Drivers for green transportation.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8919",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Reliability and Ecological Aspects of Photovoltaic Modules",title:"Reliability and Ecological Aspects of Photovoltaic Modules",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Photovoltaic (PV) solar energy is expected to be the world's largest source of electricity in the future. To enhance the long-term reliability of PV modules, a thorough understanding of failure mechanisms is of vital importance. In addition, it is important to address the potential downsides to this technology. These include the hazardous chemicals needed for manufacturing solar cells, especially for thin-film technologies, and the large number of PV modules disposed of at the end of their lifecycles. This book discusses the reliability and environmental aspects of PV modules.",isbn:"978-1-78984-823-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-822-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-452-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82613",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"reliability-and-ecological-aspects-of-photovoltaic-modules",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"84b4f2c95c817552f02813474b074576",bookSignature:"Abdülkerim Gok",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8919.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6398,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:59,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 22nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 1st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 10th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 1st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"266161",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abdulkerim",middleName:null,surname:"Gok",slug:"abdulkerim-gok",fullName:"Abdulkerim Gok",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/266161/images/system/266161.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Abdulkerim Gok is an assistant professor in the department of Materials Science and Engineering at Gebze Technical University, Turkey. He completed his bachelor’s degree in Materials Science and Engineering at Anadolu University, Turkey in 2007. He received his M.Sc. degree in Chemical Engineering from Columbia University, New York, USA, in 2011 and his PhD. degree in Materials Science and Engineering from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA, in 2016. His work focuses on developing predictive and mechanistic degradation pathway models of polymeric materials used in photovoltaic module materials under accelerated and real-world weathering exposures. His research interests include lifetime and degradation science of PV module and module materials, reproducible statistical methods, the effect of environmental stressors on PV module performance.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"793",title:"Sustainable Energy Engineering",slug:"sustainable-energy-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"67744",title:"PV Outdoor Tests",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86947",slug:"pv-outdoor-tests",totalDownloads:619,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main purpose of this chapter is to survey the structure, operation, and design of photovoltaic (PV) systems. PV systems consist of solar cells and electronic units which convert directly produced electricity from solar irradiation to electricity in the form of demand by load or feed the produced electricity directly into the grid. The heart of the system is the solar cell or PV array. From individual solar cell to PV power plant and solar electricity conversion will be discussed in this chapter. Indoor and outdoor measurement of PV modules and performance of PV systems will be summarized. The performance of the system which is mainly the energy output depends on the operating condition, the location of the system, and the configuration of the system. The system modeling and its behavior under varying weather conditions which strongly affect the electricity output of the system will be discussed in this chapter.",signatures:"Rustu Eke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67744",authors:[{id:"292274",title:"Dr.",name:"Rüştü",surname:"Eke",slug:"rustu-eke",fullName:"Rüştü Eke"}],corrections:null},{id:"67623",title:"Comparing Different PV Module Types and Brands Under Working Conditions in the United Kingdom",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86949",slug:"comparing-different-pv-module-types-and-brands-under-working-conditions-in-the-united-kingdom",totalDownloads:821,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present work demonstrates the performance evaluation and economic analysis of different PV module types and brands at the working conditions of Padiham (53.5 N, 2.3 W) in the UK. The total area of PV plant was assumed to be 100 square meters. The simulations were carried out for modules installed on the roof and on the south-facing façade of a residential building. The comparison study is carried out to define the most suitable module type and brands for the considered place in the current study. The energy and economic performance of the grid-connected PV system are analyzed under the meteorological conditions of Padiham. The modules were characterized by evaluating their annual electrical energy generation and different figures of merit of the grid-connected PV systems such as the investment, annual profit, net present value, levelized cost of electricity, and the payback time. The simulations show that in this specific setup, monocrystalline modules have the best energy performance, while thin-film modules have the best economic performance.",signatures:"Mohamad Kharseh and Holger Wallbaum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67623",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67623",authors:[{id:"297256",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",surname:"Kharseh",slug:"mohamad-kharseh",fullName:"Mohamad Kharseh"},{id:"298383",title:"Prof.",name:"Holger",surname:"Wallbaum",slug:"holger-wallbaum",fullName:"Holger Wallbaum"}],corrections:null},{id:"70277",title:"Analysis of the Solar Tracking System for a Mobile Robot Prototype",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90436",slug:"analysis-of-the-solar-tracking-system-for-a-mobile-robot-prototype",totalDownloads:639,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Methods to detect the position of the sun and orientate a solar panel to its position are used in order to optimize the power generated. Two possible approaches are using light depending resistor (LDR) sensors, or using a GPS and equations that model the geometry between the Earth and the Sun. The main objective of this work is the proposal of a prototype system to optimize the harvesting of solar energy on photovoltaic panels. In this chapter, a mobile robot powered by a solar panel orientated by a LDR matrix and a GPS device was developed. The LDRs were used as the representation of vectors normal to a surface, where its sum resulted in the most lighted point. The GPS, in turn, provided location, date and time data, which were used in the calculations of the Sun?s azimuth and zenith, used to orientate the panel. The obtained results show that an orientated photovoltaic panel has a better performance when compared to a static panel. Possibilities and opportunities of research tend to grow for the next years with many possible works to be done in the future, both in mobile robotics and in other systems powered by photovoltaic panels.",signatures:"Dario Guilherme Toginho, Alex Archela and Leonimer Flávio de Melo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70277",authors:[{id:"5720",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonimer",surname:"Melo",slug:"leonimer-melo",fullName:"Leonimer Melo"},{id:"277616",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Archela",slug:"alex-archela",fullName:"Alex Archela"},{id:"296175",title:"MSc.",name:"Dario",surname:"Toginho",slug:"dario-toginho",fullName:"Dario Toginho"}],corrections:null},{id:"68937",title:"Some Reliability Aspects of Photovoltaic Modules",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88641",slug:"some-reliability-aspects-of-photovoltaic-modules",totalDownloads:870,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Solar cells and photovoltaic modules are energy conversion components that produce electricity when exposed to light. The originality of photovoltaic energy as we understand it here is to directly transform light into electricity. Thin-film silicon in particular is better at low and diffuse illuminations and decreases less than the crystalline when the temperature increases while reducing the amount of material and manufacturing costs. However, the quality of the material and the efficiency of the conversion limit their use on a large scale. If the light absorption of the ultra-thin layers of the active material could be improved, this would lead to low recombination currents, higher open-circuit voltages and higher conversion efficiency. PV systems often communicate with utilities, aggregators and other grid operators over the public Internet, so the power system attack surface has significantly expanded. Solar energy systems are equipped with a range of grid-support functions, which—if controlled or programmed improperly—present a risk of power system disturbances.",signatures:"Titu-Marius I. Băjenescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68937",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68937",authors:[{id:"286037",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Titu-Marius",surname:"Băjenescu",slug:"titu-marius-bajenescu",fullName:"Titu-Marius Băjenescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"66372",title:"Reliability Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems for Specific Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85688",slug:"reliability-analysis-of-photovoltaic-systems-for-specific-applications",totalDownloads:730,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This contribution is dedicated to the analysis of a reliable PV system for specific applications. The reliability study was based on: (1) the RAMS (Reliability, Availability, Maintenance, and Safety) model applied to a PV system by using a simulation SYNTHESIS platform developed by ReliaSoft, and (2) the simulation of the PV system using the SYNTHESIS platform and TM-21 Calculator software developed by ENERGY STAR. The objective of this analysis was to obtain a more stable and long-lasting operation of a PV system regarding reliability, maintainability, availability and degradation of the system.",signatures:"Laurentiu Fara and Dan Craciunescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66372",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66372",authors:[{id:"297319",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurentiu",surname:"Fara",slug:"laurentiu-fara",fullName:"Laurentiu Fara"},{id:"297321",title:"Mr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Craciunescu",slug:"dan-craciunescu",fullName:"Dan Craciunescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"68684",title:"Emerging Thin Film Solar Panels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88733",slug:"emerging-thin-film-solar-panels",totalDownloads:955,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Utilizing of photovoltaics (PVs) has been rapidly developing over the past two decades due to its potential for transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy based economies. However, PVs as fuel less energy sources will be sustainable if some issues such as raw materials abundance, production cost, and environmental impacts carefully addressed in their value chains. Among PV technologies, thin film solar panels have been illustrated the potential to reach the sustainability. In this chapter we review some studies about environmental impacts of thin film PVs through life cycle assessment (LCA) and some environmental fate modeling. For the PV technologies, LCA studies need to be conducted to address environmental and energy impacts and encourage the development of PV technologies in a better sustainable way. Three methods of impact assessment in LCA are reviewed and compared, namely, Energy Payback Time (EPBT), Cumulative Energy Demand (CED), and Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emission rate, owing to data and information published in the literature. Generally, most results show promising potential of emerging thin film PVs, especially perovskite solar cells, to reach the best sustainable solution among PV technologies in near future.",signatures:"Mahmoud Zendehdel, Narges Yaghoobi Nia and Mohammadreza Yaghoubinia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68684",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68684",authors:[{id:"293842",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Zendehdel",slug:"mahmoud-zendehdel",fullName:"Mahmoud Zendehdel"},{id:"306961",title:"Dr.",name:"Narges",surname:"Yaghoobi Nia",slug:"narges-yaghoobi-nia",fullName:"Narges Yaghoobi Nia"},{id:"306964",title:"MSc.",name:"Mohammadreza",surname:"Yaghoubinia",slug:"mohammadreza-yaghoubinia",fullName:"Mohammadreza Yaghoubinia"}],corrections:null},{id:"68288",title:"Toxic Materials Used in Thin Film Photovoltaics and Their Impacts on Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88326",slug:"toxic-materials-used-in-thin-film-photovoltaics-and-their-impacts-on-environment",totalDownloads:989,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Photovoltaic industry has proved to be a growing and advantageous source of energy as it can be renewable, sustainable, reliable and clean. Significant improvements have been made in materials used and the production processes to reduce the costs, and to avoid possible issues induced by some hazardous materials. However, some health and environment challenges last, which must be overcome to make this technology a source of truly clean energy. This chapter provides an overview on the major environmental impacts of thin film technology associated with the use of toxic materials and the chemicals in the manufacturing processes. A summary of Environmental, Health and Safety issues associated with some thin film technologies like copper indium gallium diselenide (CIS/CIGS), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and amorphous silicon (a-Si) is done, in order to investigate potential infections induced by the environmental release of trace elements, usually coming from chemical vapor inhalation and eventually accidental spills during the manufacturing processes, on the health of humans and animals. Potential solutions will be provided to prevent some environmental issues.",signatures:"Hervé Joël Tchognia Nkuissi, Fransisco Kouadio Konan, Bouchaib Hartiti and Jean-Marie Ndjaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68288",authors:[{id:"192759",title:"Dr.",name:"Hervé Joël",surname:"Tchognia Nkuissi",slug:"herve-joel-tchognia-nkuissi",fullName:"Hervé Joël Tchognia Nkuissi"},{id:"295602",title:"Dr.",name:"Fransisco",surname:"Konan",slug:"fransisco-konan",fullName:"Fransisco Konan"},{id:"295603",title:"Prof.",name:"Bouchaib",surname:"Hartiti",slug:"bouchaib-hartiti",fullName:"Bouchaib Hartiti"},{id:"302650",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Marie",surname:"Ndjaka",slug:"jean-marie-ndjaka",fullName:"Jean-Marie Ndjaka"}],corrections:null},{id:"68297",title:"Emerging Photovoltaic Technologies and Eco-Design—Criticisms and Potential Improvements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88327",slug:"emerging-photovoltaic-technologies-and-eco-design-criticisms-and-potential-improvements",totalDownloads:778,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"An efficient waste management for emerging photovoltaic (PV) technologies is not mature yet. The problematic aspects along with the possible failure’s identification have a pivotal role in modelling the future end-of-life management strategies. The identification of substances of concern (e.g. high cost, low availability, and high toxicity) and valuable materials is a key point to better define the research priorities to improve the eco-design of these technologies. The ultimate goal is to promote the disposal processes which enhance the repair, refurbishment, and recover opportunities and so the profitability of recycling. These studies can also prompt the investigation of innovative materials which are more cost-effective and/or coming from renewable resources or secondary raw materials. Forecasting the waste management technologies for the emerging photovoltaics is highly challenging. 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\r\n\tThis book is intended for professionals dealing with diagnostics and treatment of infertility and aims to provide comprehensive information on the current state of assisted reproductive technologies and their directions of development.
\r\n\tAssisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) is a key technology for treating infertility, which occurs in 10-15% of the general population in reproductive age. This has been one of the most tumultuously developing interdisciplinary technologies in medicine in recent decades. Thanks to in vitro methods, more than 5 million children were born in the whole world. For 40 years, the success rates of this treatment have increased many times, respectively in the first years from less than 10% to more than 50% in present days (in some groups of patients). The reason for this rapid increase is the introduction of new drugs and stimulation protocols, improvement of embryo culture media, and the use of new types of laboratory equipment that improve the conditions for embryo development. Last but not least, the introduction of modern genetic methods, as well as new gamete and tissue freezing techniques, has improved the methods' diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities.
Green supply chain management (GSCM) has acquired integrating importance for managing the organizational practices with environmental concerns. Some organization’s supply chain managers still need to understand that reducing the environmentally harmful attributes will not only be beneficial for the society but will also improve their logistic operations [1]. The most important reason behind adopting the greening strategy in supply chain management is to reduce the burden of polluted environment caused by the wastage of industries. Undoubtedly, logistic operations have greatly contributed in raising the level of air pollution which affects both the environment and also the economy.
GSCM has been defined differently by various researchers, for instance, Sarkis [2] defined GSCM as the process where all the organizational operations and innovations related to supply chain management are deliberated in accordance with the environment, whereas, for Dwivedi [1], GSCM includes the fundamental industrial activities such as material recycling, reusing, and substituting. Similarly, Shan and Wang [3] defined GSCM as a set of processes involving the activities of customer’s and manufacturer’s course of orders, product designs, procurement activities, distributions, and logistics while corresponding to the principles of eco-friendly environmental management [3]. Sharma et al. [4] explain the concept of GSCM as an integration of safe environment in designing products, sourcing and selection of material, production process, and final product delivery to the customers as well as disposal of wasted products.
According to Weeratunge and Herath [5], GSCM is the component which reflects the relationship of natural environment and supply chain operations. It further involves all the external or internal factors which influences the management operations of logistics and measures the performance of the supply chain process according to environmental aspects. Due to the extensive customer demands, organizations are shrinking to the core of Red Ocean and seek to establish new businesses or techniques to attract customers. In recent years, companies have shown an immense interest toward adapting the strategies of environmentally friendly methods by producing goods and services that meet the criteria of safe environment [5]. By shifting toward ecological systems, organizations can enhance the efficiency of production, achieving the competitive advantage and reducing the impact of harmful factors of the environment [4, 6].
According to Intravaia and Viana [7], environmental pollution issue has emanated exponentially since the 1960s. The reason behind this alarming situation was the absence of law specifically designed to manage environmental risks and damages, such as ISO 14000 which aims to manage and monitor the impact of environments. The concept of GSCM was contemplated in 1996 by the US Department of Manufacturing Research Consortium in the University of Michigan States. The main approach behind this concept was to regulate the environmental effects and resource allocation in the supply chain process [8]. The revolution of GSCM measures enhances the quality of services and makes the supply chain process cost efficient by implementing precautionary steps with respect to environmental safety [9].
In 2007, Turk institutions of economics and World Bank proposed the index containing the performance of logistic operations which evaluated the level of performance and development of different countries. This performance index was complied with various components such as customer’s efficiency and management control, quality of transportation and infrastructure, logistic services, time frequency for shipment and delivery, tracing and tracking facility of the consignment, and ability to manage cost-efficient shipments [10].
The early concept to adopt the GSCM is to provide humans with the standard lifestyle by reducing the health risking hazards resulting in increased consumer trust [5]. According to Gandhi and Vasudevan [11], green management is considered as one of the significant practices to save the energy consumed during the supply chain processes. The revolution of GSCM resulted in spreading awareness about the environmental security, following which several industries are now implementing the waste-free and emission-free concept of energy. This implementation will help them to ensure the management of green environment for their customers who pay high concern toward global warming and climatic changes. Onurlubas [12] asserted that the evolution of green management has optimized organizations to pay more attention toward adopting the green practices to enhance the efficiency of environment. The reason behind this excessive concern is that consumers have begun to question their practices with respect to their impact on climatic and environmental changes, thus, socially responsible and conscious organizations are revolutionizing their manufacturing processes by introducing and implementing green production strategies [3].
GSCM practices help in the reduction of elements which negatively impact the supply chain process. These practices bring along various financial or social benefits as well as environmental advantages [13]. Consumers have shown high interest toward the products of companies who work on ecologically friendly production and marketing activities.
Along with the integration of GSCM, organizations are highly focused on synthesizing the green transportation in their logistic operations. Transportation is currently the most prominent cause of increased global warming, health haphazard, and emission of gases. These problems have pressurized government to devise their policies for environmental safety in order to reduce the damage caused by the emission of greenhouse gases [14]. The broader concept behind the implementation of the green practices in supply chain management is to eliminate excessive use of material and production of carbon dioxide (CO2) gas and abolish the use of recycled goods [6]. GSCM practices have also included many diverse dimensions such as the corporate engagements with the customers and suppliers which are helpful in integrating the green practices, green transportation, and reverse logistics [15].
Successful GSM practices are based on some important principles that revolve around useful practices resulting in high quality assurance and cost-effectiveness. These practices include as follows.
Globally, the demand for green transportation has been increasing rapidly. The purpose for initiating green transportation is the high emission of CO2 gas since the 1990s, which is consequently risking the environment through freight transportation. It has increased with the percentage of 71% in 2016 and is anticipated to increase 50% more till the year 2050 [16].
Green logistics and green transportation have been the striking topics in today’s manufacturing market. However, the acquisition of preventive measures among various countries included different strategies [10]. For example, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and Ireland have been working on the reduction of fuel and oil consumption to reduce environmental pollution [10]. The practices of green transportation and logistical reverse activities are the opportunities for organizations to boost their growth and reduce overall production costs. The efficiency of logistics can be further achieved by promoting the efficiency of transportation system, i.e., through green transportation [17].
Green procurement refers to the purchasing of products and services that are less harmful for the environment. The selection of the procurement is based on the quest of quality products and services that supports positive environmental and health concerns in competitive prices. In the early years of 2000, regulatory authorities amended their procurement standards by taking in environmental concerns into account while purchasing goods and services. Most of the bureaux or departments were advised to refrain from using disposable items that are not eco-friendly and were motivated to purchase products that are developed through highly recycled content and maximum durability. Green procurement further includes products that are comparatively low in emitting toxic and poisonous substances [18]. It is a crucial step for any organizations to ensure that the purchasing of all their raw materials should be in accordance with the environmental objectives. The management of procurement and green purchasing are assigned to audit and inspect whether their supply chain department is implementing green practices in purchasing the raw materials and other purchase-related activities [15]. Generally, activities of green purchasing are complied with approaches including purchasing the goods or services that are environmentally friendly, evaluating products with internal and external auditors prior to their purchasing, or assisting the suppliers to enhance their functions in compliance with ecological goods and services [19].
Logistics on the other hand is considered as the most crucial factor in supply chain processes since it has acquired the most significant dimension for environmental impact. In logistics, the concept of green is applied to various elements such as raw material acquisition and transportation facility of outbound and inbound logistics [13]. The objective of green logistic is to eliminate the environmental effects in the logistical operations in order to achieve sustainable environmental, cultural, economic, and social advantages [10]. According to Franchetti et al. [19], there has been much debate on operations of green logistics, but industries of transportation have narrowed its definition. Its definition is compiled as the activities which involve the reduction of transportation cost and efficient utilization of assets, vehicles, distribution, and terminal centers.
A number of green warehousing facilities are increasing promptly and shifting their operations to green practices which has also increased the cost and time allocation of the firms. The practices of managing the warehouses and inventories are the most crucial element of the logistic operations. This is simply defined as keeping the adequate amount of stock on the shelves and in the inventory, to prevent the wastage of material resulting in reduced transportation expenses and negative environmental impacts. The good inventory planning is referred to as reducing the wastage and efficiencies and decreasing the costs of tangible and intangible goods [13].
Many companies have realized the benefits of green warehousing and are keen to implement them in their supply chain process. Certain manufacturing industries have allocated these practices to minimize carbon consumption, environmental pollutions, and production cost, as well as to achieve the target of socially responsible organization [20].
Ecological or green designs are the set of activities which include the use of goods that are according to environmental discipline. An ecological design aims to establish a secure and clean factory with respect to reduced cost of disposal, health safety and minimum environmental risk factors [13], leading toward enhanced quality of services and products, cost-efficient production and while promoting a strong public image of brand and company. According to Ren et al. [21] by implementing eco-friendly practices, green design supply chain management can control about 80% of environmental impact, as Rostamzadeh et al. [20] asserted that it is associated with the overall flow of supply chain process.
Ecological production or green manufacturing is defined as the efficient production system which causes little to no pollution or wastage. The efficiency of any production facility could be measured by its ability to manufacture goods with minimal defection, scrap, or reworking on the material and its ability to manage the production of goods [13]. The ecological production in the supply chain process helps to diminish the negative effects of production and brings in the environmental sustainability throughout the production life cycle. It can also improve the manufacturing operations and financial performances of the organization [17]. Integrating the green manufacturing practices will also be beneficial in reducing the cost of raw material and transportation, by the expansion of environmental safety leading toward profitable growth and large market share.
Other names of ecological marketing are green marketing, social marketing, environmental marketing, or sustainable marketing. The term green marketing in the context of GSCM is defined as the activities that are designed to satisfy the needs of consumers in accordance with causing minimum risk to the environment [12]. This also encourages organizations to survive in competing international or national markets [20].
There are various green marketing practices that help to ensure that natural resources and raw materials are utilized to achieve the sustainability of environment. These practices include green designing of products, green product promotional campaigns, pricing according to green practices, targeting the green markets, and green positioning of the products [22].
The concept of total quality management is based on achieving, maintaining, and ensuring the quality of the output. It is highly focused on continuous improvement of the business-related operations and prevents the chances of failure at each step of the production in order to successfully meet the needs and demands of consumers [23].
For the quality improvement processes, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was established in 1987 to ensure the contribution of organizations in environmental safety according to defined standards by the ISO. These standards included useful guidelines for the organizations to ensure the quality of their products and services according to its standards [24]. There are various in-house supply chain practices that are considered as an important discipline in GSCM. Among many internal practices, total quality management is notorious for managing the environmental security. These practices require upper management guidance as it is associated with the overall life cycle management [8]. The management of organizational total quality environment has broadened the GSCM concept to various operations including green designing of products as well as infrastructure, green procurements, ecological transportations (vehicles), eco-friendly logistics, and reverse logistics as well as recycling [15]. Diagrammatic Representations of the Working of Green Transportation in the Structure of Green Supply Chain Management (Figure 1). Figure 2 provides a brief overview of the cycle of green supply chain process and its relation with green transportation.
The Cycle of Green Supply Chain and Its Relation with Green Transportation.
The Functional Process of Green Transportation in GSCM.
The transportation in supply chain management was first developed through a railway transport in the nineteenth century. However, 1903 airway transports were introduced leading to the development of ocean/maritime transport in 1956, where cargo was delivered through containers via sea which gave a dramatic boom to water transportation.
Presently the concepts of supply chain management and transportation are broadly discussed and are referred to as operations that ensure the availability of goods and services when and where needed in adequate quantity [25]. In the international business world, transportation is the most dominating element in supply chain management as it influences the growth of business. Due to the intense demand of goods and services, delivering products to the end users or consumers has become the most crucial achievement for businesses.
It has been significantly noticed that, within the supply chain process, transportation plays the vital role in proving the efficiency and smooth flow of the operations. There are various services of transportation management delivering the goods to the places where it is needed in demanded quantity. These services include air freight, road freight, railway freight, sea freight, pipeline freight, and services to and from warehouses [26, 27]. The real challenges that businesses face in transportation are feasibility and availability of viable roads to deliver goods. The most important operation in this challenge for the manufacturing industries is to optimize and modify their inventory and supply of the material in accordance to deliver the final product with the just-in-time system. This system helps to reduce the overall cost of facilities in maintaining materials required for production. Thus, today’s supply chain process has become defying in meeting the long-distance consignments and ensuring the availability of supplies on time [28].
To reduce the cost of transportation and environmental risks, the quality of supply chain processes is enhanced through transportation modes such as intermodal and multimodal transportation. The intermodal transportation involves multiple modes to transport goods such as trucks, water, etc. Many organizations have shown a keen interest toward adopting the intermodal transportation in which products are transported through different medium of transportation. This mode of transportation in supply chain management has combined as one to provide the benefits such as efficiency in rail transport and flexibility in road freighting. The objectives of intermodal transportation are to reduce the emission of carbon and overall transport cost and to modify road congestion [29]. The intermodal transportation has minimized 57% of carbon emission as compared to other modes of transportation [30].
Multimodal transportation is quite similar to intermodal transport as it connects various transportation modes in a single process which ensures the cost efficiency in door-to-door goods movement under a single service provider [31]. The only difference in both modes is the number of units loaded for shipping [32]. There are further types of intermodal and multimodal transportations, which include as follows.
Air transport is certainly the most expensive but the speediest freighting service among all other transportation types. It reduces the time of goods delivered to the doorsteps and is often preferred to transport the most valuable goods to the market. Bag mails, packages weighing 30 kg, and any document that could be carried through individual person are categorized as the smallest way of transportation. Globally air cargo is gaining an increasing role in international supply chain and logistics [31]. Due to the high cost of air cargo, most organizations use this mode as supplementary transportation service for the shipment of critical and urgently needed goods.
Road transportation is relatively the most used type of transportation to deliver the goods via trucks, lorries, and trawlers. This is the most flexible mode, but it cannot be operated outside the roads. Road freighting is used by organizations where rapid distribution of light-weighted goods needs shipment in concise batches. The road transportation has become challenging as it has high maintenance costs of both carrier infrastructure and other repairing costs [31] and further affects environmental stability.
Railway transportation is relatively the cheapest and the least environmentally harmful mode of shipping the goods at distancing places. Globally, China is recognized as among the best railway service providers. The railway system of China contributes 100% of transportation efficiency to the online marketing and product delivery [27]. Railway transportation offers skilled alternatives to road freight since its operations are partially lower cost and electrified which is economically and ecologically beneficial [29]. According to Romanow [28], railway freight, despite of its cost-efficient service, still lacks timely consignment deliveries. Thus, it is observed that without the adequate and necessary improvement in railway systems, pursuing consumers would be challenging.
Since 1990, international trade occurs via ocean freight; this mode of shipment has risen to 65% which has driven the logistic managers with significant challenges in the selection of carrier to transport goods [33]. According to Dettmer et al. [29], the rates of transportations with the category of containerized products have been decreased exponentially since the last decade, making ocean freight as the cheapest mode of transporting products. Researchers such as Waller, Meixell, and Norbis [33] asserted that about 0% of the freights are transported via ocean as 25% of heavy products are delivered to international destinations. The most common ocean cargos include container ships, cargo vessels, oil tanks, bulk carriers, and general cargo ships. In a global logistics ocean, cargo vessels move ports to ports and are specialized for swift loading and unloading of the goods.
One of the important modes of transportation which has not been provided enough attention is the use of pipeline, which accounts for approximately $53 billion costs in the year 2018, specifically in the United States. The increased production of oil and gas has increased the usage of pipeline in the transmission of natural gas and oil. This has further increased the need of investments in the given area. The analysis indicated that the use of pipeline as the mode of transportation is limited and is still recognized as the small market in comparison to the overall size of the given mode of transportation [34].
Transportation modes such as e-bikes and e-scooters that are widely being used in the cities like New York and California are regarded as the eco-friendly transportation methods and are generally termed as micromobility. It is further recognized as the cheapest mode of transportation, when traveling approximately 5 miles or less, and is known to be the fastest and easy mode of transportation which does not require any license. One of the most significant characteristics of this mode of transportation is its eco-friendliness, as it does not operate through the burning of fuel [35].
Another similar mode of transportation is the use of cable cars that are used in most of the mountainous regions. They serve as the effective mode of transportation which has met the limitations of time and cost. Hilly areas that are connected to the urban regions promote the use of cable cars as they provide them the socioeconomic benefit by reducing the barriers such as road traffic. Since they are environmentally friendly, the use of cable cars is highly promoted in various regions [36].
Another similar mode of transportation is the use of drone. The recent research conducted by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) [37] provided that the drone-based delivery is effective in reducing the emission of greenhouse gas and energy use in the transportation sector. The study further indicated that certain factors are considered in the successful use of drone. These factors include the size of the drone, the weight of the package, and the types of power plant deployed on the regional electricity grid. The use of drones is highly favorable in areas with relatively clean electricity like California [38].
The widespread usage of green transportation has an additional scope in the distribution of goods, as it affects the quality of air, leading to additional noise generation. It further increases the chances of severe car accidents followed by its significant contribution to the global warming. According to Stern [38], in 2000, the transportation’s share in the emission of global greenhouse gas was 14% which continued to grow in the succeeding years. However, following the advancement in e-commerce and the customer demands, a significant growth in the goods transportation has been observed. This has given rise to the strategic distribution of activities which offers smart solutions for the reduced carbon footprint of companies that have apparently developed a negative impact on the total costs as well as on individual life [39].
According to Ho et al. [40], the characteristics associated with the transportation are generally influenced by different factors such as shape, size, and materials. These factors are further important as they create a significant impact on the distribution process. However, better and strategically developed location patterns along with better packaging may serve as a prompt solution to overcome this impact, resulting in the decrease in amount and increase in space. The concept of green distribution can be classified under two categories, i.e., green packaging and green logistics [40].
The concept of sustainability is negatively affected by the increase in solid waste. Green packaging serves as the optimal solution to cater this challenge, as it is associated with the overall process of packaging life cycle [41]. Ninlawan et al. [42] provided additional information according to which green packaging can be further practiced by increasing the use of green packaging materials, promoting the reuse and recycling programs, or developing standardize methods of packaging. However, the control and management of the packaging system are held through the system evaluator indicators [43].
According to Jiange [41], green logistics is defined as the production and distribution of goods that are held in a sustainable manner by the inclusion of activities such as evaluation of the environmental influence of distribution methods used and reduction of the waste and its effective management along with the strategic planning of logistic activities. For Zhang and Liu [43], the development of the green logistics serves as an interconnected system and requires the cooperation of different parties including the common public, government officials, and corporate leaders. They added that the concept of green logistics is not a separate system; perhaps it is associated with the exchange of energy and information with the external world. The system is integrated through transportation and traffic, supervision and management, and storage and delivery, along with the flow of information [41]. Green logistics majorly focuses on the direct delivery of goods to the user site, along with the bulk distribution of products rather than in small sets [42].
DHL is an international logistic organization operating worldwide business within 220 countries. DHL focuses on sustainability and CSR activities since 2009 and many campaigns for environmentally green initiative.
IKEA is one of the leading furniture manufacturers that have been working on maintaining sustainability in their overall logistic operations and committed to carry their operations with environment-friendly practices. IKEA has set vision for providing better lifestyle at home by promising high quality standards, low price, and environmental safety by not wasting natural resources. The founder of IKEA used to claim that furniture designers can design any desk within the cost of $1000 but designing a sustainable, functional, and beautiful for just $50 is marveling [32].
IKEA practices on green transportation by designing travel plans for their workers and logistic operations. The employees of IKEA are encouraged to travel through bicycles, walking, public busses, or sharing cars with their co-workers in order to support the company to achieve their vision [45]. From the transportation perspective, IKEA believes that utilizing loading shelves for transporting, the units will eliminate the space required for wooden pallets, which will reduce the overall cost of transportation. According to the sustainability report of 2019, gas emission through transportation is recorded to be 19.4% [46]. To reduce this, IKEA has set future goals to reduce 30% of greenhouse gases from their transportation services in 2020 [47] and further aims to eliminate the emission of carbon gases to 70% by 2030 [46].
The practices of green transport have been on an exponential importance in green logistics. It has been identified that promoting green management and transportation has significant benefits toward economy, environmental well-being, as well as improving the organization’s growth [10]. Green logistics and green transportation are important in reducing the consumption of fuel and energy as their target is to regenerate and renew the fuel instead of consuming fossil fuel.
The implementation of green practices in transportation gives cost reduction benefits for the movement of shipments, efficient vehicle allocation and planning opportunities, and natural and human resource advantages. Moreover, it further reinforces the image of the products. Green transportation further gives customer retention advantage as customer’s interest has been shifted toward green products; therefore, companies have an opportunity to implement environment-friendly transportation to grab mass market [48].
Among many barriers there are two features that are considered as the main problem, which include the renewing system for electrical energy and generating fuel for vehicle that produces less emission. The historical activity of road transportation and consumption of energy has been growing rapidly which has apparently increased the challenges for the adoption of green transportation [16].
Previous studies outlined several challenges in implementing green GSCM and green transportation. Some of these barriers include unwillingness to shift logistic operations to green management, fear of investing capital for adoption of GSCM, and threats of not getting the desired return after implementation [11]. Many logistic managers only provide the training of green practices but fail to carry out their practical implementations which consequently, reduces the environment-friendly performance. To overcome these challenges, Table 1 shows the following measures.
Connectivity access | Change or shift | Enhancement | Supportive tools | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Measures | Sound green practices can reduce trade barriers | Public transportation, supply chain process, rail freight, fuel and energy consumption | Efficiency in fuel consumption, alternative strategies for fuel generation, cleaner fuel | Awareness, timely monitoring, develop institutions, training |
Useful instruments | Changes in policies for green transportation | Action plans to encourage more organizations, awards, recognition, and expert guide | Road maps for growth, green fuel consumption, schemes of green freight labeling | Development in curricula for undergraduate future employees, awareness campaigns, knowledge centers |
Benefits | Social and economic growth, customer retention | Sustainable environment, safe living standards | R&D policies, trade and economic growth, security of energy consumption, single market | ISO, certifications for CSR activities |
Operators | Governmental organizations dealing with laws for safety and sustainability of environment | Urban development, corporation of technical authorities, local governmental bodies | Transport ministries, economic centers, civil societies, environmental security centers, ports, and trading sectors | Societies: academic, civil, local Transportation ministries |
Drivers for green transportation.
In Europe it is observed that for the suitability of cargo transportation, communication channels play a pivotal role [10]. In logistic industries, governmental bodies and shipment service providers regulate the environmental management and shipment of units to the end users. Both of these parties work to ensure the safety for the friendly environment. The concept of green transportation is derived from generating the green fuel which is less harmful for the society. The term less harmful refers to the reduction and control over the emission of carbon gases and fuel consumption to enhance the credibility of goods transportation.
Green fuel generation is a basic element to attain the benchmark of green transportation. It is observed that biomass is the best alternative against fossil fuel. It allows combining all biomass chemicals to generate an eco-friendly fuel for vehicles, which will further help in promoting green transportation. According to Douvartzides et al. [49], green diesel has proved to be an excellent alternative for the combustion of energy with rousting properties of low emission.
To differentiate the performance of supply chain operations, it is necessary to consider factors that depend on the sustainability of overall cycle of logistics, i.e., green transportation [10]. The term sustainability of transportation refers to “a set of continuous, dynamic, and integrated guidelines and policies embraces economic, social and environmental goals that are fairly distributed and used effectively to meet the needs of transport community and generations have to be summarized only in the sustainability of the nature of transportation systems” [50].
The study conducted by Heiko and Darkow [51] claimed that transportation consumes about 20% of global energy. Since it has become a challenge for logistic industries to attain sustainability in green transportation, therefore they are more focused on getting insights into the requirements and needs of their customers and instruments to support their green practices [48]. To achieve sustainability in green logistics and transportation, it has become crucial to eliminate elements such as methods that affect the autonomy of vehicles.
Sustainability in transportation can be achieved by enhancing the quality of air by reducing the emission of gases from the road transport and implementing a limit to the emission of harmful gases for all the vehicles. The following are the measures that manufacturing industries can take in their logistic and green transportation to achieve sustainability:
Modify the transportation system to affordable, easy, and reliable mode, which could be easy to assess by all users.
Implement diverse medium such as bicycles, walking, and electric vehicles (EV) and recharging stations which is implemented by IKEA stores in many countries.
By using hybrid and alternative fuels, vehicles could be limit in emission of carbon, which is a key element of sustainability in green transport [52].
The demand for green transportation has been increasing rapidly in the global world. The purpose for initiating green transportation is the emission of CO2 gas which has been growing intensely since 1990 and consequently risking the environment through freight transportation. It has increased with the percentage of 71% in 2016 and anticipated to increase 50% more till the year 2050 [16].
Recently international markets are focused on environmental safety and sustainability by eliminating gas emission rather than promoting the implementation and practices of clean green technologies and energies in transportation [10]. The United Nations has established an agency to protect the marine cargo and shipment known as the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The responsibilities and roles of IMO are to prevent the pollution of marine that is generated during the shipment of consignments, enhance the performance of shipment, and ensure the safety and security of international transportation. For the initiative of environmental safety, the IMO has designed four ways to limit and control the emission of polluted gases. These methods include energy efficiency design (EED), energy efficiency operational indicator (EEOI), ship energy efficiency management plan (SEEMP), and market-based measures (MBM). The role of EED is to measure the reduction of emission through technical tools, whereas EEOI and SEEMP both measure the operations that should be carried forward for the purpose of mitigating the greenhouse carbon. MBM has the responsibilities to operationally and technically measure the carbon markets such as the trading system emission [53].
The demands of public for the import goods are changing dramatically. This change in demands has also shifted many manufacturing and transport industries by adopting the green technologies and seeking new ways to make their operations flexible for environmental concerns. It has been observed that reduction in fuel consumption from the large ships can significantly limit the emission of carbon. Figure 3 provides a brief overview regarding the drivers and outcomes of green innovations. Furthermore, there are various ways to reduce the emission of carbon, which will be discussed below.
Drivers and Outcomes of Green Innovations. Source: Qudrat-Ullah [
It is defined as a practice where the sails are moved slower than their designed speed. According to a study of the IMO, the emission reduction of carbon was decreased by 796 million tons in 2012 from 885 million in year 2007 worldwide. The main factor behind this reduction was the slow steaming of the cargo ships and vessels that consumes relatively low fuel which emits less carbon [55]. Different factors encouraged the adoption of slow steaming. These factors did not only focus on providing considerations toward the sustainability requirements to maintain the global supply chains but were further centered toward other important factors which include:
Management of the global financial crisis which ultimately caused the downturn in the global economy.
Another considering factor includes the high fuel costs.
Increasing operating cost rates.
Falling freight rates.
These factors resulted in the reduction of speed and minimal consumption of fuel which, in broader perspective, results in the reduced emission of greenhouse gases.
The massive use of voyage optimizer generated the need for the development of freight model. This process enhances the management and efficiencies of the ships by modifying the routes and speed of the shipping which consequently bring the ecological and economic advantages.
It is asserted that for mitigating the risking impacts of port management, manufacturing and transportation industries need to switch their decision to environmental sustainability from financial sustainability. It is also observed that by transportation layout, change is necessary to reduce the carbon emission such as shifting to rail tracks from road transport.
Suppliers, customers, and their need of the transportation possess an important role to broaden the concept of logistics. Many companies have integrated advancement in vehicle technologies to enhance the performance of the environment and transportation of freight as well as transportation services for public. Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is observed to be an efficient method to evaluate the performance and efficiency of green practices in logistics and transportation. The DEA model helps to measure the efficiency of the green supply chain process in terms of cost, human resource, energy, output, and carbon emission. The logistic managers need to enhance their transport system and let it lose free that will boost company growth, and vice versa it will positively influence economic growth which will result in building a healthy and strong nation [30].
Green transportation in supply chain management is further connected to the development of sustainability and green economy which can be achieved by the implementation of sustainability principles in countries. The importance of sustainability in green economy can be understood under two folds. The first includes the role of carrier in providing huge environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, while the later includes the reduction of air and noise pollutants along with the fuel management for sustainable development. It is important to emphasize that the use of resources is more important than the resources in developing a strong infrastructure.
Another important consideration must be provided to the transport infrastructure of the city which is defined through the scale of access to public transportation and the quality of roads, followed by the access point within them. These access points lead to a metropolitan area while providing important considerations toward travel time, distance, and the overall travel cost. It is noteworthy that a smooth infrastructure in transportation networks results in providing a direct effect on the scale of various local markets [50].
Other important concerns regarding the development of green transportation must be provided to the issues associated with the remaining available resources of fossils that are highly usable and can be infused in the internal combustion engines (ICE). In addition to that, the preservation and sustainable use of available reserves of lithium and other metals is highly favorable for the rapid development of green transportation since these metals are used in batteries and motors of electrical vehicles.
This transition of polluted cars to EV is characterized through the convergence of energy and mobility which may ultimately bring significant benefits to green transportation. Presently, the implementation of the propelled electric vehicles can be held through two different technologies that include fuel cells and batteries. These technologies are effective in developing the future by working on the strengths initiated through specific segments.
Battery electric vehicle (BEV) serves as the optimal solution for the short city routes, whereas fuel cell vehicle (FCV) is favorable for longer routes of huge tracks and other passenger busses. Both FCV and BEV technologies are favorable and are considered as “green” for environment since they lack the ability to produce greenhouse-related gases and other air pollutants. This is due to the fact that these technologies shift the challenge of green transportation centered for millions of individual vehicles to a central energy production place. Currently, BEV is one of the leading technologies; however, the new government policies are providing a significant interest toward the increased investments in research and development (R&D) that are expected to deliver better performance and maximum efficiency of FCV followed by their efficient recharging and better infrastructure. In the light of this, to develop green transportation for green supply chain management, it is important to develop future synergy of the abovementioned technologies which may ultimately result in best features.
Another important driver for green innovation is to provide important care to supplier’s role. For the achievement of the green supply chain and green environmental targets, the right selection of supplier plays a critical role for the successful adoption and implementation of the green innovation in business firms. For the right selection of supply manager, it is important to provide firm consideration toward factors such as green purchasing abilities, green competencies, environmental management initiatives, environmental investments, and environmental regulatory compliance followed by the end economic benefits. This is due to the fact that in supply chain management, supply-related factors play a critical role in managing the environmental processes effectively. It further supports the intervention of innovation and creativity in business process. The study of Burki [56] emphasized the selection of effective suppliers, as they play a key role in increasing firm’s ability to adopt and accomplish the environmentally friendly work processes that are useful for environmental management and green innovation system.
It is further essential to prioritize the activities in the process related to green logistics and green transportation by elevating the transportation sectors. This modification will reduce the waiting time in supply chain cycle of product and simultaneously improve the efficiency of energy consumption. There are some important future implications in green supply chain management which is subsequently associated with green transportation:
Practices of reusing and recycling the material throughout the production cycle which will reduce the consumption of energy to minimum.
Seeking for the ways to minimize the wastage by utilizing minimum materials for the packaging.
Designing the product design that is easy to deliver. This could include the example of IKEA, who designed their packaging that require less space in shipment.
Purchasing the raw material that has absolute minimum or no negative impact on the environment.
The objectives for this manuscript are two-fold: (i) to specify the arsenic chemistry in soil with a special reference to rice (
The World Health Organization has established the inorganic arsenic maximum tolerable daily intake at 2 μg kg−1 body weight [1]. Inorganic arsenic intake may lead to gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, central nervous system diseases, as well as bone marrow depression and selective cancers (kidney, lung, bladder) [1, 2]. The World Health Organization and the United States Environmental Protection Agency have established drinking water standards at 10 μg As L−1. Compounding the arsenic water and food threshold levels is problematic because arsenic speciation influences arsenic toxicity, with arsenite (As(III)) being perceived as appreciably more toxic than arsenate (As(V)) [3].
Arsenic soil surface horizon concentrations vary from 0.1 to 67 mg kg−1, with a geometric mean of 5.8 mg kg−1 [4]. Among sedimentary deposits, argillaceous sediments generally have greater arsenic concentrations (trace to 13 mg kg−1) [4]. In Missouri, Aide et al. [5] measured soil arsenic concentrations in 22 pristine soil profiles and reported that the epipedons exhibited arsenic concentrations from 2 to 12 mg kg−1, whereas the argillic and cambic horizons exhibited greater arsenic concentrations, ranging from 10 to 30 mg kg−1. The source of the observed arsenic was speculated to be simply inherited in the parent material. Naturally occurring As-bearing minerals include: arsenopyrite (FeAsS), cobaltite ((Co,Fe)AsS), enargite (Cu3AsS4), erythrite (Co3(AsO4)2 8H2O), orpiment (As2S3), proustite (Ag3AsS3), realgar (AsS), and tennantite (Cu12As4S13) [3, 4].
Arsenite (As(III)) exists as the hydroxyl species (H3AsO3 - H2AsO31−)), whereas arsenate (As(V)) exists as an oxyanion (H2AsO41− or HAsO42−). Arsenite and arsenate may: (i) form complexes with soil organic matter, (ii) become adsorbed onto Mn- Al- and Fe-oxyhydroxides, (iii) become adsorbed onto phyllosilicates, (iv) leach or percolate to deeper soil horizons, or (v) undergo plant uptake [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Aide et al. [6] in a soil chemistry review of arsenic in the soil environment discussed (i) arsenic acid–base chemistry, (ii) commonly occurring As-bearing minerals, (iii) thermodynamics of arsenic oxidation – reduction, (iv) arsenic adsorption onto phyllosilicates and Fe-oxyhydroxides, and (v) competitive adsorption. Plant physiology and arsenic have recently been reviewed [7, 8].
Given the arsenite’s high pKa1 of 9.2, the dominant arsenite species will be H3AsO3 [14]. H2AsO3−1 is a weak acid with a pKa2 = 12.7, thus HAsO3−2 has a small activity within the normal alkaline pH range of most soil environments. Conversely, arsenate (H3AsO4) readily deprotonates to form H2AsO4−1 (pKa1 = 2.3). Additionally, H2AsO4−1 will deprotonate to form HAsO4−2 (pKa2 = 6.8), thus H2AsO4−1 and HAsO4−2 are the dominant arsenate species in most soils. HAsO4−2 will deprotonate to form AsO4−3 (pKa3 = 11.6); however, this species will only exist in the most extreme alkaline soil environments. Monomethylarsonic acid (MMA or CH3AsO(OH)2 with pK1 = 3.6 and pK2 = 8.2) and dimethylarsenic acid (DMA or (CH3)2AsO(OH) with pK1 = 6.2) may also readily exist in soil environments [17].
Wagman et al. [18] used standard free energies of formation to determine half-cell reactions for arsenate to arsenite reduction:
Using protocols from Essington [19], the predominance diagram (Figure 1) illustrates the relative stability regions for arsenite and arsenate species expected in the soil environment, ranging from pH 3 to pH 9. The Pourbaix diagram (predominance diagram) shows the transitional nature of As(V) as a proton donor and the reduction of As(V) to As(III). The demarcation of oxic, suboxic, and anoxic regimes was discussed in Essington and we note that arsenate largely exists in oxic to suboxic regimes [19]. Arsenite formation in anoxic soil environments is thermodynamically favored in increasingly acidic soil environments.
Predominance diagram showing arsenic species predominance zones for given pe and pH as master variables (created by authors of this manuscript).
Arsenic reduction is mediated by the soil’s microbial population, effectively supporting electron donation from suitable organic substrates. Dissimilatory arsenate-reducing bacteria can effectively reduce arsenate to arsenite by using arsenate as a terminal electron acceptor [20, 21, 22]. Xu et al. [23] demonstrated that reduction of arsenate to arsenite post root uptake, coupled with efflux from the root to the rhizosphere, also contributes to arsenate reduction. Qiao et al. [24] employed anaerobic microcosms to demonstrate that humic substances facilitate arsenic reduction. Fulvic acid was more effective in reducing arsenic than humic acid, and humic acid was more effective in reducing arsenic than humin. As a carbon source, fulvic acid supported microbial activity and reduced fulvic acid acted as an electron shuttle to reduce Fe(III)-oxyhydroxides and As(V). Arsenic may be co-precipitated with Fe-oxyhydroxides, and the reductive dissolution of these Fe-oxyhydroxides may promote the release of arsenate, which may then be subsequently reduced to arsenite. Mn-oxyhydroxides have been implicated in the oxidation of arsenite to arsenate [25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
In the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Vicky-Singh et al. [30] documented arsenic concentrations of soil surface horizons and surface and groundwater resources. They reported that tube-well water ranged from 5.3 to 17.3 μg L−1 and soil horizons ranged 1.09 to 2.48 mg kg−1, with data showing that tube well water irrigation was contributing arsenic to soil. In the Mekong Delta (Vietnam), Huang et al. [31] documented multiple groundwater samples having arsenic concentration greater than 50 μg L−1 and demonstrated that As(III) was the more abundant valance state. The historical applications of As-bearing groundwater correlated with arsenic soil accumulation. Radu et al. [28] performed a batch experiment involving pyrolusite (MnO2) to show that second order kinetics, which incorporated MnO2 concentrations, described arsenite oxidation. Subsequent arsenate adsorption was appropriate described using the Langmuir equation.
Farooq et al. [32] investigated arsenic accumulation associated with irrigation and agronomic practices in the Bengal Delta. Two different fields were irrigated with different arsenic concentrations in the groundwater, with one field planted to wheat and the other field planted to rice. These authors indicated that the more concentrated As-bearing groundwater in the rice field did not increase the arsenic soil concentrations as significantly as the wheat field, which was irrigated with less concentrated As-bearing groundwater. The authors proposed and provided evidence that greater quantities of rice plant residue, with its production of organic acids, supported arsenic diffusion to deeper soil horizons. Arsenic concentrations exceeding 10 μg L−1 appear to be more frequent in the western United States, demonstrating that the local geology is important in influencing water quality [33]. In a recent review, Mohanty [2] documented the efficacy and deficiencies of technologies involving treatment of arsenic-bearing groundwater, which may be employed to improve irrigation water quality.
Arsenite and arsenate species experience pH-dependent adsorption and co-precipitation with Fe-oxyhydroxides, most notably ferrihydrate (β-FeOOH), lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH), goethite (α-FeOOH), and hematite (Fe2O3) [3, 17]. Surface protonation of goethite (pK = −9.6) permits the interface to acquire amphoteric positive charge densities sufficient to promote monodentate or bidentate arsenite adsorption [6, 29]. Arsenite and arsenate adsorption may result in both monodentate and bidentate bonding structures [3, 10, 14, 17, 22, 34, 35, 36].
The optimal pH for arsenic adsorption depends on (i) experimental protocols, and (ii) the presence of phosphate, silicic acid, naturally occurring organic acids, and other competing anions. The optimal pH for the adsorption of arsenite on Al- and Fe-oxyhydroxides ranges from pH 7 to 10, [14, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43], whereas the optimal pH for the adsorption of arsenate on Al- and Fe-oxyhydroxides varies across the pH range of 4 to 7 [17, 37, 44, 45, 46]. Cornu et al. [13] observed an arsenate adsorption pH dependency with both kaolinite and humic acid treated kaolinite. Interestingly, Cornu et al. [13] observed that arsenate adsorption onto humic acid treated kaolinite was greater than for untreated kaolinite when the electrolyte solution was a Ca(NO3)2 media, whereas arsenate adsorption was substantial decreased on humic acid treated kaolinite in NaNO3 media. Goldberg [14] investigated arsenic adsorption on Al-oxides, Fe-oxides and reference phyllosilicates (kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite). Arsenate adsorption was pH-dependent with arsenate adsorption less evident on transition to alkaline media. Arsenate adsorption decreased above pH 9 for Al-oxides, above pH 7 for Fe-oxides and pH 5 for the reference clays. Arsenite adsorption showed a maximum adsorption near pH 8 for non-crystalline aluminum oxides and exhibited little pH dependence on non-crystalline Fe-oxides [14].
Jackson and Miller [17] evaluated various concentrations of phosphate (pH 3 and 7) to extract arsenite, arsenate, dimethylarsinic acid, and monoethylarsonic acid adsorbed onto goethite and non-crystalline Fe-oxyhydroxides. Phosphate was demonstrated to displace arsenite and arsenate. Khaodhiar et al. [47] prepared iron oxide coated sand (Fe2O3) to show that arsenate adsorption was strongly adsorbed at acidic to slightly acidic pH values and adsorption decreased with increasing pH. Grafe et al. [35] investigated arsenite and arsenate adsorption on goethite and observed that arsenate adsorption decreased gradually and continuously from pH 3 to pH 11. Arsenite adsoption was shown to have a maximum adsorption at pH 9. The influence of either fulvic acid or humic acid addition resulted in a reduction in adsorption for both arsenite and arsenate.
Sulfate, carbonate, and dissolved organic matter have been shown to be relatively less effective than phosphate in displacing arsenic [37]. Using goethite as the bonding surface, Luxton et al. [34] showed that silicic acid (H4SiO4) was able to effectively displace arsenic. Swedlund and Webster [48] demonstrated that H4SiO4 may displace arsenite from ferrihydrate. Zhang and Selim [39] observed arsenic desorption by phosphate, whereas Xu et al. [43] documented arsenic phosphorus-induced desorption from crystalline and non-crystalline aluminum oxides. Smith and Naidu [46] provided data on the kinetics of arsenic desorption, illustrating the importance of studies to understand the equilibrium is rarely achieved in natural systems.
Yamamura et al. [20] amended soils with As(V) laden Fe oxyhydroxides with solution supplemented with either lactate or acetate. After 40 days, there was a greater arsenic release rate in lactate amended systems, suggesting that lactate is a suitable carbon source and both dissimilatory metal(loid) reducers and anaerobic fermenters support arsenic extraction. Razzak et al. [49] documented oxidation–reduction processes in groundwater support simultaneous release of iron and arsenic, thus demonstrating that groundwater irrigation may be an effective arsenic source.
Aquatic plants frequently show accumulations of iron and manganese coatings (Fe-plaque) on root systems, commonly attributed to more oxidized soil conditions in the root rhizosphere leading to ferrous to ferric ion production and subsequent hydrolysis to a Fe-Mn oxyhydroxide status. Many researchers have investigated whether Fe-plaque on rice root systems act as a preferential adsorption site for arsenic, thus limiting the potential for arsenic accumulation in plant organs [12, 43, 50, 51, 52]. Most authors acknowledge that the degree of arsenic adsorption by Fe-plaque and the protection afforded towards limiting arsenic accumulation in plant tissue is dependent on (i) soil pH, (ii) the soils oxidation oxidation–reduction status of the bulk soil and the rhizosphere, (iii) the microbial composition, (iv) the quantity of Fe-plaque present on the rice roots, (v) the stage of growth of the rice plant, (vi) the arsenic flux towards the root system and (vii) the presence of competing anionic species in the adsorption processes.
Dong et al. [50] observed that Fe-Mn plaque formation on rice roots was increased because of inoculation with Fe/Mn-oxidizing bacterial strains. The activity of bacterial strains, in combination with exogenous ferrous iron, significantly decreased As and Cd uptake in rice. Interestingly the untreated check showed the following rice plant arsenic concentrations: 354 mg kg−1 for roots, 14.2 mg kg−1 for stem (culm), 24.4 mg kg−1 for leaf, and 0.81 mg kg−1 for brown rice. Conversely, the bacterial strains plus exogenous Fe(II) showed the following rice plant organ arsenic concentrations: 259 mg kg−1 for roots, 13.0 mg kg−1 for stem (culm), 19.2 mg kg−1 for leaf, and 0.72 mg kg−1 for brown rice.
Arsenic may limit rice growth and development [1]. Finnegan and Chen [7] and Sharma et al. [8] each reviewed the plant physiology of arsenic on plant growth and development. These authors discussed evidence that arsenite and arsenate are taken up by root cells, but arsenate is rapidly reduced to arsenite. Cellular disruption may be caused by both arsenite and arsenate; however, the mechanisms are distinctly different.
Arsenite is dithiol reactive and readily binds and potentially inactivates selective cysteine containing enzymes and dithiol co-factors. As(III) enters root cells via aquaporin (nodulin26-like intrinsic proteins) and xylem export to stems may occur. Arsenite may bind from one to three sulfhydryl groups, influencing the physiologic behavior of transcription factors, signal transduction proteins, proteolytic proteins, metabolic enzymes, redox regulatory enzymes, and structural proteins. The binding of As(III) to thiols may constitute the main detoxification pathways [7, 8]. Arsenate may replace Pi in critical biochemical reactions: (i) glycolysis, (ii) oxidative phosphorylation, (iii) phospholipid metabolism, (iv) DNA and RNA metabolism, and (v) cellular signaling [7, 8]. Both arsenite and arsenate may increase oxidative stress by inducing the production of reactive oxygen species; that is, the production of superoxide (O2•−), hydroxyl radical (•OH), and peroxide (H2O2). Glutathione (a tripeptide with linkage between the carboxyl group of the glutamate side-chain and cysteine) is an antioxidant that assists in preventing reactive oxygen species from disrupting cellular function. Ascorbate may also limit reactive oxygen species damage [7, 8].
Other metabolic consequences of arsenic include: (i) chloroplast shape irregularities and reduction of chlorophyll content, (ii) altered carbohydrate metabolism involving sucrose and starch, (iii) reduced micronutrient uptake, (iv) altered ATP synthesis, (v) altered stomatal conductance, (vi) altered lipid metabolism and the integrity of cellular membranes [8]. Belefant-Miller and Beaty [53] observed the plant distribution of arsenic in rice plants might influence “straighthead”. Yan et al. [54] identified soil arsenic bioavailability is associated with “straighthead” disorder in rice. Lim et al. [55] reviewed the effect of arsenic compounds on plant growth. In a subsequent review, Kofronova et al. [56] focused on arsenic physiology in hyperaccumulating plants and documented the following research outcomes: (i) arsenic interfered with basic cellular metabolism, including carbohydrate metabolism in photosynthesis, (ii) arsenite and arsenate were xylem transported, (iii) arsenate reduction was associated with arsenate reductase and arsenite interacted with glutathione for passage into the cell’s vacuole, (iv) arsenate interfered with cell wall physiology, decreased ribulose-1,5 biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, and competed with phosphorus in oxidative phosphorylation. Arsenite interfered with hormonal physiology and restricted pigment system II and chlorophyll functioning.
In a greenhouse project, Jung et al. [57] amended soil at arsenic rates of 0 (untreated check), 25, 50 and 75 mg As kg−1. The 50 mg As kg−1 amended level inhibited shoot growth. Chauhan et al. [58] observed that the presence of increased heavy metal activity and arsenic availability reduced the activity of key soil enzymes, suggesting that bacterial diversity and microbial functioning were impaired.
Considerable research has focused on the subtropical fern
Numerous rice researchers have documented the effectiveness of soil amendments to mitigate rice arsenic accumulation. Toor and Haggard [44] and Wu et al. [62] investigated the effectiveness of phosphate, whereas Li et al. [63], Wei et al. [64] and Swedlund and Webster [48] each investigated the effectiveness of silicon (Si). Wei et al. [64] evaluated several Si-bearing products to evaluate their efficacy to increase rice yield and reduce rice uptake of arsenic, lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). The Si-bearing materials increased rice yield and reduced root to shoot transfer of As, Pb and Cd. Zou et al. [65] and Gemeinhardt et al. [66] investigated the effectiveness of ferrous sulfate, demonstrating that Fe2+ oxidation and Fe-oxyhydroxide synthesis in the rhizosphere may provide a substrate for arsenic adsorption. Wu et al. [62] investigated biochar modified with Fe compounds as soil amendments to reduce arsenic bioavailability, with Fe-oxyhydroxide-sulfate showing promise as an effective amendment by reducing arsenic extraction with NaHCO3.
The application of phosphorus amendments in greenhouse pot culture experiments with wheat in dry cultures and rice in flood cultures revealed that phosphorus applications increased arsenic concentrations in both the wheat and rice experiments [67]. Thin film diffusive gradient technology showed that arsenic release from the soil’s solid phase was augmented by phosphorus competition. Kaur et al. [68] documented that selenium was effective in reducing arsenic uptake. Arsenic concentrations were lowered in the roots, straw, and seed because of the selenium amendments. Future research is desired to explore selenium as an effective soil amendment to reduce arsenic rice accumulation. Wang et al. [69] showed promise that microalgae in paddy fields could sequester arsenic prior to rice root uptake, thus limiting arsenic accumulation in rice.
Irrigation management of rice has been extensively studied to determine if restricted water application may result in reduced arsenic uptake [70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75]. In Missouri, Aide et al. [71], in a two-year rice study, investigated two irrigation regimes involving delayed flood and furrow irrigation on silt loam and clayey soils to assess arsenic uptake. Across both years and soil-types, rice total arsenic uptake was substantially reduced in rough rice seed for the furrow irrigated regime. Aide and Goldschmidt [72] in a two-year project involving 20 rice varieties similarly demonstrated that furrow irrigated rice had dramatically reduced arsenic concentrations in paddy (rough) rice compared to delayed flood irrigated rice. All furrow irrigated rice had rough rice total arsenic concentration below 0.1 mg kg−1, with 17 of the 20 rice varieties having less than 0.05 mg As kg−1. The mean arsenic concentrations for the delayed flood rice regime were approximately 0.28 mg As kg−1.
Aide demonstrated that furrow irrigation, involving three rice varieties in 2018 [75] and six varieties in 2019 [73], resulted in substantially smaller arsenic concentrations in rice straw and rough rice seed than delayed flood. Aide [74] in a review of water availability and research involving water-restricting irrigation regimes in Egypt, India and Eastern Asia demonstrated that alternate wetting and drying irrigation frequently was water conserving and limited arsenic uptake. Many of the research citations documented rice yields that were comparable to traditional irrigation regimes; however, additional research remains to be performed to provide consistency in yield attainment. An additional benefit of reduced irrigation of rice was a reduction in methane emission, a potent greenhouse gas [70].
Carrijo et al. [76] performed a compelling rice meta-study involving 56 studies comparing continuous flood with alternate wetting and drying (introduction of unsaturated soil water conditions), with most of the studies derived from Asia. They defined and partitioned alternate wetting and drying irrigation regimes into “safe” or “mild” (where the soil water matric potential was equal to or smaller than −20 kPa) and “severe” (where the soil water matric potential was below −20 kPa). The meta study documented the following: (i) the presence of unsaturated soil water conditions imposed during the entire growing season depressed rice yields, whereas unsaturated soil water conditions prior to either heading only (vegetative) or post heading (reproductive) only demonstrated little to zero yield loss, (ii) in most cases mild or safe alternate wetting and drying do not depress rice yields, whereas severe alternate wetting and drying showed yield reductions, (iii) yield losses were more significant in low organic matter soils or soils having alkaline pH levels, (iv) compared to the continuous flood system the alternate wetting and drying systems exhibited smaller water use rates and where mild alternate wetting and drying was practiced the water use efficiency was greater.
In China, He et al. [77] compared rice growth characteristics and yields in flood and non-flood systems and documented that rice root length density, leaf dry weight, shoot dry weight, and root activity were greater in the non-flood irrigation system at mid-tillering. Yields were typically greater in the flood system across all treatments. In California, Li et al. [78] investigated several alternate wetting-drying irrigation systems with respect to continuous flood. The alternate wetting and drying were imposed at panicle initiation or 50% heading, with various degrees of drying established for each crop growth stage. At crop maturity total arsenic concentrations were greatest for the root system (14.8 mg As kg−1), whereas straw arsenic concentrations were 0.64 mg As kg−1. The arsenic concentrations in the root systems were primarily associated with Fe-plaque. Grain arsenic concentrations, when compared to continuous flood, were 57% redcued for brown rice and 63% reduced for polished rice. As the driest alternate wetting-drying episode, rice grain exhibited 78% less DMA and 40% less inorganic arsenic when compared to continuous flood. In California, Carrijo et al. [79] observed rice irrigation involving continuous flood and three alternate wetting and drying irrigation regimes with differences in drying severity (low, medium (−71 kPa) and high (−154 kPa) and three timings of the drying episodes (panicle initiation, booting and heading. Imposition of the medium and high drying episodes decreased arsenic uptake by 41 to 61%. The booting and heading drying episodes showed better arsenic mitigation responses.
Arsenic accumulation in rice is a substantial global concern [1, 4, 6]. The soil chemistry of arsenic accumulation in rice is rapidly being elucidated; however, studies have yet to develop consistent desirable outcomes with respect to irrigation technology, soil amendments, phytoremediation, and yield maintenance. Alternate wetting and drying and furrow irrigation are competing irrigation regimes, with research showing substantial reductions in arsenic accumulation. However, rice yield maintenance, implementing reliable nitrogen fertilization practices, and providing effective weed management programs remain problematic, especially when food security and traditions may be compounding realities. Water scarcity and climate change provide both opportunities and setbacks to altering irrigation methods [80].
The understanding of rice physiology and arsenic is beginning to be formulated. Das et al. [81] illustrated the importance of biochemical relationships involving ascorbate-glutathione cycle and thiol metabolism to support reducing yield suppression in arsenic impacted rice. Wu et al. [82] showed the promise of arsenic-phosphate interactions involving phosphate transporter expression in rice. Thus, understanding arsenic root uptake at the cellular membrane level and its subsequent movement within the plant, combined with rice breeding and cultivar selection, remain clear avenues of research to reduce the human daily uptake of arsenic.
The prospect of reducing arsenic uptake rests with a global effort to: (i) produce cultivars that restrict arsenic uptake to root cells and exude arsenic to the rhizosphere, and (ii) alter irrigation practices to provide sufficient intervals of oxic soil environment to mitigate arsenic bioavailability. These approaches will also provide other environmental advantages, including water conservation and reduced methane emission [83].
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",metaTitle:"IntechOpen events",metaDescription:"In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel worldwide to present our publications, authors and editors at international symposia, conferences, and workshops, as well as attend business meetings with science, academia and publishing professionals. We are always happy to host our scientists in our office to discuss further collaborations. Take a look at where we’ve been, who we’ve met and where we’re going.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/events",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"May 18, 2022 | 1:00 PM - 2:00 PM CEST
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Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. 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Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:13759,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:null,title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:null},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8225,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3341,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82448",title:"Virus World Vulnerability: A Critical Reading of Gender and Performance in Bo Burnham’s “Inside” (2021)",slug:"virus-world-vulnerability-a-critical-reading-of-gender-and-performance-in-bo-burnham-s-inside-2021",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105182",abstract:"Through an engagement with the seminal work of Raewyn Connell on masculinities and hegemonic masculinity, this chapter argues for the hegemonic norm as producing behaviour among men that can be traced in multiple male subjectivities. The argument is that men respond to the prevailing masculine norm by enacting self-protective disavowal—a complex psychological process that involves the reordering of reality in the interests of the maintenance of power, and one that is seen in cases of both legitimate and imagined threats to the self and the body. Self-protective disavowal is at the core of the Same Shit phenomenon—the idea that while the experience of masculinity varies across culture and position in the gender order, self-protective disavowal is a constant that leads to predicable patterns among men. The discussion then explores deliberate vulnerability as a kind of anti-protective disavowal in Bo Burnham’s INSIDE, a complex, undefinable ‘special’ released on Netflix in 2021. The chapter considers Burnham’s work as a departure from self-protective disavowal and Same Shit masculinity through deliberate vulnerability and critically evaluates the value of this alternative, especially given the nihilism that reigns over the work and calls into question the validity of uncritically romanticization of alternatives.",book:{id:"10540",title:"Masculinity Studies - An Interdisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10540.jpg"},signatures:"Chris McWade"},{id:"82454",title:"Prospects and Pitfalls Experienced by Social Workers Working in a Confounding Environment in a South African Setting",slug:"prospects-and-pitfalls-experienced-by-social-workers-working-in-a-confounding-environment-in-a-south",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105604",abstract:"While social workers are professionally and aptly placed to facilitate a turn-around environment rife with a conglomeration of challenges such as poverty, ignorance, and diseases, the chapter discusses the developmental prospects and pitfalls that confound their practice in South Africa. Opportunely, social work interventions continue to gain developmental mileage through increased training of social workers, their increased deployment in various versatile domains of social and economic development and increased widening of the scope of social work research, especially current research in fields such as HIV/AIDS and coronavirus. On the other side of the coin, the chapter discusses social work pitfalls attributed to professional curricular gaps as social work continue to follow a western-centric curriculum; the presence of various metaphysical beliefs and myths that weaken or derail social work interventions and a weaker research environment to offer a plausible and timely solution to the prevalent problems. The chapter concludes by calling for a paradigm shift in the social work curriculum as well as its indigenization to productively respond to the South African socio-cultural and geographical milieu.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Simon Murote Kang’ethe"},{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",abstract:"Project-based learning and future-based pedagogy are important and effective tools for teaching and learning in the twenty-first century. They are especially suited to instilling social activism among students, which is extremely valuable in today’s multicultural society. This study examined the impact of such learning among Arab and Jewish students and teachers in Israel. Following a collaborative program on social activism, in which students from different sectors worked together via digital platforms and face-to-face encounters, the impact of the program and its pedagogical tools were examined. The program, called Living in a Multicultural Society, reflects the mosaic of different people and communities, living side by side yet separated by religion, culture, and language. Through this program, students who may not have otherwise met worked together to learn, research, and create. This study was conducted using the mixed-method approach, whereby the qualitative data were gathered via interviews, and the quantitative data were collected through questionnaires. The findings show that this project-based learning program led to significant encounters, understandings, and co-operations between different sectors, and to meaningful end-products relating to social activism. 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This chapter aims to measure if disbanding learner groupings as per the social distancing protocols brought about by COVID-19 restrictions has any impact on language enhancement. Henceforth, there are limited suggestions by literature in relation to disbanding learner groupings, yet improved reading proficiency is one of the crucial language aspects to be mastered for one to be a successful scholar. Nonetheless, this chapter aims to provide teaching strategies applied by English language teachers to necessitate transmitted learning in accordance with information sharing as learners are dependent on one another for language enhancement, thus leading to academic achievement.",book:{id:"10912",title:"Psychosocial, Educational, and Economic Impacts of COVID-19",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10912.jpg"},signatures:"Bulelwa Makena and Thandiswa Mpiti"},{id:"82173",title:"Integral Ecology and Spiritual Dialogues",slug:"integral-ecology-and-spiritual-dialogues",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105126",abstract:"The essay has as its starting point, a brief awareness of the accelerated degradation and depletion of Planet Earth and the incompetent or insensitive economies toward the scandalous increase of social inequalities and situations of human waste in the world. Next, come some core points of the Church’s Social Teaching under Pope Francis, highlighting integral ecology and dialogue, as well as some relevant aspects in the debate of global ethical standards and new perceptions of the paths of spirituality. With this broad framework, the central focus of the text synthesizes a proposal for a concept of promoting justice considered coherent and operative within this context, emphasizing the relevance of spiritual dialogues as a transforming practice within the complexity that questions and challenges us. Even without directly addressing the concept of sustainability, by focusing on integral ecology and spiritual dialogues, the essay’s main horizon is to suggest paths to sustainable societies.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"José Ivo Follmann"},{id:"82295",title:"Religious Self and Sustainability Ideation: Islamic Perspective and Indonesian Context",slug:"religious-self-and-sustainability-ideation-islamic-perspective-and-indonesian-context",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105127",abstract:"This chapter describes the role of the religious self in relation to sustainability ideation. The religious self that can foster sustainability ideation is the genuine religious self. The process is to realize the duty of humans as a caliphate and learn the science of God’s creation as part of human obedience to God. The traditional perspective of religiosity that separates the science of religion from the general science, and considers the general science has nothing to do with religiosity, needs to be retheorized. Retheorization is necessary. Thinking about religiosity provides the opportunity to a Muslim who studies the natural sciences and other sciences to carry out the human duties as caliph, namely guarding the earth.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Retno Hanggarani Ninin and Noer Fauzi Rachman"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:146},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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