Solid photocatalysts typically used for degradation processes.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8732",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sino-Nasal and Olfactory System Disorders",title:"Sino-Nasal and Olfactory System Disorders",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Our sense of smell is of critical importance in our daily lives and it contributes to our personal wellbeing and safety as well as communication with others. However, it is only when disease or injury impairs its function that we appreciate the relevance of this sensory modality. During the past three decades, research of the olfactory sense has seen an ever-growing interest in this exciting field of study. This book provides the reader with an overview of the latest developments in sino-nasal and olfactory system disorders and focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this area. This book addresses disorders, dysfunctions, diseases, and syndromes of the olfactory system ranging from molecular, cellular, and systems to cognitive and behavioral topics. Individual chapters center around recent advances in specific areas of chemosensory pathological conditions, while other chapters focus on technological developments to study the function and dysfunction of the olfactory pathways.",isbn:"978-1-83880-951-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-950-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-952-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80149",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sino-nasal-and-olfactory-system-disorders",numberOfPages:212,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2170e4de59f7b95f9fad8d3dc343aae0",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel and Balwant Singh Gendeh",publishedDate:"October 21st 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8732.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7876,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 6th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/70569/images/system/70569.jfif",biography:"Thomas Heinbockel, Ph.D., is Professor and Interim Chair in the Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC. Dr. Heinbockel’s laboratory engages in multidisciplinary research to elucidate organizational principles of neural systems in the brain, specifically the limbic and olfactory systems. His research has been directed at understanding brain mechanisms of information processing and their relation to neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. His lab works also on translational projects, specifically the development of novel anti-epileptic drugs and pharmacotherapeutic treatment options for drug addiction. His lab also analyzes drug actions at the epi- and genetic levels using next-generation sequencing technology. Dr. Heinbockel studied biology at the Philipps-University, Marburg, Germany. His studies of the brain began during his MS thesis work at the Max-Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology, Starnberg/Seewiesen, Germany. Subsequently, Dr. Heinbockel completed a Ph.D. in Neuroscience at the University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA. After graduating, he was a research associate at the Institute of Physiology, Otto-von-Guericke-University School of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany. Prior to his arrival at Howard University, Dr. Heinbockel held joint research faculty appointments in the Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology and the Department of Physiology at the University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. He still maintains an adjunct appointment in these departments.",institutionString:"Howard University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Howard University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67669/images/system/67669.png",biography:"Dr. Balwant Singh Gendeh is a senior consultant ENT surgeon with a sub-specialty interest in rhinology (allergy, sino-nasal diseases, endoscopic sinus, anterior and ventral skull base surgery, and functional and cosmetic nasal surgery). He was an ENT registrar at the Royal Infirmary, Middlesbrough, UK, in 1993, and a JW Fulbright scholar, University of Pittsburgh, USA, in 1997. During his Fulbright experience, he also worked at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania (HUP), Philadelphia, USA, and St. Joseph’s Hospital, Chicago, USA, with a sub-specialty interest in rhinology and aesthetic nasal surgery. Dr. Gendeh retired after thirty-eight years of government service as a consultant ENT surgeon at the National University of Malaysia Medical Centre (UKMMC) in 2014. Currently, he is a visiting professor at the Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, UKMMC, and a resident ENT consultant at Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur. He is an executive member of numerous national and international bodies including board chairman of the Malaysian American Commission on Educational Exchange (MACEE). He was elected as a diploma of the Fellowship Academy of Medicine Malaysia (FAMM) in 2000, an international fellow of the Academy of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery in 2004, a fellow of the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (FASc) in 2016, and a fellow of Malaysian Scientific Association (FMSA) in 2017. He has written ninety-three scientific papers and edited/co-edited eight books and seven book chapters.",institutionString:"Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1098",title:"Otolaryngology",slug:"otorhinolaryngology-otolaryngology"}],chapters:[{id:"73247",title:"Introductory Chapter: Dysfunction of the Olfactory System and Nasal Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93596",slug:"introductory-chapter-dysfunction-of-the-olfactory-system-and-nasal-disorders",totalDownloads:264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Thomas Heinbockel and Balwant S. Gendeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73247",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73247",authors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"},{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"70716",title:"Imaging in Sinonasal Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90773",slug:"imaging-in-sinonasal-disorders",totalDownloads:859,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Computed tomography (CT) is the “working horse” in sinonasal imaging and should always be the first choice. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is complementary to CT when complications to rhinosinusitis or neoplasm are suspected. Imaging of the paranasal sinuses is common due to stuffy nose. In order to correct interpretation, proper imaging technique as well as knowledge of bony anatomy and variants and mucosal incidental findings are of outmost importance. Acute rhinosinusitis is very common and does not need imaging unless complications are suspected. In chronic rhinosinusitis, a CT examination is needed to find the cause and site of the mucociliary obstruction and to rule out other causes as odontogenic and fungal sinusitis and neoplasms.",signatures:"Heidi Beate Eggesbø",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70716",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70716",authors:[{id:"65505",title:"Dr.",name:"Heidi Beate",surname:"Eggesbø",slug:"heidi-beate-eggesbo",fullName:"Heidi Beate Eggesbø"}],corrections:null},{id:"70261",title:"Sinusitis, Asthma and Headache",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90210",slug:"sinusitis-asthma-and-headache",totalDownloads:628,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sinusitis is the infection of sinuses. Sinuses are four hollow cavities in face which are connected to nasal pathways to help moisten, warm and filter the air which we breathe in. Sinuses get irritated due to bacteria, virus and allergens. It is often associated with asthma and headache. Pressure in the sinuses is built by over production of mucous and leads to sinus headache. Asthma gets severe with the sinusitis as both are related to sino-nasal pathway. Treatment includes steroids, nasal decongestants, antibiotics and to avoid allergens which not only reduce the symptoms of asthma but also sinusitis. Acute sinusitis may turn into chronic sinusitis including narrowing of nasal passages, deviated septum and lumps in the nose (polyp). It can be treated with surgical procedures. The only way to prevent sinusitis is by precaution and medication. Post nasal drip may also associate with asthma causing bronchial constriction.",signatures:"Fozia Masood",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70261",authors:[{id:"302764",title:"Dr.",name:"Fozia",surname:"Masood",slug:"fozia-masood",fullName:"Fozia Masood"}],corrections:null},{id:"71245",title:"Septoplasty: Endoscopic and Open Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91435",slug:"septoplasty-endoscopic-and-open-techniques",totalDownloads:958,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Septoplasty is one of the most commonly performed procedures by rhinologists. This article will provide a brief review of the surgical anatomy and the operative techniques of this procedure. Both endoscopic and open septoplasty procedures will be addressed. However, more than 15% of patients undergoing septoplasty fail to achieve symptomatic relief. Incomplete separation of the bony-cartilaginous junction and inadequate correction of the caudal septal deviation are the main reasons for persistent septal deviation after primary septoplasty. In revised septoplasty, correction of the caudal septal deviation can be done by proper correction of the cartilaginous curvature and strengthening of the structure using a batten graft.",signatures:"Yi-Tsen Lin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71245",authors:[{id:"311313",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Tsen",surname:"Lin",slug:"yi-tsen-lin",fullName:"Yi-Tsen Lin"}],corrections:null},{id:"70344",title:"REAHs and REAH-Like Lesions: Underdiagnosed lesions Often Misconfused with Nasal Polyps",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90327",slug:"reahs-and-reah-like-lesions-underdiagnosed-lesions-often-misconfused-with-nasal-polyps",totalDownloads:865,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"REAH is the eponym for respiratory epithelial adenomatoid hamartoma. The disease is under diagnosed. It is clearly a disease in the olfactory cleft. It is characterized by a polypoid process located in the olfactory cleft which does not evolve in inverted papilloma or malignancy set at 10–15 cm. The lesion can be isolated in one or both olfactory cleft. It can be asymptomatic or can cause nasal obstruction and impairment of smell. More commonly the lesions, often multiple, are associated to the recurrence of the nasal polyposis. They can contribute to the development of loss of smell, nasal obstruction or even the blockage of the frontal recesses. The definitive diagnostic is based upon the histologic examination. Surgery is the treatment. In case of isolated lesion, complete excision without complete ethmoidectomy is the option. In case of lesions embedded in a recurrent massive polyposis, a complete exenteration of the olfactory clefts associated to a revision of full house ethmoidectomy and even a Draf III must be considered.",signatures:"Ph. Eloy, C. Fervaille and M.C. Nollevaux",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70344",authors:[{id:"308649",title:"Prof.",name:"Philippe",surname:"Eloy",slug:"philippe-eloy",fullName:"Philippe Eloy"}],corrections:null},{id:"70727",title:"Neuro-Olfactory Regulation and Salivary Actions: A Coordinated Event for Successful Blood-Feeding Behavior of Mosquitoes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90768",slug:"neuro-olfactory-regulation-and-salivary-actions-a-coordinated-event-for-successful-blood-feeding-beh",totalDownloads:754,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The synergistic actions of the nongenetic and genetic factors are crucial to shape mosquitoes’ feeding behavior. Unlike males, adult female mosquitoes are evolved with unique ability to take blood meals from a vertebrate host for reproductive success which eventually makes them a potential vector. Processing and integration of chemical information in the neuro-olfactory system followed by salivary actions facilitate blood meal uptake process. Thus, deciphering the underlying molecular mechanism of odor sensing through the detection machinery (olfactory system), odor processing and decision-making by decision machinery (brain), and regulation of saliva secretion by the action machinery (salivary gland) is likely to reveal molecular pathways which can be targeted to disrupt mosquitoes’ feeding behavior. Here we summarize how smart actions of highly specialized neurosensory systems guide and manage feeding behavior associated complex events of (i) successful navigation to find a suitable host, (ii) making food choice decisions, and (iii) regulation of the salivary gland actions in mosquitoes.",signatures:"Tanwee Das De and Rajnikant Dixit",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70727",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70727",authors:[{id:"309585",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanwee",surname:"Das De",slug:"tanwee-das-de",fullName:"Tanwee Das De"}],corrections:null},{id:"73363",title:"Neurological and Neuropsychiatric Disorders in Relation to Olfactory Dysfunction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93888",slug:"neurological-and-neuropsychiatric-disorders-in-relation-to-olfactory-dysfunction",totalDownloads:469,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Olfaction is an underestimated sensory modality in terms of its predictive value as an indicator of disorders. It is a well-known phenomenon that a significant percentage of people afflicted with certain prevalent disorders causing degenerative neuropathology, progressive loss of memory and communication function, normal age-based decline of physiological functions, intellectual challenges, depressive and anxiety disorders as well as post-traumatic stress disorders, present with a range of olfactory deficits. Here, we review our understanding of these deficits and their relation to various clinical manifestations such as neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases and disorders. At the outset, we will briefly describe the olfactory pathway from olfactory sensory neurons in the nasal epithelium to the olfactory bulb and on to olfactory cortical and subcortical structures involved in olfaction such as the amygdala.",signatures:"Naina Bhatia-Dey and Thomas Heinbockel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73363",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73363",authors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"},{id:"321965",title:"Dr.",name:"Naina",surname:"Naina Bhatia-Dey",slug:"naina-naina-bhatia-dey",fullName:"Naina Naina Bhatia-Dey"}],corrections:null},{id:"70048",title:"Cross-Modality Dysfunction between the Visual and Olfactory Systems in Parkinson’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90116",slug:"cross-modality-dysfunction-between-the-visual-and-olfactory-systems-in-parkinson-s-disease",totalDownloads:761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cross-modality in function is a fundamental ability in humans and is closely associated with the basic functions. Several studies have demonstrated that vision strongly influences other senses such as hearing, touch, taste, and smell. However, the dysfunction in this cross-modality caused by disease, is poorly understood. In addition to evidence that Parkinson’s disease (PD) impairs various cognitive functions including olfaction, a recent study showed that olfactory function is unaffected by visual information in patients with PD. This finding suggests that the link between vision and olfaction is underactive in PD. This chapter reviews the cross-modal dysfunction and dwells on the possibility of a novel precursor assessment for PD.",signatures:"Motoyasu Honma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70048",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70048",authors:[{id:"307293",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Motoyasu",surname:"Honma",slug:"motoyasu-honma",fullName:"Motoyasu Honma"}],corrections:null},{id:"71191",title:"Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks and Encephaloceles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91374",slug:"cerebrospinal-fluid-leaks-and-encephaloceles",totalDownloads:633,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Encephaloceles and cereberospinal fluid (CSF) leaks of the ventral skull base resulting from trauma (surgical and non-surgical), neoplasm, congenital, and spontaneous are a complex problem typically managed by rhinologists/skull base surgeons. Conservative management is often the first step in managing these complex problems. Endoscopic repair of CSF leaks and encephaloceles has greatly evolved with the evolution of endoscopic visualization and instrumentation. Endoscopic repairs of CSF leaks are effective and offer decreased morbidity compared to open approaches with comparative success rates. Meticulous technique is key to success in repair of skull base defects. Materials used are often less important than quality of repair.",signatures:"Henry P. Barham, Harry E. Zylicz and Christian A. Hall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71191",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71191",authors:[{id:"310763",title:"M.D.",name:"Henry",surname:"Barham",slug:"henry-barham",fullName:"Henry Barham"},{id:"314852",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Hall",slug:"christian-hall",fullName:"Christian Hall"},{id:"314854",title:"Mr.",name:"Harry",surname:"Zylicz",slug:"harry-zylicz",fullName:"Harry Zylicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"71249",title:"Optical Fiber-Based Sleep Apnea Syndrome Sensor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91060",slug:"optical-fiber-based-sleep-apnea-syndrome-sensor",totalDownloads:658,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A noninvasive sleep apnea syndrome (SAS) sensor using optical fibers, the \t“F-SAS sensor,” has been evaluated in a clinical application ranging in age from 13 to 78 years and with BMIs of 19.2–39.3. The respiratory disturbance index (RDI) from the F-SAS sensor corresponded well with the apnea hypopnea index (AHI) from polysomnography (PSG). Concurrent measurement of the RDI and the AHI had a correlation coefficient of 0.71. This means that the F-SAS is well-suited for preliminary SAS screening. They would also be useful for screening potential SAS sufferers during normal sleep at home. Then, we have succeeded in downsizing F-SAS sensor and have recognized that it is highly correlated with PSG and pulse oximetry. Next, we applied the compact F-SAS sensor to examining SAS diagnosis in a child patient (2–12 years) and report on improved pediatric analysis. The analysis results revealed the correlation value to be R = 0.87 was a significant improvement over the correlation value of R = 0.697 between the AHI obtained by a sleep apnea syndrome examination apparatus (SAS 2100) and RDI obtained by the conventional F-SAS sensor.",signatures:"Seiko Mitachi, Ken Satoh, Kumiko Shimoyama, Makoto Satoh and Takeshi Sugiyama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71249",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71249",authors:[{id:"311538",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Seiko",surname:"Mitachi",slug:"seiko-mitachi",fullName:"Seiko Mitachi"},{id:"311719",title:"Prof.",name:"Ken",surname:"Satoh",slug:"ken-satoh",fullName:"Ken Satoh"},{id:"311721",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kumiko",surname:"Shimoyama",slug:"kumiko-shimoyama",fullName:"Kumiko Shimoyama"},{id:"311722",title:"Prof.",name:"Makoto",surname:"Satoh",slug:"makoto-satoh",fullName:"Makoto Satoh"},{id:"311723",title:"Dr.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Sugiyama",slug:"takeshi-sugiyama",fullName:"Takeshi Sugiyama"}],corrections:null},{id:"69510",title:"2D- and 3D-QSRR Studies of Linear Retention Indices for Volatile Alkylated Phenols",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89576",slug:"2d-and-3d-qsrr-studies-of-linear-retention-indices-for-volatile-alkylated-phenols",totalDownloads:430,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, 29 volatile alkylated phenols were subjected to a quantitative structure retention relationships (QSRR) studies; we have developed two- and three-dimensional quantitative structure retention relationships (2D- and 3D-QSRR) for this series; and these molecules were subjected to a 2D-QSRR analysis for their retention property using stepwise multiple linear regression (MLR) and 3D-QSRR analysis using partial least squares (PLS). The 28 descriptors are calculated for the 29 molecules using the ChemOffice and ChemSketch software to construct 2D-QSRR model. The 3D-QSRR models were constructed using comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) method. The models were used to predict the linear retention indices of the test set compounds, and agreement between the experimental and predicted values was verified. The statistical results indicate that the predicted values are in good agreement with the experimental results (r2 = 0.980; r2CV = 0.977 and r2 = 0.998; r2CV = 0.959 for MLR and CoMFA methods, respectively). To validate the predictive power of the resulting models, external validation multiple correlation coefficient was calculated; in addition to a performance prediction power, this coefficient has a favorable estimation of stability for the two methods (rtest = 0.938 and rtest = 0.955 for MLR and CoMFA methods, respectively).",signatures:"Assia Belhassan, Samir Chtita, Tahar Lakhlifi and Mohammed Bouachrine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69510",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69510",authors:[{id:"309348",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Assia",surname:"Belhassan",slug:"assia-belhassan",fullName:"Assia Belhassan"},{id:"309349",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",surname:"Chtita",slug:"samir-chtita",fullName:"Samir Chtita"},{id:"309350",title:"Prof.",name:"Tahar",surname:"Lakhlifi",slug:"tahar-lakhlifi",fullName:"Tahar Lakhlifi"},{id:"309351",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Bouachrine",slug:"mohammed-bouachrine",fullName:"Mohammed Bouachrine"}],corrections:null},{id:"68836",title:"Smelling “Zuko”: Incense Rubbing into the Hands and Smelling the Hands Activates Specific Brain Regions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88987",slug:"smelling-zuko-incense-rubbing-into-the-hands-and-smelling-the-hands-activates-specific-brain-regions",totalDownloads:602,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this study is to clarify the effects of the smelling “Zuko”, incense rubbing into hands and putting the hands for the human brain. From our previous studies on the smelling an incense odor with putting the hands together, the activities of “Zuko” incense are also considered to be promoted as the imitation of habitual behaviors by mirror neurons and the default mode network in our brain. In this experiment, the brain activation was measured in 10 healthy adult volunteers who did or did not have a habit of putting their hands together and magneto-encephalography (MEG) data were recorded while the participants smelled “Zuko” incense and putting their hands together. The peak response of MEG P300m for the “auditory odd-ball paradigm” was also measured for a rare auditory pulse stimulation and was more enforced by the smelling “Zuko” incense. We used alpha-amylase value as an index of the stress state measured in the state before and after smelling “Zuko” and MEG experiments. From these results it can be considered that smelling “Zuko” promote the excitation of the higher activities to human brain and make changing the specific brain areas such as OFC, F5 and V1.",signatures:"Mitsuo Tonoike",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68836",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68836",authors:[{id:"264444",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitsuo",surname:"Tonoike",slug:"mitsuo-tonoike",fullName:"Mitsuo Tonoike"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3846",title:"Neurochemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671f065e6c1035adb042edc442626b8a",slug:"neurochemistry",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3846.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1657",title:"Neuroscience",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9a76a5d4740bdeefa66bb4cd6162964",slug:"neuroscience",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1657.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7329",title:"Histology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9af2e2fd8f28c4d1b8b9510c3d73e1ec",slug:"histology",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel and Vonnie D.C. 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\r\n\tRisk management aims to develop an efficient organizational development environment through risk planning, assessment, analysis, and control. This process will apply in all areas of activity, and the evaluation framework is the same regardless of the field. This volume will aim to appeal to chapters that address methods, models, evaluation frameworks, benefits, barriers, and other dimensions of risk management.
\r\n\tSustainability and the circular economy are approaches approached by many companies and have become activities of global interest. Protecting the environment, streamlining the consumption of organizational resources, reducing the amount of waste generated, and other activities are objectives of these efforts. The circular economy contributes to the sustainable development of the company or country and the achievement of the global objectives of sustainable development. This book will aim to collect various studies for organizational and global sustainability.
\r\n\tLeadership has become a globally desirable approach that can help improve organizational competitiveness and reduce organizational risks. Risks and barriers in risk-free management can be well managed through effective organizational leadership. This book will aim to bring together chapters that explore different areas of leadership.
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are environmentally friendly technologies for the removal of organic pollutants in water and waste water. AOPs generate powerful oxidizing species, such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH, E0 = 2.80 V) which can fragment, destroy, and degrade contaminants into small molecules (1, 2). The oxidation processes (i.e., mineralization) involve the production of CO2, H2O, and, eventually, inorganic ions as end products (3). The effectiveness of an AOP is proportional to its ability to generate hydroxyl radicals. This is dependent on: (i) the chemical and physical mechanisms of this technology; (ii) the nature and concentration of target contaminant; (iii) background water quality; (iv) reactor contact time; and (v) reactor configuration (3, 4).
\nAmong the AOPs, heterogeneous photocatalysis is one of the most promising to degrade emerging contaminants and it is based on the use of bandgap semiconductors metal oxide as catalyst (3, 4). When these materials are being exposed to light with energy equal or superior than their bandgap they tend to generate electron-hole pairs which increase the number of free carriers and hence the conductivity. The ideal characteristics of a catalyst are: low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, useful temperature range, very high reaction, photochemical stability, and ability to adsorb reactants on the particle surface (3). Moreover, this method shows clear advantages, such as low cost, low toxicity, and chemical stability (5). However, once it is affected by photogenerated holes and hydroxyl radicals with a strong oxidation potential, a serious shortcoming in heterogeneous photocatalytic oxidation is the low selectivity for the most hazardous contaminants (6).
\nThe lack of selectivity is a disadvantage, as mixtures derived from effluent streams may contain hazardous contaminants and low toxicity contaminants. In many cases, the former is present in lower concentrations, and the latter is the majority (6), but it is desirable to preferentially degrade the most toxic materials. Other drawbacks include the necessity of improving the contact between pollutant molecules and the catalyst. Regarding to this issue, the low surface area commercial catalysts, which in addition demand UV-light for the oxidative process, and UV-light in natural sunlight represents only 5–8% of the solar spectrum (7). Considering these drawbacks, alternative approaches in development of heterogeneous titania-based photocatalyst are an important issue in the topic of photocatalysis. Table 1 illustrates recent attempts and designs of heterogeneous photocatalysts and the target molecule to which they have been tested.
\nAs shown in Table 1, most of the reported systems involve the use of TiO2 as the photocatalyst. On the other hand, the use of supports has been varied encompassing inorganic materials (silica), organic supports, ashes and, derivate from wastes. From the heterogenization point of view, sol–gel seems to be the most widely employed method, probably due to its easiness of manipulation, versatility, and broad range of potential experimental variations. The use of approaches which provide nanostructurated systems has also been reported. Phenol, drugs, pesticides, and dyes have been investigated as the target pollutant.
\nCatalyst system | \nPreparative method | \nTarget molecule | \nComments1_1 | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
MI-coated photocalaysts (P25 as precursor) | \nOrganic polimerization | \n2,4-Dinitro phenol | \nSF ranging from 1.59–3.29 for similar chlorophenols. CF ranging from 1.47 to 1.74 for similar chlorophenols. SF and CF were estimated from Kinetic experiments | \n(8) | \n
MI TiO2/WO3 nanocomposites | \nSol–gel | \n2-nitrophenol and 4-nitro phenol | \nTetrabutyl Orthotitanate as precursor. SF ranging from 2.5 to 3.95. SF was estimated from adsorption experiments | \n(9) | \n
MI based on fly- ash ceno sphere | \nOrganic polimerization | \nTetracycline | \nCF in ternary antibiotic solution ranging from 1.25 to 1.67. CF was estimated from Kinetic experiments | \n(10) | \n
TiO2/coconut shell powder | \nAcid-catalyzed sol–gel method | \nCarbamazepine, clofibric acid, and tri closan | \nPharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) pollutants. Photocatalytic activity of the novel TiO2–coconut shell powder (TCNSP) composite for the photodegradation of three PPCPs pollutants is investigated under UVC and black light blue UVA irradiation. Under the UVC/TCNP combination, 99% removal was achieved compared to 30% for P25 | \n(11) | \n
TiO2/waste material (BEW) | \nImpregnation Ti(OCH(CH3)2)4 solution was added to BEW solution | \nAtrazine | \nSynthesis of the TiO2 nanoparticles was performed by using BEW without a reducing agent and the photocatalytic activity of the catalyst was investigated for the degradation of atrazine with UV irradiation. TiO2 with waste material can be recycled and reused four times for the removal of atrazine. Degradation 85% after 70 min reaction | \n(12) | \n
TiO2/almond shell activated carbon | \nMetal organic chemical vapor deposition and impregnation | \nIndustrial phosphoric acid solution | \nLoad TiO2 on the surface of active carbon by using two techniques. These photocatalysts were employed not only for the adsorption of total organic carbon (TOC) from industrial phosphoric acid solution. The catalysts showed performance higher than P25 with 90% degradation of the solution after 300 min | \n(13) | \n
TiO2/perlite granules | \nMetal organic chemical vapor deposition and impregnation | \nAmmonia | \nInvestigate the photocatalytical activity improvement of TiO2 (P25) powder as a photocatalyst which immobilized on perlite granules to remove ammonia from synthetic wastewater under UV irradiation | \n(14) | \n
TiO2/sand or fumed silica | \nSol–gel | \nNitrogen monoxide (NO) | \nModification of sand and fumed silica with titania in order to obtain a photocatalytic active material for the degradation of pollutants. The sample of sand showed a high photonic efficiency (0.41%) comparable to that of P25 (0.40%). The coated silica fumed containing the most titania content (28 wt%) showed the best photonic efficiency (0.56%) in the degradation of NO | \n(15) | \n
TiO2/hydroxylated fly ash ceno spheres (FACs) | \nSol–gel and photoreduction method | \nMethylene blue (MB) | \nTiO2 was coated on the surface of FACs by the sol–gel method. Platinum was then deposited on these TiO2/FAC particles by a photoreduction method. The photocatalytic activity for the degradation of MB under visible light irradiation. Photocatalytic experiments indicated that 3 g L−1 of the photocatalyst (calcinated 450°C with a Pt/TiO2 mass ratio of 1.5%) exhibited the best photocatalytic activity, as a 95% degradation of methylene blue after 8 h | \n(16) | \n
TiO2/carbon composites | \nSelf-assembly of carbon precursors and titanium isopropoxide | \nRhodamine B | \nPluronic F127 was employed as a soft template. The presence of titania nanoparticles uniformly dispersed in the carbon mesostructure. Synthesis of ordered mesoporous titania–carbon composites. Under UV radiation decomposition of RhB with TiO2/composites was (90–86%) and P25 was 50% | \n(17) | \n
SnO2/carbon nanocomposites | \nSolvothermal method | \nRhodamine B glyphosate | \nPhotocatalytic activity on the degradation under simulated sunlight irradiation. Uniform distribution of SnO2 nanoparticles on the graphite-like carbon surface. | \n(18) | \n
Au/TiO2 nanocomposite | \nInverse miniemulsion by sol–gel | \nRhodamine B | \nVisible-light photocatalytic activity in the degradation of the organic dye. The Au content in the nanocomposite particles could be conveniently tuned by the amount of HAuCl4 dissolved | \n(19) | \n
TiO2/catalyst residue from a Ziegler–Natta catalyst petrochemical plant | \nImpregnation | \nDrugs | \nDrugs, namely, atorvastatin calcium, diclofenac sodium, fluoxetine, ketoconazole, ibuprofen, dexamethasone, tioconazole, naphazoline hydrochloride, valsartan, guaifenesin, and paracetamol. The highest drug degradation was observed under UV (48.6%) and visible (45.2%) radiation with the synthesized photocatalyst | \n(20) | \n
Solid photocatalysts typically used for degradation processes.
aSelectivity factor (SF) for single component; competitivity factor (CF) for mixture
bMI: molecularly imprinted
In parallel, some alternative approaches in the development of potential heterogeneous photocatalyst, namely (i) the use of industrial wastes as source of photocatalyst systems which were impregnated on commercial supports (20–22); (ii) the use of the concept of molecular imprinting (MI) to afford selectivity to the adsorption and photocatalyst degradation of target molecules (23–25), and (iii) combination of nano- and micro-particles as supports (26–28) for the impregnation of titania active species were explored. Regarding to the former, the rationale was that several photocatalyst systems imply the use of metal doping to guarantee a better photocatalyst activity or to shift the spectrum of actuation toward the visible spectrum region. The employed residues (industrial petrochemical chemistry, galvanic bath residuals, silver-containing residual solutions from photography classes, metal-containing residual solutions from academic analytical chemistry classes) contained several metals (Zn, Ag, Cr, Cu Mg, including Ti) which could exhibit photocatalyst activity (29), as shown in Scheme 1.
\nRepresentation for the preparation of the supported photocatalysts from petrochemical and agroindustrial wastes.
In the case of MI systems, template-shaped cavities are designed using polymer matrices with memory of the template molecules that can be applied in molecular recognition (30, 31). As reported in the literature (32, 33), matrices prepared by the sol–gel method offer certain advantages compared to conventional organic polymerization methods, such as rigidity, thermal stability, tailored porosity, and flexibility in processing conditions. MI process can be roughly described in Scheme 2. At first stage, a template–functional monomer complex is assembled via appropriate interactions. A cross-linking monomer is then used to form the solid MIP matrix. Finally, the removal of the template molecule liberates an imprint cavity of a defined size and shape.
\nThe aim of such approach is to provide a selectivity factor for heterogeneous photocatalysts, considering that the target molecule would be employed in the synthesis of the solid material. The presence of the cavities in the shape of a given pollutant would favor its adsorption and photocatalytical decomposition viz-a-viz to the other species present in the milieu.
\nSchematic representation of the imprinting process.
Concerning the third approach, nanosilicas are the materials of large surface area, bearing uniform and tunable pores, and small particle size and mechanical strength. These are important characteristics that may affect the photocatalytic activity and enhance the thermal stability of the photocatalyst. During the last decade, several mesoporous materials with different compositions of metal nanoparticles and complex nanostructured hybrid systems using SiO2 supports have been explored for degradation of RhB by photocatalysis. For instance, core@dual–shell SiO2–TiO2 composite fibers (34), TiO2/Au/SiO2 (~50 nm) (35), Fe3O4@SiO2@TiO2@Pt (~420 nm) (36), Pt@SiO2@TiO2 core–shell composites (~120 nm) (37), etc. But these catalyst systems do not exhibit very large surface areas, and they may present limitations in catalyst reuse due to their size. The proposed strategy here consists in combining silica nanoparticles (7.8–12.3 nm) produced by the sol–gel method with commercial microsilica as support for TiCl4 impregnation, which would be further calcinated to TiO2 (21, 24) as shown in Scheme 3. This system offers considerable potential as solid nano-/microstructured supports for the immobilization of heterogeneous photocatalysts overcoming the size problem in the reuse, generating catalyst species both on the surface of the nanoparticle moieties, as well as on the micrometric particle (silica bulk), which improve the adsorption and the contact between the pollutant molecules and the catalyst.
\nRepresentation for preparation of mixed-supported heterogeneous photocatalyst.
The aim of the present manuscript is to compare the photocatalyst activity of these three above-cited approaches, operating under the same reactor conditions and with the same target molecule (Rhodamine B). For comparative reasons, commercial TiO2 (Degussa P25) was also evaluated.
\nSilica solutions were prepared using tetraethoxysilane (TEOS, >98%, Sigma-Aldrich) and ethanol (99.5%, Nuclear) as the solvent. Hydrochloric acid (HCl, Nuclear, 38%) and ammonium hydroxide (29%, Nuclear) solution were used as catalysts by the sol–gel method. Silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4, 99%, Sigma Aldrich) was used to chemically modify the silica solutions. Sylopol-948 (Grace) was used as the micrometric silica reference. In addition, fumed silica (Wacker HDKN20), zeolite NaY (Zeolyst Internatial), and agroindustrial waste (rice husk) were used as the support for the photocatalysts. TiCl4 (Merck), metal-containing residual solutions from academic analytical chemistry classes and residual Ziegler–Natta catalyst slurry (Ti-based polymerization catalyst) from a petrochemical plant were employed for the preparation of the supported titania photocatalyst. Rhodamine B (C28H31N2O3Cl, PrótonQuímica, P.A) was used as the dye probe for the degradation tests. Double-distilled deionized water was used for the preparation of solutions used in the catalytic tests. For comparative purposes, Degussa P25 (denoted as TiO2) was also employed as received.
\nThe molecular imprinting (MI) materials were prepared using the sol–gel process by acid route and TEOS as the raw material. Three different protocols were investigated: acid-catalyzed route 1 using TiCl4 as TiO2 precursor followed by a fast calcination (A1Ti), acid-catalyzed route 2 followed by a slow calcination (A2Ti), and acid-catalyzed route 3 using P25 as TiO2 precursor (A3P25). All samples were prepared with 0.2 M of hydrochloric acid at a 1:2 (HCl–TEOS) ratio. For each sample, RhB was fixed at 150 mg. RhB was added to a solution of TEOS followed by addition of TiCl4, and then the catalyst was added. For template removal, ultrasound-assisted (Branson-Sonifer®, Model 250) extraction was employed using methanol as the solvent (approximately 70 mL). These samples were labeled as molecularly imprinted (MI). Equivalent sample was prepared without the addition of RhB, that is, non-imprinted (NI) system (ATi). Both systems were submitted to a calcination process (450°C for 4 h at a rate of 5°C/min). In the case of system containing P25 (A3P25), this was added 2½ h after the beginning of the synthesis reaction. For comparison, the same material was synthesized without P25 (AWP25). There was no need for calcination in these systems. More details are reported elsewhere (23, 24, 38).
\nIn the case of supported photocatalysts prepared using waste materials, 3 mL of residue was added to 1.0 g of fumed silica or zeolite NaY or rice husk. These materials were maintained under stirring for 90 min. Then, the solution was placed in a muffle furnace for 4 h for calcination (450°C). More details are reported elsewhere (20–22).
\nFunctionalized nanosilicas were prepared by the hydrolysis of TEOS using a standard procedure described in the literature (21, 27). Thereafter, SiCl4 was added to the nanoparticles in solution. The silica nanoparticles were prepared using TEOS/SiCl4 in a molar ratio of 5.0–8.0. Hereafter, the resulting nanoparticles (powder) are labeled according to the TEOS/SiCl4 molar ratio employed in the synthesis. For example, SNCl5 refers to nanosilicas prepared with a TEOS/SiCl4 molar ratio equal to 5.0. Mixed-supported silicas were obtained by mixing the silica nanoparticles (previously synthesized) with 0.2 g of a Sylopol-948 (commercial micrometric silica (SM)) and stirred for 3 h. Mixed silicas were labeled as SMSNCl, indicating the presence of Sylopol-948 (SM) combined with synthesized nanosilicas (SNCl) from the preparation with SiCl4. Further details are reported elsewhere (27). 3.0 mL of TiCl4 was added to 1.0 g of synthesized silica particles and stirred for 90 min. After, the samples were then placed in a muffle furnace for 4 h for calcination (450°C). Two different nanometric supports were used in the production of nanometric catalysts (labeled SNCl5Ti to SNCl8Ti), and mixed silicas were used in the production of two mixed support catalysts (SMSNCl5Ti to SMSNCl8Ti).
\nScheme 4 depicts the steps involved in the preparation of each supported photocatalyst as well as the corresponding labels. Preparation of MI materials is illustrated in Scheme 4a, b. Synthesis of functionalized nanosilicas catalysts and mixed-supported silicas ones is shown in Scheme 4e, d. Scheme 4e displays the preparation of catalysts using industrial and academics waste as the source of photocatalysts as well as the corresponding employed labels.
\nSteps employed for preparation of the supported titania photocatalysts from MI materials (a, b), nanosilicas (c), mixed silicas (d), and fumed silicas or zeolite or rice husk (e).
Table 2 presents the set of photocatalyst compared in the present study, as well as the corresponding label.
\nMethod | \nSystem | \nLabel | \n
---|---|---|
\n | Degussa P25 | \n|
\n | Photolysis | \n|
Molecular imprinted (MI) | \nTiCl4 + RhB | \n|
TiCl4 + RhB | \n||
P25 + RhB | \n||
RhB | \n||
TiCl4 | \n||
Nanoparticles and mixed silicas | \nTiCl4 + SM | \n|
TiCl4 + SNCl5 | \n||
TiCl4 + SNCl8 | \n||
TiCl4 + SMSNCl5 | \n||
TiCl4 + SMSNCl8 | \n||
Industrial and academic wastes | \nVarious metals + SiO2 | \n|
Petrochemical + SiO2 | \n||
Various metals + Zeolite NaY | \n||
Petrochemical + Zeolite NaY | \n||
Various metals + Rice husk | \n||
Petrochemical + Rice husk | \n
Supported photocatalysts prepared from MI materials, synthesized silica particles, and chemical waste.
The specific surface area (SBET), the pore diameter (DpBJH), and pore volume (VpBJH) were calculated by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller method (BET) (39) and Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) algorithm (40), respectively. Measurements were taken using a Micromeretics TriStar II 3020 in the partial pressure range of 0.01 < P P0−1 < 0.95. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements were performed at the SAXS1 beamline at the National Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS), Campinas, Brazil. The scattered X-ray beam presenting a wavelength (λ) of 1.488 Å was detected on a Pilatus 300 k detector (27). I(
The SPSS Statistical software (SPSS for Windows, version 19, IBM®) was used to analyze the relationships among the data. All statistical tests were performed at the
For tests with the Rhodamine B, 0.0175 g of catalyst was added to 25 mL of the test molecule (20 mg L−1) at pH of the reaction medium (pH ≅ 4.3). The solution was then transferred to the reactor, and after adjusting the temperature (at 30°C), the lamp was switched on to start the irradiation. During each experiment, circulation of suspension was maintained to keep it homogenous and to have uniform temperature. Samples (5 mL) were taken at regular time intervals (0, 5, 15, 30, and 60 min) and then centrifuged (Cientec CT-5000R) for 20 min at 5000 rpm in order to separate the catalyst particles from the samples. To determine the concentration of RhB, solution absorbance was read in a Varian Cary 100 UV–vis spectrophotometer at the wavelength of maximum absorbance of target molecule (553 nm for RhB), and the absorbance was related to the concentration of the RhB through a calibration curve: Abs = 0.2053 C (mg L−1) (R2 = 0.9911; N = 7). All photocatalytic tests were performed in duplicate (error value lower than 5%). Photolysis tests were also performed to determine the percentage of dye degradation due to UV light exposure without the presence of a photocatalyst.
\nAccording to the RBS results, the metal concentration is low in terms of the Ti/Si ratio. Systems SMSNClTi showed a Ti average composition of 0.45 wt%/SiO2, whereas the SNClTi obtained 1.33 wt%/SiO2. Therefore, the SN5ClTi achieved a higher metal content. According to the SEM-EDX results, the average atomic percentage of Ti was 16.04 ± 3.05 at.%. As shown in Table 3, Si was present in all the samples. Depending on the photocatalysts from wastes, Cu, Zn, Al, Ti, Cr, or Mg were also present.
\nSystem | \nC/Si | \nCu/Si | \nZn/Si | \nAl/Si | \nTi/Si | \nCr/Si | \nMg/Si | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SiVM | \n1.03 | \n0.05 | \n0.01 | \n0.13 | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n– | \n
SiTi | \n4.55 | \n0.04 | \n– | \n– | \n0.52 | \n– | \n2.11 | \n
ZVM | \n– | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n0.67 | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n– | \n
ZPe | \n– | \n0.02 | \n– | \n0.67 | \n0.35 | \n– | \n0.08 | \n
RHVM | \n7.60 | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n– | \n0.02 | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n
RHPe | \n7.60 | \n0.01 | \n– | \n– | \n0.04 | \n– | \n0.04 | \n
The chemical composition of the catalysts in terms of atomic ratio determined by SEM-EDX, considering Si as internal standard.
Photocatalyst activity in the degradation of rhodamine B was comparatively evaluated by the three supported catalyst systems, under UV and visible irradiation, as shown in Table 4.
\nAs shown in Table 4, the efficiency of the photolysis degradation was <8%. The P25 showed an excellent performance in the UV (82%), but poor performance in the visible (12.3%). All of the supported titania photocatalysts exhibited better photocatalyst activity (25.4–61.6%) for RhB degradation than commercial P25 under visible radiation. The SNCl5Ti catalyst showed the best photocatalyst activity under UV (68%) irradiation, followed by SiPe (66.8%).
\nThe approach of nanometric photocatalysts showed better performance (59–68%) than the nano-micrometer systems (33.6–42.7%) under UV and visible radiation. This is due to the incorporation of higher amount of titanium on the surface of nano-catalysts, as shown in the results of RBS. However, both approaches are valid for the degradation of organic pollutants from supports such as silicas synthesized by sol–gel, because nano-micrometer photocatalysts (25.4–30.1%) also were better than the P25 under visible radiation. The advantage of a nano-micrometric system resides in the possibility of reusing the catalyst several times as have already studied (27, 28, 50), which is a current limitation of nanoscale catalysts.
\nAll the supported photocatalysts from industrial waste exhibited photocatalyst activity in dye degradation, although with catalyst activity lower than that of Degussa P25 under UV radiation. On the other hand, all the catalysts from industrial and academic wastes exhibited activity higher than that of Degussa P25 under visible radiation, suggesting a potential application of such photocatalysts under sun irradiation. Among them, the SiPe catalyst showed the best photocatalyst activity under UV (66.8) and visible (61.6%) irradiation. The higher efficiency in the photocatalytic activity of the SiPe sample compared with the other samples may be because the SiPe sample has the lowest Eg value, the largest ZP value (in the module), and the highest SBET (available surface area of the active sites) and Vp values.
\n\nMethod | \nSystem | \nDegradation RhB (%) radiation | \n|
---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | UV | \nVisible | \n
\n | 82.0 | \n12.3 | \n|
\n | 44.3 | \nn.d. | \n|
\n | 5.5 | \nn.d. | \n|
Molecular imprinted (MI) | \n32.2 | \nn.d. | \n|
37.8 | \nn.d. | \n||
50.9 | \nn.d. | \n||
20.0 | \nn.d. | \n||
12.7 | \nn.d. | \n||
Nanoparticles and mixed silicas | \nn.d | \nn.d. | \n|
68.0 | \n45.1 | \n||
42.7 | \n30.1 | \n||
59.0 | \n35.6 | \n||
33.6 | \n25.4 | \n||
Photocatalysts from wastes | \n41.1 | \n48.2 | \n|
66.8 | \n61.6 | \n||
31.7 | \n30.7 | \n||
53.0 | \n46.3 | \n||
27.8 | \n11.2 | \n||
30.9 | \n30.6 | \n
Percentage degradation of RhB under visible (a) and UV (b) irradiation after 60 min of reaction.
aExperimental WL; catalyst = 0.7 g L−1, CRhB = 20 mg L−1, T = 30°C, natural pH = 4.3, UV radiation of 30 W m−2, and visible of 202 W m−2 error of 5%.
bExperimental conditions: catalyst = 0.55 g L−1, CRhB = 20 mg L−1, T= 30°C, natural pH, UV radiation of 30 W m−2, and error of 5%.
We have shown that our MI systems showed selectivity and competitiveness up to 1.9 and 3.5, respectively, toward RhB. Also, compared to the commercial sample (P25), selectivity (up to 180%) and competitiveness (up to 290%) were obtained (24). However, the average of activities under UV radiation was lower than the average values obtained by nano-silica (1.44-fold lower) and industrial wastes routes (1.16-fold lower). On the other hand, the lowest value of activity achieved within the MI systems containing TiO2 (32.2%) was comparable to the SMSNC18Ti (33.6%) and higher than RHVM (27.8%), which showed the lowest activities within nanosilica and industrial wastes routes, respectively. Despite their lower activities, one of the main advantages of MI approach is the possibility to achieve better selectivity removal compared to the commercial samples and also reusability (51), which are recognized drawbacks in heterogeneous photocatalysis (6). Figure 1 shows the results of RhB photocatalyst decomposition under visible and UV radiation by selected photocatalysts from each of the three approaches.
\nPercentage of degradation of RhB under visible (a) and UV (b) irradiation after 60 min of reaction by better photocatalysts each approaches.
As shown in Figure 1, comparing among all the supported photocatalysts, the performance of P25 is inverted under visible radiation, becoming the lowest among all. The catalysts from industrial waste dominate over nanosilicasand mixed silicas supports.
\nIn order to understand the differences concerning each alternative route, these systems were characterized by a series of complementary techniques aiming at accessing some information concerning textural, structural, and morphological aspects of these supported catalysts.
\nThe catalytic activity of the particle samples is proportional to their specific surface area because it requires the adsorption of reactants and also the transfer of photoexcited electrons into the adsorbed molecules, which is directly related to the diffusion of the RhB to the catalyst center (52). The specific surface area (SBET), the specific pore volume (VpBJH), pore diameter (DpBJH) are presented in Table 5.
\nMethod | \nSystem | \nSBET (m2 g−1) | \nVpBJH (cm3 g−1) | \nDpBJH (nm) | \nRg (nm) | \nP | \nZP (mV) | \nEg (eV) | \nSiO65_4 (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | 56.0 | \n0.22 | \n2.6 | \n1.4 | \n4.0 | \n−3.6 | \n3.3 | \nn.d. | \n|
Molecular imprinted (MI) | \n634.5 | \n0.47 | \n3.1 | \n9.8 | \n3.4 | \n−22.9 | \n2.1 | \n48.7 | \n|
\n | 750.6 | \n0.40 | \n2.9 | \n9.8 | \n3.6 | \n−10.9 | \n2.0 | \n54.9 | \n|
\n | 516.4 | \n0.25 | \n2.7 | \n7.5 | \n3.3 | \n−21.9 | \n2.8 | \n60.0 | \n|
\n | 837.8 | \n0.42 | \n2.3 | \n1.0 | \n3.7 | \n−10.6 | \nn.d. | \n52.0 | \n|
\n | 463.4 | \n0.30 | \n2.9 | \n4.3c | \n3.3d | \n−29.3 | \n2.2 | \n41.0 | \n|
Nanoparticles and mixed silicas | \n240.9 | \n0.10 | \n3.0 | \n4.2 | \n4.0 | \n−8.4 | \n3.8 | \n37.2 | \n|
\n | 123.6 | \n0.01 | \n2.9 | \n6.8 | \n2.5 | \n−29.5 | \n2.8 | \n50.3 | \n|
\n | 155.8 | \n0.09 | \n4.3 | \n12.3 | \n2.0 | \n−21.9 | \n3.1 | \n31.4 | \n|
\n | 107.1 | \n0.16 | \n9.1 | \n7.8 | \n3.6 | \n−26.5 | \n3.0 | \n88.7 | \n|
\n | 109.8 | \n0.17 | \n8.4 | \n8.6 | \n3.6 | \n−10.8 | \n3.7 | \n74.7 | \n|
Photocatalysts from wastes | \n277.0 | \n0.4 | \n12.1 | \n6.2 | \n3.9 | \n−22.3 | \n2.7 | \nn.d. | \n|
\n | 280.0 | \n1.9 | \n20.1 | \n2.7 | \n3.9 | \n−36.4 | \n1.8 | \nn.d. | \n|
\n | 156.0 | \n0.3 | \n0.6 | \n2.4 | \n4.0 | \n−26.4 | \n2.9 | \nn.d. | \n|
\n | 272.0 | \n0.3 | \n0.7 | \n2.6 | \n4.0 | \n−27.6 | \n2.3 | \nn.d. | \n|
\n | 118.0 | \n0.5 | \n1.3 | \n3.1 | \n4.0 | \n−20.3 | \n3.2 | \nn.d. | \n|
\n | 182.0 | \n0.5 | \n8.0 | \n0.6 | \n4.0 | \n−28.6 | \n2.9 | \nn.d. | \n
BET isotherm parameters, radius of gyration of particles (Rg), and the linear Power-law decay (P) obtained through unified fit on the SAXS profiles, zeta potential (ZP), bandgap energy (Eg), and percentage of sixfold rings (SiO6) for the photocatalysts.
aExtracted from high-q region (SAXS);
bPower-law decay (P) extracted from low-q region (SAXS);
c,dThese systems showed a structure that consists of two organizational levels;
e%(SiO)6 was determined by Eq. (1).
According to Table 5, all systems prepared are mesoporous materials as classified by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) (53, 54). It can be seen that all systems have shown values of surface area higher than the commercial sample. Also, the mean value achieved for the MI systems is ca. 4.6-fold and 3.1-fold higher than the mean values found for nanometric and photochemical residue, respectively. Moreover, the supported photocatalysts with TiCl4 showed a reduction in the final surface area in relation to the nanometric and mixed supports, which also are observed in photocatalysts prepared with petrochemical residue and solution of various metals supported on zeolite NaY (ZVM and ZPe) and the system with molecular imprinted in which P25 was added (A3P25). This fact can be due to the high calcination temperature providing the agglomeration of the catalytic metal particles, thus decreasing the available surface area (55, 56) and the degree of structural organization and internal pores between nanoparticles, mixed silicas, and zeolite NaY (27, 56). Considering the resulting heterogeneous photocatalysts from TiCl4 or wastes impregnation, the SiPe reached the highest specific surface area and pore volume. This increase can be associated with action of the waste or TiCl4 on the respective support rendering difficult the contact between the particles and avoiding the agglomeration of the catalytic particles.
\nThe photocatalysts were further analyzed by SAXS, which provides structural information, that is, a broader and clearer view of catalysts formation and aggregation (57). The multi-hierarchical organization of these materials, their gyration radius (Rg), and fractal structure (P) were investigated through the Unified approach (41–43) in the Guinier and Power-law regions. Table 5 shown radius of gyration of particles (Rg) and the linear Power-law decay (P), obtained through Unified fit on SAXS profiles of photocatalysts.
\nAs shown in Table 5, photocatalysts are organized into three levels, excepting ATI and P25 which show two levels. Rg results show that the primary particle size ranges from 0.6 to 12.3 nm, according to the preparation method. Catalysts SMSNCl5Ti was the largest particle, due to the combination of nanoparticles incorporated into the surface of a micrometric support as (SM), resulting in bigger aggregated mixed silica catalyst (SMSNClTi).
\nComparing fractal structure (P) results, P25 is a completely spherical particle, as well as the photocatalyst from industrial wastes (P = 4), which corresponds to spherical and dense clusters of approximately smooth surface according to Beaucage (42, 43). On the other hand, all MI systems showed fractal surface (3.3 < P < 3.7), whereas that nano- and micronano-photocatalysts mass fractals (2.0 < P < 2.5) to surface fractals aggregates (P = 3.6).
\nZeta potential (ZP) measurements were used to verify the stability of the suspensions of the studied systems, to determine its influence on the RhB dye adsorption of the supported photocatalysts and to correlate the electric potential information with the results obtained by SAXS. Table 5 shown the ZP and Eg values. Figure 2 shows the relationship among SBET, Rg and ZP of the best catalysts for each strategy discussed in this article.
\nThe supported catalysts using the MI approach present ZP between −10.6 and −22.9 mV and in the case of synthesized nanoparticles and mixed silicas, ZP lies between −10.8 and −29.5 mV. For the impregnated with industrial and academic wastes ZP was between −20.3 and −36.4 mV (as shown in Table 5).
\nThe zeta potential of better photocatalyst dispersions as a function of (a) SBET and Rg by SAXS. Spearman’s correlations:
According to Figure 2a, there is a direct correlation (
Conversely, it was possible to observe a strong direct correlation (
Correlation between degradation RhB under UV radiation and ZP of the better photocatalysts. Spearman’s correlations:
According to Figure 3, the performance of heterogeneous photocatalysts under UV radiation is related to the zeta potential showing a strong correlation (
The energy bandgap (Eg) is a relevant parameter for the photocatalytic process because lower values of Eg correspond to less radiation energy required to activate the process, which may reduce the required radiation into the visible light range (60). To determine the photoabsorbance properties, UV-DRS was employed in the wavelength range of 200–800 nm. Table 5 shows Eg of photocatalysts. For comparative reasons data from commercial photocatalyst (P25) were also included.
\nIt was possible to observe strong correlations (
Comparing MI systems with nanoparticles and mixed silicas, one can see that systems containing TiCl4 (A1Ti, A2Ti and ATi) and the systems with lower TEOS:SiCl4 ratio (SNCl5Ti and SMSNCl5Ti) afford the lowest %(SiO)6 content (below than 55%). Thus, these materials tend to present more rigid structure of silica represented by four-membered silica ((SiO)4). In the other words, both the presence of P25 and higher TEOS:SiCl4 ratio result in more hydrophilic materials. As a general trend, hydrophilic materials seem to be more easily achieved by a protocol using the synthesis of silica nanoparticles than the MI materials. Although %(SiO)6 was not correlated with degradation of RhB, it is interesting to note that materials with the highest %(SiO)6 content (A3P25 and SNCl18Ti) afforded better degradation under UV radiation.
\nScanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to evaluate the particle morphologies of supports. The low- and high-magnification images of the nanoparticles are shown in Figure 4.
\nSEM images of (a) SPe, (b) ZPe, (c) of MI materials, (d) SMSN5ClTi.
According to Figure 4a, b supports SPe and ZPe are larger particles and approximately rounded, whereas synthesized silica supports (SMSNCl5Ti) are smaller, amorphous, and aggregate particles (Figure 4d). In the case of MI materials, as observed in Figure 4c, a large number porous and some particle agglomerates are present on the surface of system. In the case of MI materials, as observed in Figure 4c, a large number porous and some particle agglomerates are present on the surface of system.
\nThis work presented three alternative approaches for the degradation of organic pollutants such as RhB. Imprinting molecular materials, synthesized silica particles as catalytic supports from TiCl4 and photocatalysts from industrial and academic waste demonstrated activity for degradation of RhB dye under visible (61.6%) and UV (68%) radiation and are better than the commercial TiO2 (12.3%) under visible radiation. The textural and structural characteristics of the supported catalyst prepared with fumed silica and petrochemical waste (SiPe), namely the low-energy bandgap (1.8 eV), large surface area (280 m2 g−1), high pore volume (1.9 cm3 g−1), and high zeta potential value (−36.4 mV), may have been responsible for their high activity.
\nOur alternative approaches herein studied could help to overcome the main drawbacks involved in heterogeneous photocatalyst, such as the lack of selectivity, the low surface area, and UV-limited spectrum for commercial samples.
\nThis project was partially financed by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq). Yolice P. Moreno, Cícero C. Escobar and William L. da Silva are grateful for the grant provided by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES). The Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS, Campinas, Brazil) and the Laboratory of Ion Implantation are thanked for the analysis of the SAXS (Projects D11A-SAXS1-8691 and SAXS1-15911) and RBS, respectively.
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While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6750,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1675,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"74032",title:"Wavelets for EEG Analysis",slug:"wavelets-for-eeg-analysis",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter introduces the applications of wavelet for Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal analysis. First, the overview of EEG signal is discussed to the recording of raw EEG and widely used frequency bands in EEG studies. The chapter then progresses to discuss the common artefacts that contaminate EEG signal while recording. With a short overview of wavelet analysis techniques, namely; Continues Wavelet Transform (CWT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), and Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD), the chapter demonstrates the richness of CWT over conventional time-frequency analysis technique e.g. Short-Time Fourier Transform. Lastly, artefact removal algorithms based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and wavelet are discussed and a comparative analysis is demonstrated. The techniques covered in this chapter show that wavelet analysis is well-suited for EEG signals for describing time-localised event. Due to similar nature, wavelet analysis is also suitable for other biomedical signals such as Electrocardiogram and Electromyogram.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Nikesh Bajaj",authors:[{id:"326400",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikesh",middleName:null,surname:"Bajaj",slug:"nikesh-bajaj",fullName:"Nikesh Bajaj"}]},{id:"70067",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2565,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. Accordingly, after the calculation of the novel prognostic model parameters, we will be able to evaluate the degree of knowledge, the magnitude of the chaotic factor, the complex probability, the probabilities of the system failure and survival, and the probability of the remaining useful lifetime; after that a pressure time t has been applied to the pipeline, which are all functions of the system degradation subject to random and stochastic influences.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"163",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. 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