arslan et al. studied the root canal anatomy in vivo. In Chinese population, Zhengyan et al. [30] found a significant difference between sex. The result of his study showed that 9.4% of the mandibular lateral incisors in males had a second canal, whereas this value was 11.9% in females. Among Iranian population, Haji et al. [39] reported that there was no significant difference between males and females in the incidence of a second canal in mandibular incisors.
It has become clear that teeth have complicated root canal systems rather than simplified canals [40]. Most investigators have shown that the root canal systems for most, if not all, permanent teeth are complex and canals may branch, divide, and rejoin. In addition to the complexity of root canal anatomy, root canal morphology varies from tooth to tooth. Concerning root canal treatment, these variations in root canal morphology of permanent teeth may result in missing root canals, nonsurgical endodontic treatment failure, and a need for surgical procedures. Weine et al. [41] classified root canal systems into four basic types, but Vertucci [18] subsequently classified them into eight configurations. The Vertucci classification may give consideration to the complex reality of canal systems in a way that the Weine et al. system did not.
Weine [42] described each of the canal types as below:
Vertucci [24] classified canal configurations into eight types as described below:
Although mandibular incisors are usually single-rooted teeth, their root canal system cannot be predicted not only between different populations but also between the same population, with respect to the Vertucci’s configuration. Studies reported that Vertucci’s Type I configuration has the highest prevalence among the other Vertucci configurations [43, 44, 45]. When a second canal is present, Vertucci’s Type III configuration is the most common for central and lateral incisors. Scarlatescu [46] found Type III has higher incidence than Type II, of 25 and 6.3% respectively in a Romanian population. de Almeida [47] reported that Vertucci’s Type I and III configurations represented 92% of the sample. Leoni investigated the root canal anatomy of mandibular central (
Lateral canals are accessory canals located in the coronal or middle third of the root, extending horizontally from the main canal to the external surface of the root. Their formation is due to the entrapment of periodontal vessels in Hertwig’s epithelial root sheath or when blood vessels running from the dental sac through the dental papilla persist during calcification [50]. Lateral canals communicate with the periodontal ligament space and this increases risk of spread of periodontal disease into the pulp canal. According to their location, Vertucci classified lateral canals into coronal, middle, apical, or furcation. He observed lower occurrence of canal ramifications in the middle 11.4% and coronal 6.3% thirds compared to the apical 73.5% third [18, 24]. Recent micro-CT studies on root canal morphology of mandibular anterior teeth reported that lateral canals are rare [48, 51]. Miyashita et al. [17] reported that out of mandibular incisors with lateral branches, single lateral branch had the highest prevalence (82.2%) and multiple branches were extremely narrow. Al-Qudah and Awawdeh [33] found that there was an increasing prevalence of lateral canals toward the apical third of the root with approximately 64% occurring in the apical part of the roots. On the other hand, other studies reported that lateral canals were frequently found in the middle of the canal [34, 46]. Clinically, lateral canals are not usually visible in preoperative radiographs, but its presence can be suspected when there is a localized thickening of the periodontal ligament or a lesion on the lateral surface of the root [50]. It is also important to note that lateral canals cannot be instrumented. Its contents can only be neutralized by the action of effective irrigation with appropriate tissue dissolvent properties and antimicrobial activity solution or with the addition of use of intracanal medications.
Apical deltas are defined as an intricate system of spaces within the root canal that allows free passage of blood vessels and nerves from the periapical compartment to the pulp tissue [52, 53]. The apical delta is different from the accessory canal in which the main pulp canal is still distinguishable. The prevalence of apical deltas in human permanent teeth varies among populations, and the type and locations of tooth and methods of study. High prevalence of apical deltas is found in maxillary second premolars, mandibular lateral incisors, and mandibular second premolars [22]. Among American population, Vertucci [18] reported that the incidence of apical deltas was 5, 6, and 8% in the mandibular central incisors, lateral incisors, and canines, respectively. However, Çalişkan et al. [22] reported that the prevalence of apical deltas in those teeth was 9.8, 23.5 and 7.8% in a Turkish population. Apical deltas have been reported to be of great importance in endodontics because they are difficult to be instrumented during chemical-mechanical preparation. Furthermore, their long vertical extension may cause failure of the apical surgery if not involved during apical resection [54]. Gao et al. [55] reported that the median vertical distance of the apical delta was 1.87 mm with 13% of them more than 3 mm. Therefore, resection of the apical 3 mm of a root may include the whole apical delta and residual microorganisms from 87% of roots with apical delta.
A thin communication can occur between two or more canals in the same root or between vascular elements in tissues [56]. Green [23] described this corridor as a “ribbon shaped passage.” He found this corridor in 22% of mandibular incisors. An isthmus is formed when an individual root projection is unable to close itself off. Any root that contains two root canals has the potential to contain an isthmus [57]. It may contain tissue remnants and necrotic debris, which participate in microorganisms’ growth resulting in root canal treatment failure [58]. Therefore, knowledge of the root canal anatomy is essential for complete cleaning of the root canal and successful endodontic treatment [11]. Isthmus classification was described by Hsu and Kim et al. [59]. They classified isthmus into five types: Type I—two canals with no notable communication; Type II—a hair-thin connection between the two main canals; Type III—differs from Type II because of the presence of three canals instead of two; Type IV—an isthmus with extended canals into the connection; and Type V—there is a true connection or wide corridor of tissue between two main canals. Mauger reported that isthmus was present in 20% of the teeth at the 1-mm level, 30% at 2 mm, and 55% at 3 mm [27]. Estrela et al. [60] demonstrated high prevalence of both partial and complete isthmii in mandibular lateral incisors (47.6%) compared with mandibular central incisors (33.3%). On the other hand, Arslan et al. [38] found a low incidence (3.7%) of intracanal communication among Turkish population. A similar study done by Haghanifar [61] found the prevalence of complete isthmus in the mandibular anterior teeth ranged from 3 to 5%.
As a result of large width of the root canal buccolingually than mesiodistally, mandibular incisors have oval and flattened canals [25]. The overall prevalence of long oval root canals in the apical region in mandibular incisors is >50% [25]. When using rotary files, these oval-shaped canals are a challenge for proper shaping of the canal. This is because rotary instrumentation cannot touch all the canal walls, leaving behind untouched area. To improve mechanical apical debridement, the use of instruments up to an ISO size 100 is required to avoid leaving untouched area on the buccal and/or lingual walls of the canal [62]. However, using files with large taper or tip may cause lateral or apical perforation of the root as the root has a narrower diameter in the mesiodistal direction. Therefore, it stresses the use of good chemical disinfection protocol on these teeth. Canals are considered as oval, long oval, and flattened when the ratio between the maximum and the minimum cross-sectional diameter is <2:1, 2–4:1, and >4:1, respectively. Apical foramina are the main apical opening of the root canal. It is the main exit of the root canal onto the external root surface. Variation in the number and position of apical foramina is especially seen in mandibular incisors with two canals. The apical foramen coincides with the anatomical apex in 17–52.2% of the cases [19, 22, 33, 57, 63].
A number of studies (17.33%) reported that the position and the number of the apical foramen vary according to the race. Al-Qudah and Awawdeh [33] reported that more than half of the roots (52.2%) had centrally located foramina and 47.8% had laterally located foramina. Apical deltas were observed in only eight teeth (1.8%), and among mandibular incisors with two canals, single foramen was more prevalent than two apical foramina. Miyashita et al. [17] reported that only 3% of the mandibular incisors containing two canals had two foramina. He also found that 67.9% of mandibular incisors with curved root had eccentrically located foramina toward the labial direction and none of the canals were curved lingually.
According to Walker [63], the distance between the apical foramen and the most apical end of the root ranges between 0.2 and 2.0 mm. The diameter of the apical foramen of mandibular incisors has been reported to be as 262.5 μm.
Anomaly (Gk, anomalos; irregular) is a deviation from what is regarded as normal [64]. These abnormalities may occur, in terms of size or shape, to either crown or root. WHO listed the following dental anomalies: concrescence, fusion, gemination, dens evaginatus, dens in dente, dens invaginatus, enamel pearls, macrodontia, microdontia, peg-shaped teeth, taurodontism, and tuberculum paramolare [65]. Anomalies of permanent mandibular incisors regarding the crown and root shape are extremely rare. However, few case reports have registered anomalies associated with mandibular incisors. As an example, dens invaginatus, a deep surface invagination of the crown or root, which is lined by enamel and resulting from the invagination of the enamel organ into the dental papilla during odontogenesis, can be seen in these teeth [66]. Dens invaginatus has been classified into three categories according to the depth of invagination and communication with the periapical tissue or periodontal ligament [67].
The prevalence of this anomaly has been found to range from 0.25 to 5.1% of the population [66]. More commonly, dens invaginatus occurs in the maxillary permanent lateral incisors. Also, it may occur in maxillary central incisors, premolars, canines, and molars. It usually occurs unilaterally, but bilateral cases have also been reported [68]. Occurrence of dens invaginatus in mandibular teeth is very rare. When it occurs in mandibular incisors, the central incisor has a higher incidence compared with lateral incisor [69, 70].
Talon cusp is also a rare developmental anomaly defined as an additional cusp that projects predominantly from the labial or lingual surface of primary or permanent anterior teeth [71]. Mellor and Ripa [72] named this anomaly “talon cusp” as it resembles the shape of an eagle’s talon. Talon cusp was classified by Hattab [73] as follows:
Radiographically, the talon cusp may appear typically as a V-shaped radiopacity, starting from the cervical third of the crown. Most of the talon cusps occur in the maxillary lateral incisors (55%), followed by maxillary central incisors (32%) and maxillary canines (9%) [71]. Although it is rarely seen in mandibular teeth [74], Gündüz and Celenk [43] studied the site distribution of talon cusp among Turkish population and found only 3% of talon cusp was seen in the mandibular right central incisors.
Another rare developmental anomaly that has been reported to occur in mandibular central incisor is “Gemination” [75]. It is a rare anomaly that arises when the tooth bud of a single tooth attempts to divide. The structure most often presents as two crowns, either totally or partially separated, with a single root and one root canal [76]. In the anterior region, gemination can cause poor esthetic appearance due to irregular morphology. In addition, these teeth are more susceptible to periodontal disease and caries, if deep groove is present [77, 78].
Fusion is another developmental anomaly which can occur in these teeth. Contrary to gemination, fusion is defined as the union of two or more separately developing tooth germs during odontogenesis, when the crown is not yet mineralized at the dentinal level, yielding a single large tooth [79]. Depending on the stage of development at the time of union, the pulp might be merged or separated [80]. Fusion is more frequently seen in primary dentition, but it may occur in both dentitions. If it occurs in permanent dentition, the vast majority of permanent teeth fusion cases are seen in maxillary teeth. Although, the incidence of fusion of mandibular incisors is rare, mandibular central incisors have been reported to fuse with a supernumerary tooth [81] and bilaterally with the adjacent lateral incisor [82].
It should be emphasized that special attention is required during root canal treatment owing to the abnormal morphology of the crown and the complexity of the root canal system in fused teeth.
Mandibular incisors are prone to endodontic treatment as a result of several reasons. Due to their location in the jaw, they are prone to traumas that result in tooth fracture which may necessitate root canal therapy. Moreover, their proximity to the opening of the sublingual and submandibular ducts increases the incidence of dental caries as a result of lingual deposition of calculus. Therefore, an accurate knowledge of the external and internal anatomy of these teeth is an essential prerequisite to carry out root canal treatment. They often have two canals that are buccolingually located and the lingual canal usually is missed. Therefore, the dentist should extend the access preparation in lingual direction to locate the lingual canal which is usually below the cingulum. In case of two canals, Type II canal is the most prevalent configuration where the buccal canal is the most straight and easiest to be located. Consequently, it is recommended to instrument and fill these canals till the apex whereas the lingual canal merges with the labial canal. Presence of an isthmus may complicate the root canal disinfection as it may contain tissue remnants and necrotic debris, hence irrigation and activation are very essential to overcome these anatomical difficulties.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
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Cultivated forms belong to the species “Manihot esculenta Crantz” and “Manihot utilissima Pohl.” Africa produces about 50–80 million tonnes of cassava annually; this translates into an average of more than 300 calories per day for more than 200 million people. Cassava can grow on relatively marginal soils and erratic rainfall conditions in southeastern, Nigeria. It quickly adapts and integrates into the traditional farming system, is easy to cultivate and process and it is available all year round acting as a buffer against crop failure. These characteristics make this root crop a necessary component of the farming system in many areas of Africa south of the Sahara. Some of the principal recommended cultivated varieties in Nigeria include; TME 419, TMS 90257, TMS 91934, TMS 81/00110, TMS 82/00661, TMS 30001, TMS 30555, TMS 30572 and local cultivars—Nwugo, Nwaiwa, Ekpe and Okotorowa that are popular in southeastern Nigeria. Cassava is expected to play increased role in Africa’s struggle to attain food and nutrition security through increased production and utilization. This paper examines the ecophysiology, production principles, pest and disease management, uses and constraint hampering cassava production in southeast Nigeria.",book:{id:"6308",slug:"cassava",title:"Cassava",fullTitle:"Cassava"},signatures:"Martin A.N. Anikwe and Ejike E. Ikenganyia",authors:[{id:"28328",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Anikwe",slug:"martin-anikwe",fullName:"Martin Anikwe"},{id:"220543",title:"MSc.",name:"Ejike",middleName:null,surname:"Ikenganyia",slug:"ejike-ikenganyia",fullName:"Ejike Ikenganyia"}]},{id:"57918",title:"Review of Various Harvesting Options for Cassava",slug:"review-of-various-harvesting-options-for-cassava",totalDownloads:3183,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Harvesting plays a critical role in the cassava production value chain. A review of some existing cassava harvesting options is necessary to facilitate the proper adaption and uptake of improved harvesting methods applicable to farmers from different parts of the globe. In terms of capacity, manual, semi-manual and fully mechanised harvesting options respectively require about 22–51 man-hha-1, 16-45 man-hha-1 and 1–4 man-hha-1. An added advantage with mechanised options is that the field is left ploughed after harvesting with savings on fuel, time and cost. Mechanised harvesters work best on ridged fields with minimal trash or weeds and relatively dry soils (12–16% d.b. moisture content). Earlier attempts at mechanised harvesting have been affected by constraints such as soil characteristics, nature and size of tubers, depth and width of cluster and bond between tubers and the soil, leading to high tuber damage. Though less research attention is given to cassava harvesting mechanisation, that aspect of the global cassava transformation agenda has always been the problem. There is still room for improvement in the provision of appropriate harvesting options for cassava worldwide and a more concerted effort from both the government and private sector is vital.",book:{id:"6308",slug:"cassava",title:"Cassava",fullTitle:"Cassava"},signatures:"Shadrack Kwadwo Amponsah, Ahmad Addo and Byju\nGangadharan",authors:[{id:"203117",title:"Dr.",name:"Shadrack",middleName:"Kwadwo",surname:"Amponsah",slug:"shadrack-amponsah",fullName:"Shadrack Amponsah"},{id:"220625",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Addo",slug:"ahmad-addo",fullName:"Ahmad Addo"},{id:"220626",title:"Dr.",name:"Gangadharan",middleName:null,surname:"Byju",slug:"gangadharan-byju",fullName:"Gangadharan Byju"}]},{id:"45885",title:"Nitrogen Fixation in Sugarcane",slug:"nitrogen-fixation-in-sugarcane",totalDownloads:4097,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3806",slug:"advances-in-biology-and-ecology-of-nitrogen-fixation",title:"Advances in Biology and Ecology of Nitrogen Fixation",fullTitle:"Advances in Biology and Ecology of Nitrogen Fixation"},signatures:"Takuji Ohyama, Atsushi Momose, Norikuni Ohtake, Kuni Sueyoshi,\nTakashi Sato, Yasuhiro Nakanishi, Constancio A. Asis Jr., Soraya\nRuamsungsri and Shotaro Ando",authors:[{id:"30061",title:"Prof.",name:"Takuji",middleName:null,surname:"Ohyama",slug:"takuji-ohyama",fullName:"Takuji Ohyama"}]},{id:"56558",title:"Introductory Chapter: Cassava as a Staple Food",slug:"introductory-chapter-cassava-as-a-staple-food",totalDownloads:2070,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"6308",slug:"cassava",title:"Cassava",fullTitle:"Cassava"},signatures:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",authors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara"}]},{id:"46074",title:"Effects of Rhizobium Inoculation on Nitrogen Fixation and Growth of Leguminous Green Manure Crop Hairy Vetch (Vicia villosa Roth)",slug:"effects-of-rhizobium-inoculation-on-nitrogen-fixation-and-growth-of-leguminous-green-manure-crop-hai",totalDownloads:3139,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3806",slug:"advances-in-biology-and-ecology-of-nitrogen-fixation",title:"Advances in Biology and Ecology of Nitrogen Fixation",fullTitle:"Advances in Biology and Ecology of Nitrogen Fixation"},signatures:"Takashi Sato",authors:[{id:"41434",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"takashi-sato",fullName:"Takashi Sato"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"373",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81798",title:"Protein Metabolism in Plants to Survive against Abiotic Stress",slug:"protein-metabolism-in-plants-to-survive-against-abiotic-stress",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102995",abstract:"Plants are frequently subjected to several abiotic environmental stresses under natural conditions causing profound impacts on agricultural yield and quality. Plants can themselves develop a wide variety of efficient mechanisms to respond environmental challenges. Tolerance and acclimation of plants are always related to significant changes in protein, cellular localization, posttranscription, and posttranslational modifications. Protein response pathways as well as pathways unique to a given stress condition shared by plants under different stressed environment are discussed in this chapter. The various signaling of protein such as fluctuation, overexpression, and silencing of the protein gene are observed to be modulated in drought-tolerant plants. Similarly, gene expression, RNA processing, and metabolic process take place to cope with drought conditions. For adaption in water-submerged conditions, plants undergo reactive oxygen species (ROS), cell wall modification, proteolysis, and post-recovery protein metabolism. Heat shock protein and protein and lipid contents vary and play pivotal role in resisting low and high temperatures. In a nutshell, this paper provides an overview of several modification, synthesis, degradation, and metabolism of protein in plants to cope with and revive again to normal growing conditions against abiotic stress, emphasizing drought, submerged, extreme cold, and heat temperatures.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Bharti Thapa and Abhisek Shrestha"},{id:"80923",title:"Salt Stress Tolerance in Rice and Wheat: Physiological and Molecular Mechanism",slug:"salt-stress-tolerance-in-rice-and-wheat-physiological-and-molecular-mechanism",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101529",abstract:"Salinity is a major obstacle to global grain crop production, especially rice and wheat. The identification and improvement of salt-tolerant rice and wheat depending upon the genetic diversity and salt stress response could be a promising solution to deal with soil salinity and the increasing food demands. Plant responses to salt stress occur at the organismic, cellular, and molecular levels and the salt stress tolerance in those crop plant involving (1) regulation of ionic homeostasis, (2) maintenance of osmotic potential, (3) ROS scavenging and antioxidant enzymes activity, and (4) plant hormonal regulation. In this chapter, we summarize the recent research progress on these four aspects of plant morpho-physiological and molecular response, with particular attention to ionic, osmolytic, enzymatic, hormonal and gene expression regulation in rice and wheat plants. Moreover, epigenetic diversity could emerge as novel of phenotypic variations to enhance plant adaptation to an adverse environmental conditions and develop stable stress-resilient crops. The information summarized here will be useful for accelerating the breeding of salt-tolerant rice. This information may help in studies to reveal the mechanism of plant salt tolerance, screen high efficiency and quality salt tolerance in crops.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Hasanuzzaman"},{id:"80091",title:"Molecular Defense Mechanisms in Plants to Tolerate Toxic Action of Heavy Metal Environmental Pollution",slug:"molecular-defense-mechanisms-in-plants-to-tolerate-toxic-action-of-heavy-metal-environmental-polluti",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102330",abstract:"Toxic action of heavy metals on plants growing in contaminated soils intensified the research on detoxification and sequestering mechanisms existing in plants to understand and manipulate defense mechanisms that confer tolerance against metal ions. Increased biosynthesis of plant biomolecules to confer tolerance during toxic action of heavy metals is an intrinsic ability of plants. Induced formation of low-molecular weight amino acids, peptides or proteines as chelators such as proline (Pro), glutathione (GSH), phytochelatins (PCs) or metallothioneins (MTs) under heavy metal stress enhances metal binding and detoxification capability of plants. In addition, proline and GSH related enzymes such as GSH reductase, GSH peroxidases and glutathione S-transferases are also key components of the antioxidant defense system in the cells to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS). Protective action of oxidized fatty acids oxylipins at toxic levels of heavy metals is considered to activate detoxification processes as signaling molecules.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Istvan Jablonkai"},{id:"80723",title:"Intra-Annual Variation in Leaf Anatomical Traits of an Overwintering Shrub of High Elevations of Himalaya",slug:"intra-annual-variation-in-leaf-anatomical-traits-of-an-overwintering-shrub-of-high-elevations-of-him",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102016",abstract:"Trait variability in response to seasonal variations can be hypothesised as an advantageous strategy for overwintering shrubs. This hypothesis was tested by elucidating patterns of trait variation in an evergreen alpine shrub, Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don. The study site was established at Rohtang (3990 m a.s.l.) in western Himalaya. Its leaves were sampled at 10 time points spanning a period of 1 year (beginning from 22-August-2017 to 14-August-2018) for estimating anatomical traits using light and scanning electron microscopy. The data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance, and the trait-temperature relationships were analysed using linear regression. The results indicated a lower variability in the anatomical traits. A few traits (e.g. cuticle thickness and epidermal scales) were found to be significantly correlated with temperature (p < 0.05). Our analysis revealed increase in cuticle thickness and a decrease in epidermal scales (size) during low-temperature conditions. The lesser variability found in anatomical traits of overwintering shrub could be explained as ‘evolutionary gained adaptive traits’.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Nikita Rathore, Dinesh Thakur, Nang Elennie Hopak and Amit Chawla"},{id:"80587",title:"Morpho-Anatomical Adaptation against Salinity",slug:"morpho-anatomical-adaptation-against-salinity",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101681",abstract:"Plants tolerant of NaCl, implement several adjustments to acclimate to salt stress, such as biochemical, physiological, and morphological modifications. Besides, plants also adjust to saline circumstances by altering their anatomical structure of roots, leaves, and morphological modifications. The leaf and roots are among the essential plant organs and are involved in the transport of water and minerals used for photosynthesis. From a plant physiology perspective, water use efficiency in the quantity of CO2 fixed in photosynthesis compared to the leaf anatomy. In this review, we provide a comparative account of the morphology of the leaf and root under normal and salt stress circumstances. There is little information on the ultrastructure changes elicited in response to salt stress. The analysis expands our knowledge of how salt may impact the leaves and root anatomy.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Smita Srivastava"},{id:"80201",title:"Nutrients Deficit and Water Stress in Plants: New Concept Solutions Using Olive Solid Waste",slug:"nutrients-deficit-and-water-stress-in-plants-new-concept-solutions-using-olive-solid-waste",totalDownloads:76,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101523",abstract:"Great efforts were deployed by researchers to mobilize water resources while is becoming rarer and to control with efficiency the water besides nutrient needs for the plant. Autonomous water and nutritional anti-stress device for plants (AWANASD) based on the recovery of rainwater patented by Medhioub et al. fits into this general framework. Scientific efforts were also dedicated to preserve the environment and minimize energy consumption through using agricultural waste materials in different fields. This chapter provides a new concept based on the use of the olive solid waste in AWANASD as water storage and nutrient elements for plants giving rise to the new system called AWANASD-OSW.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Samir Medhioub, Slah Bouraoui, Ali Ellouze and Hassen Sabeur"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:9},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. 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She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. He worked as assistant Professor of Genetic, biostatistics and animal biotechnology at INAT since 2013.",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",publishedDate:"April 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Leadership in a Changing World - A Multidimensional Perspective",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Université Laval",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. 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