\r\n\tWe accept scientific papers which can be presented as original research papers and review papers. The required length of the full chapters is 10-20 pages and the chapters should be original works (not republished). \r\n\tAs a self-contained collection of scholarly papers, the book will target an audience of practicing researchers, academics, Ph.D. students and other scientists. Since it will be published as an Open Access publication, it will allow unrestricted online access to chapters with no reading or subscription fees.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"a8274c7a57830fae9cfa2dd00780184f",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Arpit Sand",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8505.jpg",keywords:"Applications, PEG, Biotechnical, Biomedical, Water Structure, Cell Fusion, DSC Measurement, Phase Diagram, NMR Spectroscopy, Protein Interaction, Grafted PEG Surface, Monte Carlo ,Protein Hybrid Catalyst, Nano Protein ,Metal Complex",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 8th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 2nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 20th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 20th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"287032",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287032/images/system/287032.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arpit Sand is currently an associate professor in the Department of Chemistry, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, India. He received his BSc in Science and MSc in Chemistry from the University of Allahabad, India, in 2004 and 2006, respectively. He received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from the same university in 2010. Dr. Sand is an editorial board member for Polymer Synthesis Journal by Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK and Journal of Polymer Science. He is an academic book editor and a reviewer for international journals including Carbohydrate Polymers, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, and Fibers and Polymers, among others.\r\nDr. Sand’s previous roles include assistant professor (guest faculty) in the Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad; research associate at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) New Delhi; postdoctoral fellow at Gwangju Institute of Science & Technology (GIST), Korea; postdoctoral fellow at Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; junior researcher at the Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic; and researcher at Soongsil University, South Korea.\r\nHe has more than ten years of teaching and research experience. He is also a life member of the Indian Science Congress and Green Chemistry Network center. He has made significant contributions in the modification and characterization of graft copolymers and films decorated with chalcogenide quantum dots to tune the energy bandgap for solar energy harvesting applications. His research interests include polymer synthesis using different polymerization techniques. He has authored more than twenty-four international research articles and review articles in reputed SCI journals.",institutionString:"Manav Rachna University Faridabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304289",firstName:"Rebekah",lastName:"Pribetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304289/images/13255_n.png",email:"rebekah@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10776",title:"Cellulose Science and Derivatives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"947660259ce1915c3cac58bf7d990424",slug:"cellulose-science-and-derivatives",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Sangita Banga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10776.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287032",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"16703",title:"Hibrid Materials Based on Zn-Al Alloys",doi:"10.5772/17241",slug:"hibrid-materials-based-on-zn-al-alloys",body:'
1. Introduction
In this research we investigate hybrid materials based on Zn-Al alloys near eutectic composition. Two kinds of composites materials were studied bimetallic sheet and particle reinforced Zn-Al-Cu alloys. The particles used were ceramics and intermetallics. The bimetallic is produced by a process comprising providing a strip or sheet of a zinc alloy core and creating a strip or sheet of composite material by metallurgically bonding commercially pure aluminum cladding layers to the zinc alloy. Particle reinforced metal matrix composites were prepared using zinalco as metal matrix by means of powder metallurgy techniques. Alumina, graphite and intermetallic particles were used as reinforcement. The composites prepared using this technique exhibit good consolidation even before sintering. Samples of the base alloy and of the different composites were sintered in air at 473 K in periods of 10, 20, 40 and 80 h. Measurements of density, hardness and yield strength in compression were performed on green and sintered materials. A decrease of 30% in density is achieved for the 27 vol.% alumina composite as compared with the unreinforced base alloy. An improvement of 13% in the values of conventional yield strength and hardness is shown for the composite with 7 vol.% alumina. Metal matrix composites have now been extensively studied, and much of the research concerns the way in which the reinforcing element is added. In some cases ceramic or intermetallic particles are used as a reinforcement material. In other cases, cladding techniques produce a bimetallic with better corrosion resistance properties in extreme corrosion environments, and good mechanical properties. In general the composites have excellent specific mechanical properties, such as specific modulus, specific strength, fatigue resistance, high-temperature performance and very good wear resistance, and so on. Discontinuous reinforcement (particulate, chopped and short fiber, whisker, etc.) composites are currently attracting considerable attention in research and application development fields due to their low cost and simple manufacture. On the other hand, most of the reinforced metallic materials show lower plasticity and toughness than those of the metals matrix. This is one of the main limitations to their use in many industrial fields. Thus, more and more researchers and producers begin to be concerned with the plasticity and toughness of these materials. Special efforts have been made to determine the main factors, which influence the materials plasticity, and to estimate the fracture strain of the reinforced materials.From the viewpoint of running safety and reliability, the quantitative evaluation of their plasticity is an important topic for materials workers.
The primary aim of the present study was to investigate the feasibility of the fabrication of foams, composite and bimetallic materials based on the Zn–Al eutectoid alloy. Dense Zn–22Al alloy is one of the most commonly used materials for studying superplastic behavior. The reason for this lies in the easy production method of fine equiaxial crystal grains by solution treatment in the single-phase region followed by quenching. The equilibrium diagram Al-Zn has been one of the most investigated over a period of more than 80 years. Two types of phase diagrams have been published (Fig.1) for the Al-Zn system; they differ in the presence or absence of the ß high temperature phase and two reactions, a monotectoid one at 340 °C and a peritectic one at 443 °C. For many years the possibility of a peritectic reaction in the zinc-aluminum system has been a subject of discussion. Nayak (1973), studied a small portion of the diagram in great detail and discovered anomalies in high temperature lattice parameters. This led to the reinstatement of a very narrow two-phase region (α + () at 72 mass % Zn. The cell parameter of ß (ZnAl) phase at 340°C decrease from 0.404 nm at 70 mass% Zn to 0.403 nm at 76mass% Zn. Our recent high-temperature X-ray investigation carried out on ß phase, at the composition 78,2 mass%Zn, shows on the diffraction peaks the presence of extra reflections. The analysis shows that the structure corresponds to a triclinic structure. The structure transition from f.c.c (aluminum solid solution at high temperature) to triclinic could be originated by a weak distortion of the cubic phase when the Zn content reaches 70,6 mass%Zn. When this occurs the primitive rhombohedral unit cell (a = 285,671 pm; α = 60°) of the f.c.c structure is also distorted, originating a triclinic cell. Our measured triclinic cell parameters are: a= 405,057 pm, b= 403,466 pm, c= 403,437 pm and α = 90,22, β = 89,99°, γ = 90,23°. The new triclinic unit cell originates on the distortion of the rhombohedral primitive cell contained in this distorted high temperature f.c.c structure. If the ß phase is accepted as an intermetalic, the diagram of Fig. 1b accounts for all the experimental facts. In this diagram the invariant transformations in solidification are : a peritectic, liq + AlZnAl(ß), at aproximate 70%Zn, 443°C; and a eutectic, liq. Al(α) + ZnAl(ß) at 94.9%Zn, 381°C. At 275°C it decomposes by an eutectoid reaction into Al(α) + Zn(η) with the eutectoid point at 78%Zn. It is important to realize that the properties of Zn-Al eutectoid alloy, like those of steel, vary with heat treatment. The alloy is put in the superplastic condition, by heating between 280 and 350˚C and water quenching. This treatment produces fine grains of α and η phases. Under this condition, it is capable of severe elongations in excess of 2000% at 250˚C.
Figure 1.
Zn-Al phase diagrams
The microstructure consists of extremely fine grains (2-5 µm), which are produced by a cellular transformation, which are almost unresolvable except by electron microscopy. Slowly cooling to room temperature, a pearlitic structure, similar to that of pearlite in steel (Fig.2) is produced
Figure 2.
Microstructures in Zn-Al-Cu. (a) Slowly cooled alloy. (b) Quenched alloy
The addition of copper to the Zn-Al alloy increases the strength and the creep resistance without seriously affecting the superplasticity. Several gravity casting alloys with different cooper contents was developed by the international Lead and Zinc Research Organization (ILZRO); they were introduced into the market with the names ZA-8, ZA-12 and ZA-27, the number indicates the amount of aluminum of the alloy. In all cases Magnesium is part of the composition and because of that, the superplasticity is avoided in these alloys. The alloy Zn-20 mass %Al- 2 mass %Cu (zinalco) is an alloy with good properties for gravity casting and in addition it can be rolled and extruded. Copper originates new intermetallic phases at high and low temperatures (ε and t´), which undergo time dependent transformations into equilibrium phases. The zinalco alloy is also unstable at room temperature and transforms by a solid state reaction into a room temperature stable compound containing α (Al solid solution), η (Zn solid solution) and t’ (Al4Cu3Zn). However, the reactions take place extremely slowly at room temperature and at a rapidly increased rate as the temperature is raised or by thermo-mechanical treatments i.e. rolling or extrusion. The tensile properties, impact resistance and hardness are all affected by these changes. Furthermore, since some reactions are accompanied by volumetric changes, castings will undergo slight but measurable dimensional changes. The physical and mechanical properties of the zinalco alloy are shown in Tables 1 and 2, it is a high-strength material with engineering properties comparable, in most instances, to those of structural steel and heat-treated aluminum alloys.
Density (g/cm3)
Melting range (˚C)
Elastic Modulus (GPa)
5,3 g/cm3
420-480
90
Table 1.
Physical properties of Zn-20mass%Al-2mass%Cu.
Yield Strength (MPa)
UTS (MPa)
Elongation (%)
Brinell Hardness
As cast
280
300
3-5
83-90
Die Cast
310
320
8-10
107-116
Extruded
320
410
30-35
40-55
Rolled (ssuperplastic)
290
310
80-100
25-30
Table 2.
Mechanical Properties (Room Temperature) of Zn-20mass%Al-2mass%Cu.
2. Foams
Metallic foams (porous metals with high porosity ranging from 40 to 98 vol%) are constantly developed and growing as new engineering materials. These exceptionally light weighted materials possess unique combinations of properties, such as impact energy absorption capacity, air and water permeability, unusual acoustic properties, low thermal conductivity and good electrical insulating properties. Several of the engineering properties are superior to those of polymeric foams: they are stiffer by an order of magnitude, they have a higher melting point, they dissipate heat efficiently, they possess superior fire resistance and they do not involve toxic fumes in a fire. Their applications include shock and impact absorbers, dust and fluid filters, engine exhaust mufflers, porous electrodes, high-temperature gaskets, heaters and heat exchangers, flame arresters, catalyst supporters, etc. The field of applications of metallic foams is growing steadily. There are many methods available to produce metallic foams ( Davies & Zhen 1983). Kitazono & Takiguchi (2007) have succeeded in developing close cell Zn-22mass%Al eutectoid alloy foams with superplastic structure through the powder metallurgy process. The strain rate sensitivity exponent (m> 0,3), classical of a fine grain structure and absorbed energy of Zn-22Al foams are much larger than those of conventional aluminum foams. This may be due to superplastic deformation of the cell walls. The relative low melting point (480˚C) of the eutectoid Zn-Al alloy gave advantages either in compacting or in foaming stage. Daodud (2008) succeeded in preparing a foam composite comprising Zn-22 mass%Al eutectoid alloy and Ni-coated fly ash micro-balloons through the stir casting method. The plateau stress of this foam reach as 100 MPa over a region of a 10-60 % strain and with a density of 3,3 g/cm3. The damping property of the eutectoid Zn-Al alloy was studied by Sirong et al. (2007) in composite foams reinforced by 10 vol.% SiC, fabricated with the melt foaming route using CaCo3 blowing agent. The damping properties of this compound were higher than those of the eutectoid alloy. The addition of Al2O3 short fibers to the Zn-22Al foams increases the compressive yield stress and energy absorption capacity (Jiaan 2008). The behavior of internal friction (IF) and relative dynamic modulus (RDM) in a foamed Zn-Al eutectoid alloy was studied by Wei et al (2002). The specimens with macroscopic pores (0,5-1 mm) were prepared in an air pressure infiltration process. The IF peak is of a grain boundary, which is associated with the diffusive flux on a crystalline boundary between the like-phases of Al/Al. Zn-22Al foams, with an open-cell structure fabricated by the replication process using NaCl preform, with equivalent cell size to salt particle (840- 3900 µm in size), shows a relation between the relative plastic collapse stress and relative density that can be described with Gibson and Ashby´s model (Yu et al. 2009). The relative low melting point (480˚C) of the eutectoid Zn-Al alloy give advantages either in compacting or in foaming stage, besides it requires less energy for production. Foams based on Zn-20mass%Al-2mass%Cu (zinalco) alloys have been produced by using granules which can be incorporated into the melt. This method produces an interconnected cellular structure or sponge metal by casting metal around granules introduced into the casting mould. These granules can be soluble (but heat-resistant), such as sodium chloride (ordinary table salt), which is later leached out to leave a porous metal. The eutectoid Zn-Al alloy is well known because of its superplastic properties. Copper additions up to 3% maintains the superplastic properties of the alloy and has obvious strain rate sensitivity, i.e. the stress rises rapidly with increasing strain rate deformation. In addition, the alloy with copper and without copper has excellent damping properties, as we can see from figure 3. Zn-20 mass%Al-2 mass%Cu (zinalco) foams containing up to 50 vol% NaCl grains have been successfully produced using the stir casting technique. Salt grains were pre-heated to 450˚C in a graphite mould and molten zinalco alloy (650˚C) was poured on the preheated salt grains and then stirred for one minute.
Figure 3.
Dynamical mechanical analysis of the damping behavior (tan δ), carried out in both superplastic and non-superplastic zinalco.
The mixture was annealed at 450˚C for 5 minutes and then furnance cooled. A good wetting between the salt grains and molten zinalco alloy was observed. Figure 4a shows the distribution of the salt grains after solidification, Figure 4b shows the microstructure of the as cast zinalco. It reveals Zn-rich phase (η) surrounding the dendrites of the aluminum-rich phase (α). The light and dark phases in Figure 4b are α and η-phases, respectively.
The NaCl grains embedded in the metallic matrix were removed washing the specimen with hot water, leaving macroscopic pores in the material and forming foamed specimen. Figure 5. The mean diameter of the macroscopic pores ranges from 2 to 4 mm and a pore volume fraction calculated from:
Vf = 1- (ρf/ρ) x 100
where Vf is the volume fraction of the macroscopic pores, ρ is the density of dense zinalco (ρ = 5,4g/cm3 ) and ρf the measured density of the foam. The calculated pore volume fraction is about 62%. The macroscopic pores are open and with irregular shapes. Two different NaCl crystals sizes (average 4 mm and 1,5 mm) were used which produce two different porous alloys. Type A, with a porous size of 3 ± 0,2 mm with a measured density of 2 ± 0,3 g/cm2 and Type B with a porous size of 1,3 ± 0,3 mm and a density of 2,5 ± 0,2 g⁄cm3.
Figure 4.
a) NaCl grains in a zinalco matriz. (b) Microstructure of the zinalco matriz, in between the NaCl grains
Figure 5.
Images of the porous zinalco alloy produced varying initial salt grain size.
2.1. Mechanical properties
Compressive specimens with the dimensions of 15mmx15mmx30mm were prepared from a block of zinalco foam (Fig.5) with a diamond-saw cutting machine. The compressive tests were performed using a universal test Instron machine at a nominal strain rate of 5x10-3 s-1. Figure 6 shows the compressive stress-strain curves of zinalco foams with different relative densities. It is found that the stress-strain curves exhibit two distinct regions: a linear elastic region at a very low strain and a plastic plateau region with slight stress fluctuation over a wide range of the strain. Other metallic foams show a third region called the densification region, which was not observed in our zinalco foams, before fracture. The first region is regarded as the elastic bending of cell struts and cell walls (Gibson & Ashby 1997). When the strain reaches about 2%, the failure takes place, and a rapid drop in the stress can be observed after the first peak stress is reached. The collapse stress (defined as the first peak stress) of zinalco foams rises with increasing relative density.
Figure 6.
Compression stress vs. strain for different densities (d) of the porous alloy with as cast microstructure.
The microstructure of the zinalco matrix can be changed by thermal treatment. Specimens annealed for 12 hours at 320˚C and then water quenched, shows a fine grain microstructure (Fig.2b). This structure induces a higher ductility at room temperature. This thermal treatment has a remarkable effect on the deformation behavior of the zinalco foams. Fig.7. The stress-strain results indicate that the yield stress depends very much on the matrix structure. The foams with the as cast structure shows a higher collapse stress than foam with superplastic structure. This latter material shows a noticeable densification region after a extensive plateau region which is not observed when the matrix has the as-cast structure where a shorter plateau is observed, followed by a rather steep stress increase. A close observation of the deformed specimen with an as cast structure shows that the collapse of the cells takes place on a narrow region at 45˚ with the load axis (Fig. 8) the rest of the specimen remaining without appreciably deformation. This behavior is probably due to the low ductility (4-5%) of the as cast alloy. In the case of the material with superplastcic structure, a uniform deformation is observed.
Figure 9 shows the relationship between the relative plastic collapse stress and relative density for foams with an as-cast structure. The yield stress of the matrix was taken as 280 MPa and the density of the matrix as 5,4 g/cm3.
Figure 7.
Compression stress vs. strain behavior of zinalco foams with as cast and fine grain structure.
Figure 8.
Localized deformation in zinalco foam with as-cast structure.
Material
Porous size (mm)
Density (g/cm3)
Compression stress (MPa)
Energy absorption at 20% strain. (MJ/m3)
Foam A
3 ± 0,2
2,8
68 ± 5
3,1 (as cast)
Foam B
2,2 ± 0,2
2,5
48 ± 5
6,5 (as cast)
Foam C
1,5 ± 0,3
2,3
41± 3
25 (fine grains)
Table 3.
Physical properties of zinalco foams studied in this work.
The plastic collapse stress increases with increasing relative density, in accordance with Gibson and Ashby model.
The energy absorption during the compressive deformation is defined as the energy necessary to deform a given specimen to a specific strain. The energy absorbed per unit volume (W) for a sample up to a strain (ε0) can be evaluated by integrating the area under the stress-strain curve. For computing W, densification strain is taken to be 20%. The mechanical properties of the zinalco alloy foams along with the physical properties are summarized in Table 3. These values are much higher than those observed for low- density aluminum foams. Thus zinalco foams are competitive against the aluminum foams.
Figure 9.
Variation of the relative stress vs relative density.
3. Bimetallic materials
The realization that two metals can be joined together by cladding during rolling or extrusion has gained special importance for heavy metals. Copper sections clad with silver for electrical contacts are produced in this way in a wide variety of shapes. Recently, the plating of copper onto aluminum has been developed. The cladding is usually a layer on each side of the core alloy and usually comprising 2,5 to 5 % of the total thickness. The process requires clean and oxide-free contacting surfaces of the two metals forming the billet to be enlarged during deformation and new surfacesto be formed. These weld together under the action of the pressure and temperature. The flow stresses of the two metals must be similar (Kwon 2003). The aim of this work is directed to develop an article and a process that satisfy the need for an inexpensive, tarnish resistant, wear resistant, sufficiently hard, composite metal laminate material which is silver in color, does not require secondary annealing and has a composition so that the byproduct of its production process has economic value. The article comprises two commercially pure aluminum-cladding layers metallurgically bonded to a zinc alloy core. The combination of the zinc alloy core and the commercially pure aluminum cladding layers is ideal for the manufacturing of architectural profiles, keys or coin planchets. The zinc alloy and commercially pure aluminum are inexpensive, silver in color, and sufficiently hard. Zinc and zinc alloys are heavier than the commercially pure aluminum, so that the ratio of each may be adjusted to achieve an acceptable weight for a given application. Further, the tarnish resistance of the commercially pure aluminum cladding layers compensates for the zinc alloy\'s poor tarnish resistance. The zinc alloys used in the present work are Zn-20mass%Al-2mass%Cu (zinalco) and Zn-22mass%Al-1mass%Ag (zinag). These alloys are high resistant Zn alloys (yield strength ≈ 300 MPa.)with a moderate density (5.4 g/cm3). Zinalco and zinag alloys, however, are not tarnish resistant. When they are exposed to the atmosphere, the surface of these materials becomes dull gray in color in a relatively short period of time. Because a metallic surface with a dull gray finish is not desirable or marketable, the zinc alloys core is combined with a cladding of aluminum that is tarnish resistant. The core material used in the present work was zinalco and zinag alloy prepared from aluminum and copper of commercial purity. The aluminum cladding layers (upper and lower) are composed of commercially pure aluminum, which is at least about 98,5% aluminum.
Commercially pure aluminum is silvery-white. Further more this aluminum is relatively inexpensive and is of sufficient hardness to ensure a long life and to allow that the products manufactured with it also have excellent resistance to corrosion and tarnishing, providing a long lasting lustrous finish. Besides, commercially pure aluminum is relatively lightweight. Zinag and zinalco alloys billet of 25mm wide, 100mm length and with a thickness of 5mm, were used as core material and aluminum sheet as the sheath material. The initial thickness of sheath material was 0.6mm. The aluminum sheet was fixed at both sides of the billet and then rolled. The range of rolling temperature was varied from 200 to 300 ˚C ; at this range of temperature zinc alloys shows a strength similar to that of the aluminum strength at this temperature. A thickness reduction of 50% was applied in one pass. After rolling the bonding strength test for the specimens produced under different rolling temperatures was performed. Another simple way to fix the aluminum to the surface of the alloy, was by using thermal spraying and then rolling. This last technique may be an easier way for commercially production of the bimetallic. The cladding thicknesses were from approximately 2% to 3 % of the final sheet thickness (0.4 mm). Tensile test specimens were cut from a composite material composed of Al + Zinag + Al. The samples were tested at 230˚C in tension in an Instron universal testing machine at a strain rate of 10-2 s-1. At this strain rate and temperature the zinag alloy hows a maximum deformation of 800%, similar to the zinalco alloy. Figure 10 is a side view of the resultant bimetallic material made of a zinc alloy (zinag) core with two aluminum cladding layers on its opposite sides. The zinag core shows two phases, an aluminum solid solution (α) which is dark, and a zinc solid solution (η) which is bright. Some grains of the η phase are elongated in the direction of the rolling. Zinc diffusion in aluminum is expected to take place during the deformation at 230˚C. Figure 11 shows a representative plot of stress (MPa) against strain of the bimetallic material, when tested in tension at 230 ˚C. A maximum strain obtained in the bimetallic (110%) shows that aluminum non-superplastic can deform superplastically together with superplastic zinalco or zinag. This process is called “membrane forming” (Ward 1988). For the zinalco alloy thicknesses of over 0,5 mm have being formed successfully by this technique during the elongation of the aluminum layer.
Figure 10.
Lateral view of the bonded Al-zinag-Al alloy interlayer.
Figure 11.
Stress vs conventional strain tensile diagram of the bimetallic Al-zinag-Al
A detailed examination, of the microstructure of the pure aluminum layer after tensile testing to a strain of 100% at 230˚C shows (Fig. 12) elongated chopped grains parallel to the vertical tension axis, imaged by atomic force microscope (AFM). The surface exhibited by the fractured elongated grains is roughly at 45˚ along the vertical tensile axis. This is known as the plane of maximum shear stresses of the clad material.
These observations can be viewed in figure 13b, in which a scan size of 20 µm was used. As a result of these fractures, the grain size of the aluminum layer is refined during the superplastic forming. In fig 13, a microestructural transversal section zone, typically deformation to both materials is obtained by conventional techniques of vacuum forming for the bimetallic. In the external region of the dome, where tension forces are active a distinctive structure is formed by fine equiaxed grains and black regions, which could be holes. Inspection showed that these round grains are not completely joined together but separated by empty regions. The mechanism of formation of these grains is possible by a fracture of the initial aluminum grains as was observed in the aluminum layer of the specimens deformed in tension. Figure 12a shows a region were it is possible to observe how a row of grains are fractured on a plane, which is possible at maximum shear stress.
Figure 12.
Topographic view (AFM) of the aluminum layer after tensile deformation.
This plane runs up to the interface zinag-aluminum and then disappears in the superplastic material. Further details about the grains of the deformed discontinuous aluminum layer area are given in figure 12b. At higher magnifications the grains are separated by regions (holes) where new grains are emerging from the lower layers to fill the empty spaces produced when the fractured aluminum grains start to separate. At the boundary between superplastic zinag and aluminum exist a wide band of aluminum-zinc solid solutions, where we do not observe round grains of aluminum. At the initial steps of the deformation of the bimetallic material, the zinag core starts to deform by grain boundary sliding and the aluminum sheath deforms by conventional dislocation mechanisms, which originate work hardening on these grains and elongation in the tension direction. Further deformation fractures of the aluminum grains (shown in Fig.12a) maintain a fine grain structure in this layer. As the deformation proceeds, the superplastic zinag continues deforming by conventional GBS and the aluminum sheath, now composed of a structure of fine grains, starts to deform by GBS originating in the separation of the grains. New grains are emerging (Fig. 12b) from the lower layers to restore the surface. According to the results mentioned above, we consider that the superplastic deformation of the bimetallic material proceeds by a combination of GBS in the superplatic zinag core and an initial conventional deformation in the aluminum layer sheath which elongates the grains in the tension direction. This is followed by a particular superplastic mechanism, produced by the separation of fine grains formed by fractures during the plastic deformation of the elongated aluminum grains. The flow stress of aluminum was 30 to 15 MPa in pure aluminium and 35 to 25 MPa in zinalco or zinag alloy, between 230 ˚C and 350 ˚C. Therefore, the flow stress ratio is close to 1 at this temperature range. The required stress to tear out the aluminum sheath from the zinalco´s core, is 50MPa when rolling at 240 ˚C and decreases to 25MPa when rolling is performed at 350 ˚C (almost the same values for zinag). This suggests that the reducción in strength is due to the phase transformation that takes place in the Zn-alloy core material ( around 275˚C) during the cooling of the bimetallic sheet after rolling, affects the strength of the bonding. The yield strength of this alloy is around 320 MPa. at room temperature; hence the bimetallic Al-zinalco-Al give us a high strength-low density (5,2 g/cm3 ) material, with a great variety of applications in the automotive industry, building and construction or the manufacturing of low cost keys.
Figure 13.
Transverse section (a) of a dome vacuum formed (b)
Figure 14.
Medals elaborated with aluminum clad zinalco.
The bimetallic zinalco-aluminium is a moderately heavy and soft planchet with exellent aplications in the production of coins and tokens. Figure 14 is a top plan view of some products produced with this bimetallic. Scrap may be reused or sold. This economic benefit is obtained by heating the scrap above its melting point, which produces a zinc-aluminum alloy desired in the die-casting industry. Zinc-aluminum die-cast products are extensively used in the automotive, architectural, aeronautical, and other industries. In this study, the best rolling conditions to obtain an optimum bimetallic planchet were that the rolling temperature was around 240 ˚C 20 for the alloy Zn-20Al-2Cu. Under this rolling conditions the bonding strength was around 50MPa for aluminum- zinalco bimetallic planchet.
4. Metal-matrix composites
Composites possess significantly higher strength and stiffness than unreinforced materials zinalco alloy shows very attractive room-temperature properties, these properties decay very rapidly with temperature. Essentially the degradation of tensile strength and creep resistance occurs at temperatures around 100 ˚C. With this limitation, the extent of application of the alloy is restricted to those for ambient service temperature environments. An attractive possibility of improving room temperature and relatively high temperature properties ( tensile strength, Young´s modulus, wear resistance) is by the reinforcement of particles to form a composite material. Powder metallurgy is a suitable process to produce materials with highly useful characteristics from metal powder alloy without passing trough the melt condition. Powder metallurgy provides important technical support for special shape process, principally for five important groups of materials: (1) particulate composite materials, (2) porous materials, (3) refractory materials, (4) frictionless materials and (5) high resistance material with improved properties. Metal powder used in the production of sintered parts can be characterized by three categories of properties: (a) metallurgical properties; (b) geometrical properties and (c) mechanical properties. All these powder properties are the result of the process by which the powder was produced. Parameters like microstructure and chemical composition of metallic powder have a great influence upon the final strength properties of the sintered parts. Impurities may have an adverse effect upon compressibility and upon the life of compacting parts. Particle size distribution, particle shape and particle porosity, determine the powder’s specific surface which is the driving force of the sintering process and is directly related to compressibility. The compressibility of the powder is a fundamental factor in deciding the compacting pressure required to achieve a desired compact density. Some advantages in the use of powder metallurgy techniques are: (a) they allow the problems of wet between liquid metal and reinforced ceramic to be overcome, (b) better homogenization of composite materials, (c) high amount of reinforced particles will be attained, (d) a good control of particle size will be obtained, (e) parts with very simple form or with intricate shapes can be easily processed and sintered. Some disadvantages of this technique are: (a) they can be used only for material composites reinforced with particles, (b) the size of parts that can be formed are limited by technique and economic aspects. The forming of particulate material composites using powder metallurgy begins with the mixing of metal and ceramic particles. Powder mixes are compacted in a rigid die. In this operation, high pressure (about 650 MPa) is exerted upon the powder in the die cavity using one or more vertically moving compacting punches. Under the influence of such high compacting pressures, the powder particles are being squeezed together so closely that their surface irregularities interlock and a certain amount of cold welding takes place between their surfaces. The compaction process does not require high temperature, it can be performed at room temperature, therefore, there is low interaction between metal and reinforce particles, minimizing undesirable interfacial reactions to get better mechanical properties. This investigation examines the properties of Zinalco matrix combined with alumina, graphite, hidroxiapatite and intermetallic particles, fabricated by conventional cold powder pressing and hot solid state sintering techniques. In general, the goal of grinding could be: (a) to diminish the size of particles, (b) to mix the powder of raw material or (c) to study microstructural and morphology changes.
4.1 Characterization of reinforcement particles
Filings of Zinalco alloy were comminuted in a vibratory milling and in a high-energy planetary mill. The resultant particles are shown in figure 15.
Figure 15.
a) Zinalco powder obtained with a vibratory mill has flake shape and a groove surface, (b) rounded particles of zinalco powder obtained in a high energy planetary mill.
Figure 15a shows powder obtained by this process the particles have a flake shape with a grooved surface. Figure 15b, shows rounded shape powder obtained when a cast-alloy comminuted in a high energy planetary mill. Particle surface shows intense plastic deformation and grooves are less deep than particles obtained in the vibratory mill. Fig 16a shows the microstructure of the cold compacted powder, there can be observed (black) and η (brigth) fine grains. X ray diffraction pattern of this material still shows the presence of the metastable ε phase. Powder obtained in vibratory mill, requires long periods of grinding, about 100 hours, for total ε phase transformation into the τ’ phase, which is the stable phase at room temperature. Cold compacted zinalco powder was sintered at 200˚C in air; the average size of equiaxed grains before sintering was 800 nm. After long periods of sintering, about 20 hours or more, the microstructure transformed into interconnected grains and an important increase in size was observed; see figure 16 b. Both zinalco grinding processes, were performed without any protective atmosphere, unlike other powder metals such as aluminum and magnesium that can be explosive and require inert atmosphere. The x-ray diffraction pattern of both zinalco alloys compacted powder does not show reflections related to the presence of zinc oxide or aluminum oxide; this indicate that material do not present an appreciable oxidation. Ceramic particles as reinforce of metal matrix composites give the opportunity of combine the relative easily capacity of metals and alloys for deformation with the hardness, high strength and low density of ceramic particles. In the first stage of this work it was studied three different kinds of reinforce particles were studied. The first one was γ-alumina powder of commercial distribution with average particle size of 0.05 μm. average diameter.
Figure 16.
a) Microstructure of Zinalco flakes cold compacted. (b)Microstructure of zinalco compacts sintering at 473K during 80 hour in air atmosphere.
This material has been widely used to reinforce composites based on aluminum alloys, principally to improve its temperature resistance and to increase its tensile strength. In Zinalco-alumina composites we attempt to diminish the density of this material and improve its compression strength. Alumina particles gathered to form clusters with 10 μm eliminate. Graphite form plates or thin sheets eliminate these plates has a wide size distribution from 0,05 μm up to about 25 μm. Density of this material was 2.26 g/cm3. The graphite presumably imparts improved tribological properties to the composites through the formation of a graphite-rich film on the tribo-surface which provides solid lubrication (Rohatgi 1992). Hidroxiapatite powder [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] forms clusters with a wide size distribution as shown y figure 17 a. This is a crystalline material with applications as biomaterial. In a second stage of this work, it was used to rinforce reinforced the intermetallic 57mass%Cu-26mass%Al-17mass%Zn (phase t’). Ingots of as cast intermetallic were comminuted in a bar mill to form particles of about 1 mm diameter and then refined in a n horizontal ball mill until a size distribution between 30 and 45 μm was obtained, as show in figure 17 b. The formation of a compound using powder metallurgy starts with a compaction process and then green compacts are subjected to a densification process. Regular compaction process are: (a) to apply pressure into a rigid die, (b) to apply isostatic pressure into a flexible mould, (c) rolling compaction of powder and (d) powder extrusion. For compaction it is necesary to apply higher pressures, about 650 MPa. In this work zinalco-ceramic composites were prepared by uniaxial compaction into a rigid die at room temperature while zinalco-τ’ composites were formed by both hot extrusion and hot forging process of the powder material. Physical and mechanical properties of composites material depends on homogenous mixture of powder raw materials. In all cases materials were manualy mixed and then blended in a mechanical mill.
Figure 17.
a) Clusters of hidroxiapatite. (b) Particles of intermetallic t’ used as reinforce.
For the uniaxial compaction of powder it is important to controll die filling, frictional conditions, and velocity range of load application. After the compaction process it is necessary to determine the temperature and time of sintering. Forging and extrusion process were performed at 250 ˚C, at which temperature we found less porosity and higher hardness. Using powder metallurgy techniques zinalco-alumina, zinalco-graphite and zinalco-hidroxiapatite composites were prepared. A maximum of 20 mass% of alumina, 20 mass%of graphite and 15 mass% of hidroxiapatite were incorporated in the composites. Composites with 5 mass% alumina, 7 mass% graphite and 5 mass% hidroxiapatite show good mechanical characteristics. In all composites were observed a homogeneous distribution of reinforced particles. With other methods of preparation such as reocastig only a maximum of 1,2 mass% of alumina and 3 mass% of graphite could be incorporated (Muñoz-Lasso, 1992). In these composites it was observed that reinforced particles were not homogeneously distributed into the metal matrix and formed clusters. Zinalco-’ compounds were prepared by hot forging; a maximum of 50 mass%’ was incorporated. Figure 18a shows the microstructure of zinalco-10 mass%’ hot-forged material. The microstructure of the extruded material is formed by equiaxed grains and a preferential orientation in direction of extrusion is observed see figure 18 b. An advantage of adding ceramic particles into a metallic matrix is to diminish the density of the resulting material. Table 4 shows the results of the density changes that occur after sintering the pure and reinforced alloy. The theoretical values were calculated using mixture rules. The actual density for the composites prepared under conditions of this work changes from 5,0 g/cm3, for unreinforced material, to 3,83 g/cm3, for composite with 27 vol. % alumina. This large changes observed in density, is due to porosity as well as the large amounts of alumina. No appreciable volume changes were observed during the sintering of these composites, density remained almost constant for all compositions and sintering time. At the sintering temperature used in this paper ( 200 ˚C) there was not expected any bonding between ceramic particles. Zinalco composite reinforced with 10 wt. % τ’ has an average density of 5,17 g/cm3 in both hot-forging and hot-extruded materials.
Figure 18.
a) Zinalco 10 mass%’ forged at 523 K in air, the alloy retains as-cast microstructure. Zinalco 10 mass%’, extruded at 523 K in air, zinalco base alloy show equiaxed grains of α and β phases.
4.2. Mechanical properties
The base alloy yield stress in compression was measured in both green and sintered material. The compressive properties of ceramic composites tested in function of the sintering time are shown in figure 19. Results indicate that addition of 5 wt.% alumina particles into the zinalco matrix cause an improvement of the yield strength after sintering, reaching an increment of 13 %in yield stress after 20 hours of sintering. Yield strength remains almost constant for longer sintering times in all tests. Composites with 10 and 20 wt. % alumina and with 7 wt. % graphite fracture without yielding. Hardness (Fig. 20) diminishes when alumina content is 20 wt. % because a great amount of unsintered ceramic particles separates more easily when the load is applied. Hardness increases with sintering time for the unreinforced base alloy, for zinalco-5 wt.% hidroxiapatite and zinalco-5 wt.% alumina composites, hardness reach a maximum after 20 h of sintering time, then the hardness remains almost constant.
Figure 19.
Effect of sintering time on yield strength of zinalco, zinalco-alumina composites, zinalco-5 mass% hidroxiapatite and zinalco-7 mass% graphite. Tests were performed at strain rate 10-3 s-1.
Material
Density (g/cm3)
Porosity (%)
Theoretical
Actual
Zinalco
5,40
5.00
7
Zinalco-5 mass% alumina
4,92
4,51
8
Zinalco-10 mass% alumina
5,15
4,44
14
Zinalco-20 mass% alumina
4,91
3,83
22
Zinalco-7 mass% graphite
4,63
4,43
4
Zinalco-5 mas% hidroxiapatite
4,85
4,57
6
Zinalco-10 mass% ’ hot forging
5,56
5,18
7
Zinalco-10 mass% ’ hot extruded
5,56
516
7
Table 4.
Theoretical and actual density for zinalco-ceramic composites sintered 10 h at 473 K and zinalco 10 mass%’ obtained by both hot forging and hot-extrusion at 523 K.
The hardness of the zinalco-7wt. % graphite composite remains almost constant with sintering time. Studies of the effect of strain rate over the mechanical properties were undertaken for zinalco-alumina composites, (Fig.21). Reinforced material with 5 wt. % alumina increases its ductility up to 10-3 s-1 and then starts to fail in a brittle manner. Green unreinforced zinalco behaves in a way similar to high strain rate superplastic metals (Nieh et al., 1984) reaching 113% of true strain at 10-1 s-1 and it may be possible to reach higher values at a higher strain rate, not measured in this work, (Fig.21b). This behavior changes completely with long sintering periods and maximum deformation achieved is lower in unreinforced and reinforced zinalco tested at any strain rate. Figure 23 shows the microstructure of green composite with 5 wt.% alumina deformed 113% in compression. It is possible to observe a plastic deformation of metal particles, which are elongated perpendicularly with respect to the compression axis. Metal particles slip one over the other because the alumina interface has been broken into small rounded pieces. The sintering process produces welding between metal particles and makes the boundary slip more difficult, reducing the ductility of this material. Composites with 10 and 30 mass% t’ hot extruded and unreinforced hot extruded zinalco base alloy were tested in compression using two values of strain rate of 10-2 and 10-1 s-1. Table 5 summarized yield stress values and hardness Rockwell B values for these materials
Figure 20.
Effect of sintering time on hardness of zinalco unreinforced base alloy and zinalco-ceramic composites.
Figure 21.
Effect of strain rate on (a) yield strength and (b) true strain for zinalco unreinforced base alloy and zinalco-alumina green composites.
Hot extruded Material
Yield stress (MPa) ε˙=10−2s−1
Yield stress (MPa) ε˙=10−1s−1
HRB
Zinalco
238,3
252,8
32,17
Zinalco- 10 wt. % t’
238,8
253,8
38,92
Zinalco- 30 wt. % t’
291,0
189,7
60,92
Table 5.
Yield stress values for hot extruded composite materials and unreinforced base alloy
5. Conclusions
The incorporation of ceramic and intermetallic particles in zinalco alloy modifies density and mechanical properties with respect to the unreinforced alloy. The low sintering temperature (200 ˚C ) used in this work is not enough to produce sintering of ceramic particles, therefore under these experimental conditions, large amounts of ceramic reinforce produce brittle behavior and eliminate grain growth inside metal particles. During mixing and compaction operations, fine ceramic particles infiltrate into groves on the zinalco filling surface, making a smoother interface, resulting in a better accommodation of the distorted particles during deformation at low strain rates (< 10-3s-1 ) in 5 mass% alumina unsintered composite and increasing total strain with respect to the unreinforced green zinalco alloy, see figure 22 b. In green base alloy a linear dependence of yield stress with the strain rate was observed see figure 22(a). These values increase as function of strain rate. This behavior changes with sintering process in reinforced and unreinforced materials. In the sintered ones yield stress was observed only when the strain rate was below 10-3 s-1; for higher strain rates (>10-3 s-1) fracture occurs without yielding in both sintered materials, possibly due to the diffusion bonding between metal particles, which obstructs the free accommodation of these particles one over the other. Yield strength in the unreinforced material achieves a maximum after 20 hours of sintering and then the stress remains constant with longer sintering time. In reinforced material with 5 mass% alumina yield stress increases up to 20 hours. The initial increase of the yield stress in both reinforced and unreinforced materials is probably due to the diffusion bonding of the metal particles that obstructs the free accommodation of the deformed metal particles. A bigger yield stress is observed in the case when the alumina is present an increase in alumina weight fraction (10 and 20 mass.%), results in a poor contact between metal particles, reducing the possibility that diffusion bonding can occurs between them and hence the material behaves in a very brittle manner because particle/alumina decohesion occurs. Composites reinforced with ’ intermetallic particles were formed by hot-forging and hot extrusion process. Better mechanical properties were observed in the as-extruded composite because the microstructure consists of equiaxed grains produced by severe plastic deformation. It can be very interesting to study if superplasticity at high strain rates (>10-1) can be achieved with powder metallurgy in Zn-Al alloys.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/16703.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/16703.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/16703",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/16703",totalDownloads:4751,totalViews:562,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:83,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 19th 2010",dateReviewed:"March 30th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 20th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/16703",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/16703",book:{id:"1044",slug:"metal-ceramic-and-polymeric-composites-for-various-uses"},signatures:"Elizabeth Martínez-Flores and Gabriel Torres-Villaseñor",authors:[{id:"27733",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Torres-Villaseñor",fullName:"Gabriel Torres-Villaseñor",slug:"gabriel-torres-villasenor",email:"gtorres@servidor.unam.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"36497",title:"Prof.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Flores",fullName:"Elizabeth Martínez-Flores",slug:"elizabeth-martinez-flores",email:"emartine@uaslp.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Foams ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Mechanical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Bimetallic materials ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Metal-matrix composites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Characterization of reinforcement particles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2. Mechanical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'DaviesG. J.ZhenS.\n\t\t\t\t\t1983\n\t\t\t\t\tMetallic foams: their production, properties and applications. Journal of Materials Science\n\t\t\t\t\t18\n\t\t\t\t\t4 July 1983) 18991911 , 1573-4803'},{id:"B2",body:'DaoudA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tSynthesis and characterization of novel ZnAl22 syntactic foam composites via casting. Materials Science and Engineering A\n\t\t\t\t\t488 (2008), 281295\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'GibsonL. J.AshbyM. F.M. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties (2nd ed) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (1997)\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'KwonH. C.JungT. K.LimS. C.KimM. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 “Fabrication of copper clad aluminium wire” Designing, Processing and Properties of Advanced Engineering Materials, Korea 2003, Trans Tech Publications LTD 317320 .'},{id:"B5",body:'JiaanL.SirongY.XianyongZ.MingW.SongL.YanruL.YaohuiL.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of Al2O3 short fiber on the compressive properties of Zn-22Al foams. Materials Letters\n\t\t\t\t\t62 2008), 36363638\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'KitazonoK.TakiguchiY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Strain rate sensitivity and energy absorption of Zn-22Al foams Scripta Mater.\n\t\t\t\t\t55 2006),501504\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'Muñoz-LassoA.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 Estudio de las propiedades mecánicas de un compuesto con matriz metálica (Zinalco). Tesis de Maestría en Ciencias. Facultad de Ciencias. UNAM. México 1992.'},{id:"B8",body:'NayakA. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t1973 Thermal and quantitativethermal analysis of Al-Zn alloys and determination of the equilibrium diagram of the binary system. Journal of the Institute of Metals. 101 (1973) 309314 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'RohatgiP. K.RayS.LinY.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 Tribological properties of metal matrix graphite particle composites. International Materials Review.\n\t\t\t\t\t37\n\t\t\t\t\t3 1992), 129135\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'SirongYu.JiaanL.YanruL.YaohuiL.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Compressive behavior and damping propertie of ZA22/SiCp composite foams. Materials Science and Engineering A\n\t\t\t\t\t457 2007), 325328 .'},{id:"B11",body:'Ward D.M.\n\t\t\t\t\t1988 Forming non-superpastic materials with superplastic membranes. Proceedings of an International Conference on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming,\n\t\t\t\t\t595599 . 087339089 Blain,Washington, August 1-4,1988.'},{id:"B12",body:'WeiJ. N.ChengH. F.GongCh. L.ZhouZ. C.LiZ. B.HanF. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tGrain boundary peak in a foamed Zn-Al Eutectoid alloy. Chin.Phys.Lett.\n\t\t\t\t\t19\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (2002),381384 .'},{id:"B13",body:'YuS.LiuJ.WeiM.LuoY.ZhuX.LiuY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tCompressive property and energy absorption characteristics of open-cell ZA22 foams. Materials and Design.30 2009),8790 .'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"G. Torres-Villaseñor",address:null,affiliation:'
Instituto de Investigaciones en Materiales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de San Luís Potosí, México
Instituto de Investigaciones en Materiales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de San Luís Potosí, México
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1. Introduction
With the rapid development of human civilization, the consequent air pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have threaten human being for years. Energy conservation and emission reduction is an increasing priority in the development of transportation industry.
A number of approaches can be used to improve energy efficiency and reduce CO2 emission, such as reducing aerodynamic resistance, transmission loss, tire rolling resistance, and weight [1]. Among these options, lightweight structure is currently considered as one of the most efficient solutions. In recent years, lightweighting has become a major research theme in the transport industry around the world.
Material substitution appears a promising option for lightweighting. Traditionally, steel, such as low-carbon steel and stainless steel, is used as main material to build major structure of transportation equipment. Titanium, aluminum and magnesium are promising lightweight metallic materials as alternatives to steel and cast iron. Among these materials, aluminum shows a balanced performance, such as light weight, good corrosion resistance, good formability, high specific strength and relatively low cost. Density of aluminum alloy is only one third of steel. Considering structural optimization due to material replacement, the overall weight of rail car-body is decreased by 50% when aluminum is used. This degree of reduction deserves an effort in engineering application.
Although aluminum accounts for ~8 wt% (by mass) of the earth’s crust, the high affinity of aluminum for oxygen, as well as the stability of aluminum oxides and silicates hindered its separation for a long time. For this reason, aluminum became economic for engineering applications only at the end of the nineteenth century [2].
Aluminum alloys was originally used in aviation industry which is an important part of the transportation industry. It was firstly used on Junker F13 fuselage with the invention of 2017-T4 alloy in 1920. It began to be used in the manufacture of train with increase of the train speed until 1980s. So far, it has been widely used in passenger cars with speeds above 200km/h, such as German ICE series high-speed EMU car-body, French ALSTOM double-decker TGV high-speed EMU car-body, Italy Pendolino(ETR) series pendulum high-speed EMU car-body, Japanese Shinkansen, and Chinese CRH high-speed EMU car-body and so on. Especially with the huge expansion of high-speed rail lines in China in the last 20 years, the development and application of aluminum alloy prospered.
A series of new manufacturing processes, such as friction stir welding and laser welding, were developed and applied. These technical progress promoted application of aluminum alloy not only in high speed trains but also urban rail vehicles, which continuously contributes to energy conservation and climate change. This chapter will introduce the application status and key technologies of aluminum alloy for manufacturing high speed train. It is expected that the technical analysis and summary will inspire and encourage material scientist and engineers to vigorously push technological innovation for comfortable travel experience in an environmental-friendly mode.
2. Characteristics of aluminum alloy
The special operating environment of trains and unique properties of aluminum alloy promotes the their combination, which favored the popularization of high speed train and in-depth application of aluminum alloy in transportation industry. For engineering application on rail transit vehicles, aluminum has the following advantages:
The net weight of the vehicle can be greatly reduced. The use of aluminum alloy can greatly reduce the net weight of rail passenger car while it meets the safety requirements in the aspect of strength and rigidity. Generally speaking, car-body made of aluminum alloy is 30%~50% lighter than that of steel. For high-speed and double-deck trains, the most effective way to make vehicles light is to increase the proportion of aluminum used in vehicles as much as possible.
Aluminum alloy has excellent fire resistance. Although the melting point of aluminum (660 °C) is much lower than that of steel (1530 °C), the fire-resistant of the car body is not only related to the melting point of the material, but also to the thermal conductivity of the material. Compared with steel, aluminum alloy has excellent thermal conductivity and better heat dissipation.
Aluminum alloy has good corrosion resistance. The surface of aluminum alloy is easy to form a layer of dense oxide film, which has a good anti-oxidation ability in the atmosphere. Therefore, car-body made of aluminum alloy has better corrosion resistance than that of steel, especially in the components that are not easy to be coated, such as the box structure and some of its internal beams and columns, aluminum counterpart show obvious advantages. At the same time, aluminum alloy surface can be colored, painted, sprayed, through chemical methods to greatly improve the corrosion resistance of the components, together with improved decorative effect.
Aluminum alloy is easy to process, manufacture and maintain. With the development and application of large hollow and complex section aluminum profiles, aluminum welding technology is constantly improving, and vehicle manufacturing technology is becoming more and more mature. Aluminum alloy parts is easy to be replaced, and suitable for all kinds of surface treatment. The workload need for manufacturing rail car-body is also greatly reduced than the steel one.
The price of aluminum alloy is moderate. The high price of aluminum material increases the manufacturing cost of vehicles, but aluminum alloy also makes vehicles light, which leads to the increase of transport capacity, reduction of energy consumption and reduction of maintenance costs. Taking the comparison of maintenance hours of vehicles leaving the factory at 10 A as an example, steel car is 100%, aluminum car is 52%.The recovery value of scrapped vehicles is 100% for steel vehicles and 480% for aluminum vehicles. From the perspective of comprehensive economic benefits, the use of aluminum vehicles is economical and reasonable. Therefore, the final cost of using aluminum alloy is moderate.
3. Typical aluminum alloys and their properties
Aluminum alloys commonly used in high-speed trains include 5000 series, 6000 series and 7000 series. 5000 series alloys show maximum strength and high corrosion resistance among the typical non-heat treatable alloy, which adapt to welded structure. 6000 series alloys show moderate strength and good corrosion resistance, together with perfect extrusion formability making complex and thin-wall hollow section possible. 7000 series alloys show excellent strength among age-hardening aluminum alloy, which provide wide space for weight reduction. Typical aluminum alloys for high speed train car-body are shown in Table 1.
Series
Designation
State
Mechanical properties
Application area
Note
Tensile strength/MPa
Yield strength/MPa
Elongation/%
5000
5083
O
≥275 ~ 350
125 ~ 200
≥16
Front skin
Plate
6000
6005A
T6
≥270
≥225
≥8
Underframe, sidewall, roof, end wall, beam
Plate, 3 ~ 5 mm
6005A
T6
≥255
≥215
≥6
Underframe, sidewall, roof, end wall, beam
Section, 3 ~ 5 mm
6082
T6
≥310
≥260
≥10
Underframe, end beam
Plate, 3 ~ 6 mm
6106
≥250
≥200
≥8
End wall
Section
7000
7B05
T4
≥315
≥195
≥11
Underframe, end beam
P, 2.9 ~ 6.5
7B05
T5
≥325
≥245
≥10
Underframe, end beam, traction beam
Section
Table 1.
Typical aluminum alloys for high speed train car-body [3, 4].
4. Detailed application
In railway vehicles, aluminum alloy is primarily used in manufacturing car-body and its ancillary structure. The car-body is a prolonged hexahedral structure. Aluminum is used to manufacture all parts of the structure, including roof, underframe, end wall and side wall. However, different aluminum designations are selected for different parts of the car-body based on their properties shown in section 3. Both extruded section and plate are used. Extruded profiles account for about 70% of the total weight of the aluminum alloy car-body, while the plates account for about 27%, and the castings and forgings account for about 3%. On the other hand, there is an emerging trend that aluminum alloy come into application to other structures such as gear-box and axle box than car-body. The detailed introduction is as follows.
4.1 Car-body
The development of aluminum alloy materials and large extruded profiles paves the way for the modernization and lightening of railway vehicles, In recent years, with the popularity of lightweight design concept for railway vehicles, as well as the requirement of simplified construction and maintenance, large integral thin plate and hollow complex thin wall profiles has been developed successfully. In Japan, 6N01(6005 alloy) alloy with better extrusion, welding and corrosion properties has been developed to produce porous complex thin-wall hollow profiles, widely replacing 7N01 and 7003 profiles as the floor, side plate and roof structure of the car-body. In Western Europe, aluminum alloy body is mainly made of 6005A extruded profiles, the main reason of which is that the extrusion performance of 6005A is better, the production process is more simplified, and the stress corrosion problem of 7000 series alloy can be avoided. The application of typical aluminum alloys on 300 series Shinkansen high speed train is shown in Figure 1. A complete car-body is shown in Figure 2. As is shown, the car-body is mainly composed of extruded section.
Figure 1.
Application of aluminum alloys on car-body of Shinkansen 300 series high speed train.
Figure 2.
Typical car-body of high speed train made of aluminum alloy.
The car-body can be easily welded automatically with through - length welds, as shown in Figure 3. The aluminum section profiles can be designed according to the section structure of the car-body, as shown in Figure 4. Typical extruded section profiles for high speed train are shown in Figure 5.
Figure 3.
Typical sidewall of high speed train composed of extruded sections.
Figure 4.
Part of a section structure of high speed train car-body.
Figure 5.
Typical extruded section profiles for high speed train.
However, when it comes to the head car, the structure is quite different. In order to achieve optimal aerodynamic performance running at high speed, a streamlined design was given to the head car, as shown in Figure 6. This unique shape make the it impossible to manufacture with relatively regular and straight sections. Therefore, beam and slab structure became the optimum option for head car. As shown in Figure 7, a framework is designed based on the requirement for stiffness and strength to support the front skin against plastic deformation. It is welded with hundreds of beam made of aluminum plates prior to skin fixation. Afterwards, the skin is divided into small pieces based on the principle of good workability. Each piece is deformed to specific shape based on the design profile. Then the piece is fixed on the framework one after another, shown in Figure 8.
Figure 6.
Streamlined head car of CRH 380A high speed train.
Figure 7.
Internal structure of the head car of high speed train.
Figure 8.
Head car of high speed train.
4.2 Gear box
For further reduction of the weight of the train, it is obviously not enough by reducing the weight of the car-body because the car-body accounts for only about 20% of the total mass of the train. Key components of bogie including traction motor, wheelsets, frame and braking system attracted attention of proponents of lightweighting. The lightweighting of gear box can help to reduce unsprung mass and wear or damage to rail. In this part, the application of aluminum alloy on gear box is introduced.
Gear box of high speed train is manufactured by casting aluminum rather than wrought alloy due to complex and unequal thickness. Low pressure casting is widely used in non-ferrous alloy casting because of its high feeding pressure and temperature gradient and stable filling, which can effectively improve the density of castings and product yield.
AlSi7MgA and AlCu4Ti are commonly used as casting materials for gear box due to good flowability, low thermal expansivity and shrinking percentage. Typical aluminum gear boxes on CRH series high speed train are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Typical aluminum gear boxes on CRH series high speed train.
4.3 Axle box
Axle box is one of the important bearing parts of trian bogie and transfer joint of motion. The left axle box part is installed on the axle journal through a rolling bearing, and the right swivel arm is connected with the positioning swivel seat on the frame through an elastic node. When the train is running, axle box bears the action of vertical force, longitudinal force and transverse force.Therefore, the bearing condition of the axle box body is complex, and its structure and performance stability are very important for the safe operation of the train. 7050 aluminum alloy forgings shows high strength and toughness, which can significantly reduce unsprung weight. The weight of forged aluminum product decrease 62.5% as compared to the traditional carbon steel one. Therefore, forging aluminum alloy axle box is widely used on high-speed train. 3D model of an aluminum alloy axle box is shown in Figure 10. A typical finished aluminum alloy axle box of highspeed train is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 10.
3D model of an aluminum alloy axle box.
Figure 11.
Finished aluminum alloy axle box of high-speed train.
5. Key manufacturing techniques
The engineering application of aluminum alloy in the field of rail transportation encounter a series of challenges, which promote the development of a series of key manufacturing techniques including casting, forming welding and anti-corrosion processes.
5.1 Casting
Casting is an important process for the manufacture of complex structures such as gear box. The main challenges of gearbox casting process are as follows:
Ensure there is no cold partition, porosity and other defects in the thin-walled area, so as to meet the requirements of casting appearance quality.
Ensure there is no excessive shrinkage porosity, shrinkage cavity and other defects on the box surface, flange, hanging and other key parts, so as to meet the internal quality requirements of castings radiographic inspection.
Ensure a high requirements for machining surface pinhole and non-machining surface, especially for aluminum alloy castings that are easy to produce pinhole defects.
In the production of aluminum alloy gearbox for high-speed EMU, the common casting defects include porosity, pinhole and shrinkage cavity.
In order to eliminate those pores, two measures need to be taken on the premise of controlling the air production content of molding sand. Firstly, the venting near the inner runner and riser should be improved by opening more air hole and hollowing out the loam core of the outer molding. Secondly, thickness of the coating should be guaranteed to decrease surface void on the sand (core) by using coating with high thermal conductivity such as zircon powder. The filling pressure and holding pressure are increased appropriately, so as to increase the resistance of gas entering the metal liquid.
The key of eliminating pinhole mainly relies on the control of hydrogen content in liquid aluminum. The refining process can reduce the oxidation inclusion and hydrogen content in liquid aluminum, and thus effectively reduce pinhole forming tendency.
Regarding to shrinkage cavity at the top of gear box, it is proved effective by simulating the solidification process with MAGMAsoft. Chilling block and riser locating can be optimized to ensure the feeding channel of the top riser unblocked under reasonable temperature distribution.
5.2 Forming process
There are four different technologies available to manufacture the front skin panels of the head car. The most commonly used one is the hammer press where a hammer machine is used conveniently to produce the target shapes. However, the dimensional tolerance of the produced product heavily depends on the worker’s experience. After installing the panels on the structural frame, any further modifications of the geometrical features can only be completed by using the hand tools such as hammer. Such a manual process renders the high repeatability of manufactured components almost impossible. The second technique is the expanding-stretching process. It is applicable for the panels with curved profile but only to a certain extent. Additionally, the rotating press machine, which mainly aims for manufacturing a panel with small and uniform curvature, is used, while a process called mould press that uses mould to produce the target shape is employed for the panel with complicated and small curvature.
As shown in Figure 12, the front skin of a typical CRH 380A high speed train is divided into around 70 small pieces which are joined together through a total of 170 meters long welding line. As the length of each panel is limited to only 1 meter, the manufacturing process becomes time consuming and low efficient for producing a considerable amount of small components. The product quality of the front panel is also compromised due to the increased residual stress resulted from the uneconomical and complicated assembling process.
Figure 12.
Front panel of CRH 380A high speed train.
In order to ensure the assembly precision of each piece, a commercial finite element analysis simulating the skin drawing and springback process based on flexible multi-point die is necessary. In order to improve the computational efficiency and obtain satisfactory computational accuracy, the dynamic explicit algorithm is used to simulate the drawing process, and the static implicit algorithm is used to calculate the springback. Figure 13 shows the Distribution of MISES stress and equivalent plastic strain for forming of a single piece. The forming process is developed based on the simulation results which can save experimental time and improve adaptability to different products, shown in Figure 14.
Figure 13.
Distribution of MISES stress and equivalent plastic strain for forming of a single piece.
Figure 14.
Skin drawing based on flexible multi-point die.
5.3 Welding
Due to special thermal physical properties and welding characteristics of aluminum alloy, such as low melting point, thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity and the expansion and shrinkage, high content of alloy elements as compared to carbon steel and stainless steel [5, 6], it is much more easily to produce pores, crack, lack of penetration, incomplete fusion, large welding deformation, bite edge and slag when aluminum alloys are welded. The assembly precision, quality and performance can be severely affected by welding process. Therefore, the welding process is quite crucial in the manufacture of high speed train.
The following aspects should be considered as the basis of selecting welding method:
Aluminum alloy is coated with a dense oxide film which can easily adsorb moisture and bring hydrogen to molten pool. The aluminum can also become oxidate slag existing in the weld which affecting the performance. Therefore, it is very important to remove the oxide on the base metal and groove surface of aluminum alloy before welding.
The thermal conductivity of aluminum alloy is five times that of low carbon steel. High power or energy concentrated welding heat source should be a preferential option. And preheating is necessary for thick plate welding.
The thermal expansion coefficient and cooling shrinkage rate of aluminum alloy are two times that of steel. Therefore, aluminum alloy melting welding deformation is serious. Deformation control measures such as reverse deformation and reinforcement constraint should be considered.
Aluminum alloy material has different kinds of alloying elements, and the loss of alloying elements during fusion welding is easy to lead to the decrease of joint strength and corrosion resistance, and the weld metal and heat affected zone are easy to produce intergranular cracks. Cracking susceptibility should be considered.
In this section, three typical welding processes which are widely used in manufacturing process of high speed train are introduced.
5.3.1 Arc welding MIG
Pulse MIG welding is the most widely used and developed method of aluminum alloy welding which is characterized by large thermal power, high linear energy, good energy concentration and good protection effect. The above features are suitable for welding aluminum alloy based on its unique thermal physical properties. Pulsed MIG welding can be used to control wire melting and droplet transition, improve arc stability and achieve droplet jet transition with small average current, thus suitable for all-position welding.
Considering the cathodic atomization effect of MIG welding on removing aluminum oxide film, DCEP (Direct Current Electrode Positive) is commonly used for pulse MIG welding. Semi-automatic pulse MIG welding are fit for irregular short welds while regular long straight welds are usually automatically MIG welded with laser tracking, shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15.
Automatically MIG welding process.
Typical defect includes poor formability, burning through, excessive penetration, cracking, pore and slag, as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16.
Typical defect in aluminum alloy weld.
5.3.2 FSW welding
In addition to the traditional MIG welding, friction stir welding(FSW) has been widely used. This process and MIG welding process are not compatible on the design groove. Groove designed according to MIG welding process cannot be used for friction stir welding, so the promotion of this technology is subject to certain restrictions. However, FSW shows unique advantages as follows:
Low manufacture cost. No consumable welding materials, such as electrode, wire, flux and protective gas, are required during the welding process. Welding stirring head is the only consumption. It is not necessary to remove the oxide film before welding, which reduce cleaning time and improve production efficiency.
Good welding quality. The temperature of friction stir welding is relatively low, so the microstructure change of the heat affected zone is negligible, and the residual stress is low leading to a low deformation. The joint efficiency is high as compared to MIG weld.
Environment-friendly. The welding process is safe. There is no pollution, no smoke, no radiation, etc.
Less energy consumption. Because friction stir welding solely depends on the welding head rotation and movement, it saves more energy than fusion welding or even conventional friction welding.
High welding efficiency. It can complete the welding of long weld, large section and different position at one time.
The above advantages promote its application in rail transportation field, shown in Figure 17. It can be seen that FSW showed flat weld than MIG which requires little post-processing (Figure 18).
Figure 17.
FSW process of a sleeper beam.
Figure 18.
A comparison between MIG and FSW welds.
The defects in friction stir welding joints mainly include holes, unwelded joints, flaps and grooves. Defects are mainly caused by the fact that in the welding process, different parts of the weld metal have undergone different thermomechanical processes, and thus bring overheating or insufficient flow of plastic materials. The top of the weld is subjected to the strong friction and stirring effect of the stirring needle and the shaft shoulder at the same time, even if the welding speed is very high or the stirring head speed is not high enough, it can still ensure a certain heat input and form a defect free connection; In the middle of the weld, the heat input is less than the top, but the heat output is also less than the top and bottom, so the total heat absorption is greater than the top and bottom, and the material softening degree is the highest. The heat input at the bottom of the welding seam is the least and the output is the largest. so the welding defects will appear at the bottom of the welding seam when the process parameters are not properly selected or the size of the welding tool is not appropriate.
5.3.3 Laser-MIG welding
Laser-MIG welding is a new welding technology, which has a wide development prospect. The laser -MIG hybrid welding technology combines the laser welding technology and MIG welding technology organically, which overcomes each other\'s shortcomings, and thus favor to obtain high quality welding joint.
Laser -MIG welding uses both laser beam and arc, which has the characteristics of high welding speed, stable welding process, high thermal efficiency and allowing greater welding assembly clearance. The laser -MIG welding pool is smaller than that of MIG welding. As compared to MIG welding, laser-MIG welding shows lower heat input, smaller heat affected zone and smaller work deformation.
Based on the characteristics of concentrated heat source, strong penetration and arc wire filling welding, a new design of joint and groove of laser-MIG hybrid welding was carried out through experimental optimization and verification. Compared with the traditional MIG welding, the upper groove angle is smaller, the depth is smaller for laser-MIG hybrid welding.
The wide application range and high efficiency of laser-MIG welding enhance its competitiveness in terms of investment cost, reduced production time, reduced production cost and improved productivity. Currently It is in the stage of small-scale application in the manufacture of high speed train and relevant component, shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19.
Lase-MIG weld machine for roof of aluminum car-body of high speed train.
Figure 20 shows a comparison between MIG and laser-MIG hybrid welds. The laser-MIG hybrid welds is flat which reflect a good formability.
Figure 20.
A comparison between MIG and laser-MIG hybrid welds.
Figure 21.
Coated outer surface and internal surface of aluminum car-body.
5.4 Anti-corrosion process
The increasing operation speed of train make it experience the baptism of different environments within hours. The environmental change is quite complex when the train goes from inland to coastal cities, from high to low latitudes, from low to high altitude. The weather may change dramatically from sunny to rainy. The temperature may change from subzero to 40°C, The humidity may change from very dry to very damp (~100%). The air may change from fresh and clean to polluted. It may contain dust, oxysulfide, oxynitride, or chloridion. These ingredients would lead to corrosion to aluminum alloy which is detrimental to the safety and long-term reliability of the train, especially when it’s running at speed higher than 200 km/h.
As is known, aluminum shows good corrosion performance since it can form passive film in atmosphere. However, the corrosion resistance is also threatened by alloying elements and aggressive environmental factors. Pitting, galvanic and stress corrosion are common types of corrosion for engineering structure made of aluminum used in atmospheric environment.
For rail vehicle, an organic coating system is used to protect aluminum against corrosion. In order to deal with different environments, the coating system for outer surface is different from internal surface. The outer coating system is used to fight against harsh natural environment while the internal coating tackle the condensing water and leaking water from washing room. Therefore, it has higher requirement for the outer coating system. It needs to be evaluated by a series of accelerated corrosion test including salt spray test, damp heat test and high-low temperature test. The outer coating system consists of sand blasting pretreatment, epoxy primer, polyurethane putty, polyurethane interlayer, polyurethane finishing coat and varnish. The internal coating system consists of cleaning, etch coating, rust inhibiting primer and polyurethane top-coat. In case aluminum component joints with other alloys, a surface pre-treatment accompanied by rust inhibiting primer is necessary to ensure physical isolation from each other and against galvanic corrosion (Figure 21).
6. Conclusion
In this chapter, the latest applications of aluminum alloys in rail transportation field is introduced. The typical high-strength aluminum alloys used on high speed train was illustrated combined with the unique characteristics of aluminum alloys. The detailed application on key part of rail vehicle including car-body, gear box and axle box tie rod, were introduced. The main challenges and engineering experience were also mentioned. The key manufacturing techniques, such as casting, forming, welding, and anti-corrosion were analyzed. Hopefully, the chapter can promote the development and application of advanced materials, especially aluminum alloy, and continuously contribute to sustainable development of human civilization through technological innovation.
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank Mr. LIU Xuezhi, Mr. ZHANG Shilei and Mr. LI Shuaizhen from CRRC Qingdao Sifang Co., Ltd for providing figures of the chapter.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest regarding to the content of this chapter.
\n',keywords:"aluminum alloy, application, rail transportation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75650.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75650.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75650",totalDownloads:344,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 27th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 5th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 31st 2021",datePublished:"October 6th 2021",dateFinished:"March 10th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter focus on the latest applications of aluminum alloys in rail transportation field. The typical high-strength aluminum alloys used on high speed train is introduced. The unique properties of aluminum alloys are analyzed. The detailed application is illustrated including car-body, gear box and axle box tie rod. The main challenges encountered in the application are also mentioned. The key manufacturing techniques, such as casting, forming, welding, are analyzed. Finally, the future improvement directions for better application is summarized. It is expected to set up a bridge for materials providers, equipment manufacturers and end-users, thereby promoting the advance of manufacturing technology and application of aluminum alloys in wider fields.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75650",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75650",signatures:"Xiaoguang Sun, Xiaohui Han, Chaofang Dong and Xiaogang Li",book:{id:"9912",type:"book",title:"Advanced Aluminium Composites and Alloys",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Aluminium Composites and Alloys",slug:"advanced-aluminium-composites-and-alloys",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",bookSignature:"Leszek A. Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9912.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-451-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-450-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-456-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"320275",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoguang",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiaoguang Sun",slug:"xiaoguang-sun",email:"sunxg_sf@126.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Science and Technology Beijing",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"346573",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Xiaogang Li",slug:"xiaogang-li",email:"Lixiaogang99@263.net",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Science and Technology Beijing",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"346574",title:"Prof.",name:"Chaofang",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",fullName:"Chaofang Dong",slug:"chaofang-dong",email:"cfdong@ustb.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Science and Technology Beijing",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Characteristics of aluminum alloy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Typical aluminum alloys and their properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Detailed application",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Car-body",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Gear box",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Axle box",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Key manufacturing techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1 Casting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.2 Forming process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.3 Welding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"5.3.1 Arc welding MIG",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"5.3.2 FSW welding",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"5.3.3 Laser-MIG welding",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.4 Anti-corrosion process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kawajiri, K.; Kobayashi, M.; Sakamoto, K., Lightweight materials equal lightweight greenhouse gas emissions?: A historical analysis of greenhouse gases of vehicle material substitution. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020;253:119805. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119805'},{id:"B2",body:'Ashkenazi, D., How aluminum changed the world: A metallurgical revolution through technological and cultural perspectives. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 2019; 143: 101-113. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.03.011'},{id:"B3",body:'GB/T 32182-2015 Aluminium and aluminium alloy plates and sheets for railway application'},{id:"B4",body:'GB/T 26494-2011 Aluminium alloys extruded profiles used for structural material of railway vehicle carbodies'},{id:"B5",body:'Mallick, P. K., Designing lightweight vehicle body. In Materials, Design and Manufacturing for Lightweight Vehicles, 2021; pp 405-432'},{id:"B6",body:'Mallick, P. K., Joining for lightweight vehicles. In Materials, Design and Manufacturing for Lightweight Vehicles, 2021; pp 321-371'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Xiaoguang Sun",address:"sunx_sf@126.com;, sunxiaoguang@ustb.edu.cn",affiliation:'
CRRC Qingdao Sifang Co., Ltd, China
Corrosion and Protection Center, University of Science and Technology Beijing, China
Corrosion and Protection Center, University of Science and Technology Beijing, China
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
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In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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The IntechOpen timeline
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2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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\\n\\n
2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"300",title:"Genesiology",slug:"genesiology",parent:{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:73,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:34,numberOfDimensionsCitations:79,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"300",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5105",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25cd16b683d1f098bc304cbbdb3206cd",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",bookSignature:"Rita Payan Carreira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5105.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"49736",doi:"10.5772/62053",title:"Chromosome Abnormalities in Domestic Animals as Causes of Disorders of Sex Development or Impaired Fertility",slug:"chromosome-abnormalities-in-domestic-animals-as-causes-of-disorders-of-sex-development-or-impaired-f",totalDownloads:4132,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Cytogenetic evaluation is an important step in the diagnosis of infertile or sterile animals. Moreover, the analysis of sex chromosomes is crucial for a proper classification of disorders of sex development (DSD). For many years, chromosome studies mainly addressed the livestock species, while recently, increasing interest in such analysis in companion animals is observed. New molecular and cytogenetic tools and techniques have given opportunities for a precise identification of chromosome mutations. Among them, fluorescence in situ hybridization, besides chromosome banding, has become a gold standard. In this chapter, recent advances in the cytogenetic diagnosis of cattle, pigs, horses, dogs and cats are presented.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Izabela Szczerbal and Marek Switonski",authors:[{id:"177030",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Switonski",slug:"marek-switonski",fullName:"Marek Switonski"},{id:"177045",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Szczerbal",slug:"izabela-szczerbal",fullName:"Izabela Szczerbal"}]},{id:"49857",doi:"10.5772/62207",title:"Germ Cell Determinant Transmission, Segregation, and Function in the Zebrafish Embryo",slug:"germ-cell-determinant-transmission-segregation-and-function-in-the-zebrafish-embryo",totalDownloads:2278,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Animals specify primordial germ cells (PGCs) in two alternate modes: preformation and epigenesis. Epigenesis relies on signal transduction from the surrounding tissues to instruct a group of cells to acquire PGC identity. Preformation, thought to be the more derived PGC specification mode, is instead based on the maternal inheritance of germ cell-determining factors. We use the zebrafish as a model system, in which PGCs are specified through maternal inheritance of germ plasm, to study this process in vertebrates. In zebrafish, maternally inherited germ plasm ribonucleoparticles (RNPs) have co-opted the cytoskeletal machinery to reach progressive levels of multimerization, resulting in the formation of four large masses of aggregated germ plasm RNPs. At later stages, germ plasm masses continue to use components of the cell division machinery, such as the spindles, centrosomes, and/or subcellular organelles to segregate asymmetrically during cell division and subsequently induce germ cell fate. This chapter discusses the current knowledge of germ cell specification focusing on the zebrafish as a model system. We also provide a comparative analysis of the mechanism for germ plasm RNP segregation in zebrafish versus other known vertebrate systems of germ cell preformation, such as in amphibian and avian models.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Celeste Eno and Francisco Pelegri",authors:[{id:"177209",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Pelegri",slug:"francisco-pelegri",fullName:"Francisco Pelegri"}]},{id:"62171",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79106",title:"Intraoviductal Instillation of a Solution as an Effective Route for Manipulating Preimplantation Mammalian Embryos in vivo",slug:"intraoviductal-instillation-of-a-solution-as-an-effective-route-for-manipulating-preimplantation-mam",totalDownloads:1124,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Preimplantation embryos of mammals are enclosed by a translucent layer called zona pellucida (ZP), which is composed of glycoproteins. ZP is important for protecting against infection by virus and bacteria, and to prevent attachment of embryos to the oviductal epithelia. Due to the presence of ZP, it has been difficult to transfect preimplantation embryos existing within the oviductal lumen, with exogenous nucleic acids, such as DNA and mRNA. However, intraoviductal instillation of nucleic acids, and subsequent in vivo electroporation in pregnant females, enables transfection of these embryos, leading to the production of gene-modified animals. This new method for production of genetically modified animals does not require any ex vivo handling of embryos, which has been essential for traditional transgenesis. In this article, we describe recent advances in the in vivo transfection of preimplantation mammalian embryos, and also the possibility of simple transfection of these embryos through intraoviductal instillation of a solution, alone.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Masahiro Sato, Masato Ohtsuka and Shingo Nakamura",authors:[{id:"177440",title:"Dr.",name:"Masato",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtsuka",slug:"masato-ohtsuka",fullName:"Masato Ohtsuka"},{id:"177444",title:"Dr.",name:"Shingo",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",slug:"shingo-nakamura",fullName:"Shingo Nakamura"},{id:"245795",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"masahiro-sato",fullName:"Masahiro Sato"}]},{id:"50061",doi:"10.5772/62470",title:"Sperm Motility Regulatory Proteins: A Tool to Enhance Sperm Quality",slug:"sperm-motility-regulatory-proteins-a-tool-to-enhance-sperm-quality",totalDownloads:2126,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Sperm forward motility is an essential parameter in mammalian fertilization. Studies from our laboratory have identified and characterized a few unique sperm motility regulatory proteins/glycoproteins from the male reproductive fluids and mammalian blood serum. The purified sperm motility-initiating protein (MIP) from caprine epididymal plasma as well as the forward motility-stimulating factor (FMSF) and motility-stimulating protein (MSP) from buffalo and goat serum, respectively, have high efficacy to initiate or increase motility in nonmotile or less motile sperm. Antibody of sperm motility inhibitory factor (MIF-II) has the high potential to enhance sperm vertical velocity and forward motility by increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) level. The appearance and disappearance of D-galactose–specific lectin and its receptor along the epididymis has been reported to be involved in motility regulation in spermatozoa. A novel synthetic cryopreservation method and role of lipid to protect membrane damage during cryopreservation have been demonstrated. Motility-promoting proteins may be extremely useful for improving cattle breeding and breeding of endangered species, thereby helping in enhanced production of animal products as well as in the conservation of animals. Isolated proteins and developed cryopreservation technology may also be beneficial in human infertility clinics to increase the chance of fertilization.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Sandhya R. Dungdung, Arpita Bhoumik, Sudipta Saha, Prasanta\nGhosh, Kaushik Das, Sandipan Mukherjee, Debjani Nath, Jitamanyu\nChakrabarty, Chanakyanath Kundu, Bijay Shankar Jaiswal, Mahitosh\nMandal, Arunima Maiti, Saswati Banerjee, Madhumita\nRoychowdhury, Debleena Ray, Debdas Bhattacharyya and Gopal C.\nMajumder",authors:[{id:"50052",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahitosh",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"mahitosh-mandal",fullName:"Mahitosh Mandal"},{id:"177044",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandhya",middleName:null,surname:"Dungdung",slug:"sandhya-dungdung",fullName:"Sandhya Dungdung"},{id:"177920",title:"Dr.",name:"Arpita",middleName:null,surname:"Bhoumik",slug:"arpita-bhoumik",fullName:"Arpita Bhoumik"},{id:"177921",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipta",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"sudipta-saha",fullName:"Sudipta Saha"},{id:"177922",title:"MSc.",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prasanta-ghosh",fullName:"Prasanta Ghosh"},{id:"177923",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaushik",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"kaushik-das",fullName:"Kaushik Das"},{id:"177924",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandipan",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"sandipan-mukherjee",fullName:"Sandipan Mukherjee"},{id:"177925",title:"Dr.",name:"Debjani",middleName:null,surname:"Nath",slug:"debjani-nath",fullName:"Debjani Nath"},{id:"177927",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitamanyu",middleName:null,surname:"Chakrabarty",slug:"jitamanyu-chakrabarty",fullName:"Jitamanyu Chakrabarty"},{id:"177928",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanakyanath",middleName:null,surname:"Kundu",slug:"chanakyanath-kundu",fullName:"Chanakyanath Kundu"},{id:"177929",title:"Dr.",name:"Bijay Shankar",middleName:null,surname:"Jaiswal",slug:"bijay-shankar-jaiswal",fullName:"Bijay Shankar Jaiswal"},{id:"177930",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunima",middleName:null,surname:"Maiti",slug:"arunima-maiti",fullName:"Arunima Maiti"},{id:"177931",title:"Dr.",name:"Saswati",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",slug:"saswati-banerjee",fullName:"Saswati Banerjee"},{id:"177932",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhumita",middleName:null,surname:"Roychowdhury",slug:"madhumita-roychowdhury",fullName:"Madhumita Roychowdhury"},{id:"177933",title:"MSc.",name:"Debleena",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"debleena-ray",fullName:"Debleena Ray"},{id:"177934",title:"Dr.",name:"Debdas",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"debdas-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Debdas Bhattacharyya"},{id:"177935",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Majumder",slug:"gopal-chandra-majumder",fullName:"Gopal Chandra Majumder"}]},{id:"63404",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80229",title:"Subclinical Endometritis in Dairy Cattle",slug:"subclinical-endometritis-in-dairy-cattle",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Subclinical endometritis is recognized as a cause of poor reproductive performance in dairy cows. Inflammation of the endometrium persisting after postpartum uterine involution has been related with prolonged calving-conception intervals and low fertility in dairy cows. The subclinical nature of this condition makes it necessary in the use of endometrial cytology or biopsy for diagnosing it. There are some controversies among authors in relation to the postpartum period from which a physiological endometrial inflammation should be considered a pathological subclinical endometritis. Therefore, depending on the sampling period after calving, different studies establish a different degree of polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration as cutoff point to diagnose subclinical endometritis. Controversies also exist regarding the pathogenesis of the disease and its consequences on the fertility of dairy cattle. The aim of this chapter was to review the current knowledge on this uterine pathology.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias, Marcos Vigo Fernández, Juan José\nBecerra González, Mónica Barrio López, Pedro José García Herradón\nand Ana Isabel Peña Martínez",authors:[{id:"243272",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Quintela Arias",slug:"luis-angel-quintela-arias",fullName:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias"},{id:"243886",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Peña Martínez",slug:"ana-isabel-pena-martinez",fullName:"Ana Isabel Peña Martínez"},{id:"243887",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Herradón",slug:"pedro-garcia-herradon",fullName:"Pedro García Herradón"},{id:"243888",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Becerra González",slug:"juan-jose-becerra-gonzalez",fullName:"Juan José Becerra González"},{id:"256852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Barrio López",slug:"monica-barrio-lopez",fullName:"Mónica Barrio López"},{id:"256854",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Vigo Fernández",slug:"marcos-vigo-fernandez",fullName:"Marcos Vigo Fernández"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49736",title:"Chromosome Abnormalities in Domestic Animals as Causes of Disorders of Sex Development or Impaired Fertility",slug:"chromosome-abnormalities-in-domestic-animals-as-causes-of-disorders-of-sex-development-or-impaired-f",totalDownloads:4132,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Cytogenetic evaluation is an important step in the diagnosis of infertile or sterile animals. Moreover, the analysis of sex chromosomes is crucial for a proper classification of disorders of sex development (DSD). For many years, chromosome studies mainly addressed the livestock species, while recently, increasing interest in such analysis in companion animals is observed. New molecular and cytogenetic tools and techniques have given opportunities for a precise identification of chromosome mutations. Among them, fluorescence in situ hybridization, besides chromosome banding, has become a gold standard. In this chapter, recent advances in the cytogenetic diagnosis of cattle, pigs, horses, dogs and cats are presented.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Izabela Szczerbal and Marek Switonski",authors:[{id:"177030",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Switonski",slug:"marek-switonski",fullName:"Marek Switonski"},{id:"177045",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Szczerbal",slug:"izabela-szczerbal",fullName:"Izabela Szczerbal"}]},{id:"50144",title:"Proliferative Endometrial Lesions Hidden behind the Feline Pyometra",slug:"proliferative-endometrial-lesions-hidden-behind-the-feline-pyometra",totalDownloads:2456,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The literature refers to pyometra as the most important pathology in the feline uterus, which is often associated with cystic endometrial disease (cystic endometrial hyperplasia/pyometra complex or CEH-Pyo). The etiology of pyometra is complex and probably multifactorial, but hormonal influences are suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis. Progestagen-based contraceptives may be risk factors for the CEH-Pyo syndrome, for endometrial adenocarcinoma and also to mammary tumors in this species.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Maria dos Anjos Pires, Hugo Vilhena, Sónia Miranda, Miguel\nTavares Pereira, Fernanda Seixas and Ana Laura Saraiva",authors:[{id:"41065",title:"Dr.",name:"Sónia",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda",slug:"sonia-miranda",fullName:"Sónia Miranda"},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires"},{id:"179547",title:"MSc.",name:"Hugo",middleName:null,surname:"Vilhena",slug:"hugo-vilhena",fullName:"Hugo Vilhena"},{id:"179548",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares Pereira",slug:"miguel-tavares-pereira",fullName:"Miguel Tavares Pereira"},{id:"179549",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Seixas",slug:"fernanda-seixas",fullName:"Fernanda Seixas"},{id:"179550",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Saraiva",slug:"ana-laura-saraiva",fullName:"Ana Laura Saraiva"}]},{id:"49944",title:"The Use of Reproductive Technologies to Produce Transgenic Goats",slug:"the-use-of-reproductive-technologies-to-produce-transgenic-goats",totalDownloads:2411,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized the production of therapeutic proteins. Thus, genes of a great number of human proteins have already been identified and cloned. The use of farm animals as bioreactors may be the better choice to produce recombinant therapeutic proteins. For this activity, the term “pharming” was created, referring to the use of genetic engineering to obtain a transgenic or genetically modified animal. Considering the advantages and disadvantages of livestock species, goats appear as a very good model. In addition, the first human commercially approved biological drug (antithrombin (AT)) was produced from the milk of transgenic goats. The aim of this chapter is to present various reproductive technologies used to obtain transgenic goats secreting recombinant proteins in milk. Initially, this chapter presents the methods for embryo production (in vivo and in vitro) to realize the DNA microinjection in pronuclear embryos. Thus, the techniques of superovulation of donors (in vivo embryo production) and ovarian stimulation for oocyte recovery (in vitro embryo production) are described. Also, the methods for DNA microinjection and embryo transfer are detailed in this chapter. Finally, this chapter describes the reproductive procedures used for obtaining transgenic goats by cloning.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Vicente J. F. Freitas, Luciana M. Melo, Dárcio I.A. Teixeira, Maajid H.\nBhat, Irina A. Serova, Lyudmila E. Andreeva and Oleg L. Serov",authors:[{id:"177122",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",slug:"vicente-freitas",fullName:"Vicente Freitas"},{id:"177194",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",slug:"luciana-melo",fullName:"Luciana Melo"},{id:"177195",title:"Dr.",name:"Dárcio",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",slug:"darcio-teixeira",fullName:"Dárcio Teixeira"},{id:"177196",title:"Dr.",name:"Maajid",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"maajid-bhat",fullName:"Maajid Bhat"},{id:"185365",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Aleksandrovna SEROVA",slug:"irina-aleksandrovna-serova",fullName:"Irina Aleksandrovna SEROVA"},{id:"185366",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyudmila",middleName:null,surname:"Evgenievna ANDREEVA",slug:"lyudmila-evgenievna-andreeva",fullName:"Lyudmila Evgenievna ANDREEVA"},{id:"185367",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Leonidovich SEROV",slug:"oleg-leonidovich-serov",fullName:"Oleg Leonidovich SEROV"}]},{id:"63404",title:"Subclinical Endometritis in Dairy Cattle",slug:"subclinical-endometritis-in-dairy-cattle",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Subclinical endometritis is recognized as a cause of poor reproductive performance in dairy cows. Inflammation of the endometrium persisting after postpartum uterine involution has been related with prolonged calving-conception intervals and low fertility in dairy cows. The subclinical nature of this condition makes it necessary in the use of endometrial cytology or biopsy for diagnosing it. There are some controversies among authors in relation to the postpartum period from which a physiological endometrial inflammation should be considered a pathological subclinical endometritis. Therefore, depending on the sampling period after calving, different studies establish a different degree of polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration as cutoff point to diagnose subclinical endometritis. Controversies also exist regarding the pathogenesis of the disease and its consequences on the fertility of dairy cattle. The aim of this chapter was to review the current knowledge on this uterine pathology.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias, Marcos Vigo Fernández, Juan José\nBecerra González, Mónica Barrio López, Pedro José García Herradón\nand Ana Isabel Peña Martínez",authors:[{id:"243272",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Quintela Arias",slug:"luis-angel-quintela-arias",fullName:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias"},{id:"243886",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Peña Martínez",slug:"ana-isabel-pena-martinez",fullName:"Ana Isabel Peña Martínez"},{id:"243887",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Herradón",slug:"pedro-garcia-herradon",fullName:"Pedro García Herradón"},{id:"243888",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Becerra González",slug:"juan-jose-becerra-gonzalez",fullName:"Juan José Becerra González"},{id:"256852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Barrio López",slug:"monica-barrio-lopez",fullName:"Mónica Barrio López"},{id:"256854",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Vigo Fernández",slug:"marcos-vigo-fernandez",fullName:"Marcos Vigo Fernández"}]},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:159,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The development in cryobiology in animal breeding had revolutionized the field of reproductive medicine. The main objective to preserve animal germplasm stems from variety of reasons such as conservation of endangered animal species, animal diversity, and an increased demand of animal models and/or genetically modified animals for research involving animal and human diseases. Cryopreservation has emerged as promising technique for fertility preservation and assisted reproduction techniques (ART) for production of animal breeds and genetically engineered animal species for research. Slow rate freezing and rapid freezing/vitrification are the two main methods of cryopreservation. Slow freezing is characterized by the phase transition (liquid turning into solid) when reducing the temperature below freezing point. Vitrification, on the other hand, is a phenomenon in which liquid solidifies without the formation of ice crystals, thus the process is referred to as a glass transition or ice-free cryopreservation. The vitrification protocol applies high concentrations of cryoprotective agents (CPA) used to avoid cryoinjury. This chapter provides a brief overview of fundamentals of cryopreservation and established methods adopted in cryopreservation. Strategies involved in cryopreserving germ cells (sperm and egg freezing) are included in this chapter. Last section describes the frontiers and advancement of cryopreservation in some of the important animal models like rodents (mouse and rats) and in few large animals (sheep, cow etc).",book:{id:"10664",slug:null,title:"Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"300",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:167,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",abstract:"The development in cryobiology in animal breeding had revolutionized the field of reproductive medicine. The main objective to preserve animal germplasm stems from variety of reasons such as conservation of endangered animal species, animal diversity, and an increased demand of animal models and/or genetically modified animals for research involving animal and human diseases. Cryopreservation has emerged as promising technique for fertility preservation and assisted reproduction techniques (ART) for production of animal breeds and genetically engineered animal species for research. Slow rate freezing and rapid freezing/vitrification are the two main methods of cryopreservation. Slow freezing is characterized by the phase transition (liquid turning into solid) when reducing the temperature below freezing point. Vitrification, on the other hand, is a phenomenon in which liquid solidifies without the formation of ice crystals, thus the process is referred to as a glass transition or ice-free cryopreservation. The vitrification protocol applies high concentrations of cryoprotective agents (CPA) used to avoid cryoinjury. This chapter provides a brief overview of fundamentals of cryopreservation and established methods adopted in cryopreservation. Strategies involved in cryopreserving germ cells (sperm and egg freezing) are included in this chapter. Last section describes the frontiers and advancement of cryopreservation in some of the important animal models like rodents (mouse and rats) and in few large animals (sheep, cow etc).",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser"},{id:"79782",title:"Avian Reproduction",slug:"avian-reproduction",totalDownloads:151,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101185",abstract:"There are about 10,400 living avian species belonging to the class Aves, characterized by feathers which no other animal classes possess and are warm-blooded vertebrates with four-chamber heart. They have excellent vision, and their forelimbs are modified into wings for flight or swimming, though not all can fly or swim. They lay hard-shelled eggs which are a secretory product of the reproductive system that vary greatly in colour, shape and size, and the bigger the bird, the bigger the egg. Since domestication, avian species have been basically reared for eggs, meat, pleasure and research. They reproduce sexually with the spermatozoa being homogametic and carry Z-bearing chromosomes, and the blastodisk carries either Z-bearing or W-bearing chromosomes, hence, the female is heterogametic, and thus, determines the sex of the offspring. The paired testes produce spermatozoa, sex hormones and the single ovary (with a few exceptions) produces yolk bearing the blastodisk and sex hormones. Both testis and ovary are the primary sex organs involved in sexual characteristics development in avian. In avian reproduction, there must be mating for fertile egg that must be incubated to produce the young ones. At hatch, hatchling sex is identified and reared to meet the aim of the farmer.",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Kingsley Omogiade Idahor"},{id:"78802",title:"Intraovarian Gestation in Viviparous Teleosts: Unique Type of Gestation among Vertebrates",slug:"intraovarian-gestation-in-viviparous-teleosts-unique-type-of-gestation-among-vertebrates",totalDownloads:184,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100267",abstract:"The intraovarian gestation, occurring in teleosts, makes this type of reproduction a such complex and unique condition among vertebrates. This type of gestation of teleosts is expressed in special morphological and physiological characteristic where occurs the viviparity and it is an essential component in the analysis of the evolutionary process of viviparity in vertebrates. In viviparous teleosts, during embryogenesis, there are not development of Müllerian ducts, which form the oviducts in the rest of vertebrates, as a result, exclusively in teleosts, there are not oviducts and the caudal region of the ovary, the gonoduct, connects the ovary to the exterior. The lack of oviducts defines that the embryos develop into the ovary, as intraovarian gestation. The ovary forms the oocytes which may develop different type of oogenesis, according with the storage of diverse amount of yolk, variation observed corresponding to the species. The viviparous gestation is characterized by the possible intimate contact between maternal and embryonic tissues, process that permits their metabolic interchanges. So, the nutrients obtained by the embryos could be deposited in the oocyte before fertilization, contained in the yolk (lecithotrophy), and may be completed during gestation by additional provisioning from maternal tissues to the embryo (matrotrophy). Then, essential requirements for viviparity in poeciliids and goodeids are characterized by: a) the diversification of oogenesis, with the deposition of different amount of yolk in the oocyte; b) the insemination, by the transfer of sperm to the female gonoduct and their transportation from the gonoduct to the germinal region of the ovary where the follicles develop; c) the intrafollicular fertilization; d) the intraovarian gestation with the development of embryos in intrafollicular gestation (as in poeciliids), or intraluminal gestation (as in goodeids); and, e) the origin of embryonic nutrition may be by lecithotrophy and matrotrophy. The focus of this revision compares the general and specific structural characteristics of the viviparity occurring into the intraovarian gestation in teleosts, defining this reproductive strategy, illustrated in this review with histological material in a poeciliid, of the species Poecilia latipinna (Lesueur, 1821) (Poeciliidae), and in a goodeid, of the species Xenotoca eiseni (Rutter, 1896) (Goodeidae).",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Mari-Carmen Uribe, Gabino De la Rosa-Cruz, Adriana García-Alarcón and Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero"},{id:"78617",title:"Doppler Ultrasound in the Reproduction of Mares",slug:"doppler-ultrasound-in-the-reproduction-of-mares",totalDownloads:123,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98951",abstract:"Doppler ultrasonographic (US) is a method that provides real-time information on vascular architecture and hemodynamic aspects of blood vessels. It can determine the presence, direction, and speed of blood flow, being subdivided into the categories of color Doppler (color flow and power flow) and pulsed Doppler. The objective of this chapter was to compile data from several studies addressing the use of US Doppler correlated with pathophysiological phenomena of equine reproduction. Initially we decided to describe the technique, advantages, and disadvantages of each Doppler mode. Then the applicability of US Doppler in mares related to equine reproduction. Thus, within this chapter, you will find the form of use and descriptions of studies carried out on vascular perfusion of the follicular dynamics, the corpus luteum, the uterine segments, which we have divided into post-insemination evaluation, endometritis diagnosis and pregnancy diagnosis. So, we hope that this chapter will expand the knowledge about US Doppler and increase the number of veterinarians who will introduce the technique into their practical routine.",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Camila Silva Costa Ferreira and Rita de Cássia Lima Morais"},{id:"78202",title:"Stimulatory Effects of Androgens on Eel Primary Ovarian Development - from Phenotypes to Genotypes",slug:"stimulatory-effects-of-androgens-on-eel-primary-ovarian-development-from-phenotypes-to-genotypes",totalDownloads:141,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99582",abstract:"Androgens stimulate primary ovarian development in Vertebrate. Japanese eels underwent operation to sample the pre- and post-treated ovarian tissues from the same individual. Ovarian phenotypic or genotypic data were mined in a pair. A correlation between the initial ovarian status (determined by kernel density estimation (KDE), presented as a probability density of oocyte size) and the consequence of androgen (17MT) treatment (change in ovary) has been showed. The initial ovarian status appeared to be important to influence ovarian androgenic sensitivity. The initial ovary was important to the outcomes of androgen treatments, and ePAV (expression presence-absence variation) is existing in Japanese eel by analyze DEGs; core, unique, or accessory genes were identified, the sensitivities of initial ovaries were correlated with their gene expression profiles. We speculated the importance of genetic differential expression on the variations of phenotypes by 17MT, and transcriptomic approach seems to allow extracting multiple layers of genomic data.",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Yung-Sen Huang and Chung-Yen Lin"},{id:"78116",title:"Embryo Transfer",slug:"embryo-transfer",totalDownloads:258,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99683",abstract:"Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) have made tremendous advances, in last years. Artificial insemination is a method for achieving slow genetic progress in populations of animals. Many large and small ruminants are bred by AI, and more than a half million embryos are transferred every year around the world. Most of the ruminants sires used for artificial insemination were derived from embryo transfer. Improvements of reproductive biotechnologies of controlling the estrous cycle and ovulation have resulted in more effective programs for AI, superovulation of donor, and the management of ET. In the ruminants, ET procedure is a timely alternative that can allow good conception rates to be obtained constant in a year. There have been great advances of this biotechnique with on aimed to intensify the genetic progress between generations of farm. The gains is possible with the development of advanced reproductive biotechnique. The best current strategy in applying biotechnology to farmers is to use AI with sexed semen, so farmers will enjoy and benefit. The use of ET together with cryopreserved sexed embryos has a very specific potential for donor replacement and genetic improvement of the herd. In this chapter, procedures of the MOET protocol were described step by step.",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Ștefan Gregore Ciornei"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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