\r\n\tManagement of these disorders requires good clinical evaluation, diagnostic tests, appropriate therapy and huge healthcare cost. Sometimes multiple specialties (gastroenterologists, \r\n\tgastrointestinal motility specialists, otolaryngologists, surgeons, speech therapists, medical oncologists and radiation oncologists) are involved in the management of dysphonia and dysphagia. In the recent years, there have been many updates in the management of these disorders. This book will discuss systematically the different etiologies and management of dysphonia, maxillofacial, oropharyngeal and esophageal dysphagia. This book will be a good \r\n\tguide to the practicing physicians for the management of voice and swallowing disorders.
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1. Introduction
“[E]lections entail the largest mobilization of the national population in a short time span and require the coordination of millions of individuals engaged in hundreds of different activities” ([1], p. 5).
The history of Cameroon is quite colourful. ‘Kamerun’ was a German protectorate from 1884 to 1919, then a League of Nations Mandate following the defeat of Germany in the First World War, and later a United Nations Trust Territory administered by Britain and France respectively [2, 3]. In 1961, the British and French sections of Cameroon were united under a Federal structure [4, 5]. In 1972 the federation dissolved following a referendum and the country became known as the United Republic of Cameroon, and in 1984 the name was changed yet again to the Republic of Cameroon [6, 7, 8, 9].
Unlike some neighbouring states in the Central African sub-Region, post-independence Cameroon enjoyed a relative measure of political stability [8]. Over the last decade however, a number of crises have shattered the myth often propagated by government officials and supporters of the ruling party about Cameroon being an ‘island of peace in tumultuous central Africa.’ Rising insecurity around the Lake Chad basin coupled with an upsurge in cross-border attacks in Northern Cameroon by the Nigerian terrorist group Boko Haram, as well as deadly cross-border incursions by rebels from neighbouring Central African Republic (CAR) in the East Region of the country has greatly undermined peace and security. Meanwhile, the on-going crisis situation in the two English speaking Regions1 which according to the International Crisis Group2 is gradually degenerating into a civil war has further undermined the country’s image as a safe and secure location. This crisis is a direct consequence of the country’s historical trajectory and the form of state that was adopted following unification in 1961.
The unitary approach to the nation-state was the predominant choice of African leaders in the decades following independence. According to ([10], p. 175); “independent Africa chose simply to step into the shoes of departing European powers.” The unitary state was therefore a continuation of the colonial state’s nation-building agenda which was aimed at fusing disparate ethnic and regional groupings into a single entity. At the political level, there was a concerted drive towards one-party systems as the sole vehicle for expressing political diversity [11]. With hindsight, it is generally agreed that this approach to statehood “fostered authoritarianism at the expense of constitutionalism” ([12], p. 1). However, when single-party rule was no longer feasible, and in a bid to survive in office authoritarian rulers adopted multiparty arrangements.
According to ([13], p. 2), “the early 1990s were a time of democratic optimism”. Like most sub-Saharan countries, Cameroon was greatly impacted by the ‘democratic wind of change’ that swept across the African continent in the 1990s [14]. Unlike the others, Cameroon did not descend into anarchy nor was the regime in place swept aside. Instead the regime headed by Cameroon’s second head of state, Paul Biya who succeeded Ahmadou Ahidjo following the latter’s resignation in 1982 reluctantly conceded to the legalisation of political parties and the re-introduction of multiparty elections. ‘Pluralism heightened the political stakes and reinvigorated electoral campaigns, in some cases transforming them into battlegrounds where a number of actors, including politicians, parties, traditional authorities, and ordinary citizens, fought it out, nonetheless, employing every available means including cash, cults and culinary items to gain votes” ([15], p. 2).
Electoral periods in Cameroon therefore involve an impressive mobilisation of human, material and financial resources. Campaigning is marked by rallies, speeches and door-to-door solicitations. Other activities include, distribution of food items and party paraphernalia, as well as vote buying, intimidation, ballot box stuffing etc. At another level, electoral manipulation involves ‘gerrymandering,’ selective voter registration, tempering with the electoral roll and other administrative manoeuvres. At the centre of these activities is a group of people known locally as the political elite. The definition of political elite in the context of this chapter is limited to former and serving government officials (ministers, administrators etc.), national and local level politician’s businessmen and other stakeholders who belong to or are affiliated with the governing Cameroon Peoples Democratic Movement (CPDM) party.
These elites notably the head of state Paul Biya, key cabinet members, government officials, and other politicians have been revolving around the state apparatus since independence in the 1960s. At the receiving end are grassroots populations, who over the years witnessed the political elite appear on the eve of elections and disappear immediately thereafter. However, on occasion, the grassroots are able to see through the mirage which often leaves some members of the political elite licking their wounds and others staring into the abyss. This chapter is based on my experiences of events around the 2013 municipal and legislative elections in Mbankomo an administrative sub-division in the Centre Region of Cameroon. I employed a number of methods including participant observation, document and archival analysis, interviews etc. to unearth and document the complex relationship between grassroots populations, party officials and other high ranking members of the governing CPDM during election periods in Cameroon.
2. Background
As noted in Section 1, this chapter is based on my experiences of the 2013 municipal and legislative elections in Mbankomo in the Centre Region of Cameroon. It all began in July 2013, when the president of Cameroon signed a decree convening the electoral corps. Article (I) stated that an election of Parliamentarians into the National Assembly and Councillors into Municipal Councils would take place on 30 September 2013. This announcement came at a time of renewed optimism in the electoral process following the introduction of biometric registration of voters on the electoral roll. On the one hand, it raised the hopes of many Cameroonians who were aspiring for meaningful political change via the ballot box. On the other hand, it set the ball rolling for a nationwide electoral contest that was full political machinations.
In the period leading up to the elections, I had exchanges with friends, conducted interviews and listened to media conversations and commentaries on the side-lines involving state officials, politicians and ordinary people. The general feeling was that with the advent of the biometric voting system, the electoral process in Cameroon might finally be credible. Many were hopeful that this system sounded the death knell for electoral fraud. People were very enthusiastic about the opportunity to effect real change, something that has eluded them for decades. Expectations of a free and fair election were espoused not only by members of the opposition, but also within the governing CPDM party. In fact some CPDM militants expressed optimism that the biometric voting system would definitively put an end to the negative image of the party as a vote rigging machine [16].
In the run-up to the elections, the chairman of the CPDM prescribed consensus as the method for selecting candidates. As will be discussed later on in this chapter, reaching consensus in many parts of the country was a major challenge not least in Mbankomo where I conducted ethnographic fieldwork for my PhD. The main issue was that grassroots militants who expressed a wish to have certain candidates represent them in the municipality were brazenly thwarted by the party hierarchy.
3. Conceptualising the electoral arena in Cameroon
“For all their structural reliance on ruling parties, electoral authoritarian regimes often show personalistic traits and become deeply identified with the person controlling the chief executive office” ([17], p. 246).
In Cameroon, key members of the governing elite including the head of state have been shuttling around the state apparatus since independence in the 1960s [18]. The longevity of the Biya regime in power cannot be attributed to democratic credentials; rather it is linked to the ability to effectively subvert electoral rules. In fact, the government of Cameroon is renowned for having developed what is termed a ‘sophisticated rigging machinery’ that has ensured continued electoral success for the governing CPDM party in national and local elections since the 1990s [9, 12, 18]. Other than the change of leadership in 1982, there has not been any fundamental alteration in the system of governance in place since independence and reunification in 1960 and 1961 respectively. Effectively, it is a one man show where everything boils down to the head of state. He is the president of the ruling party, the head of the executive, the judiciary, and legislative branches of government; he is also the head of the army, police and other security services. The system is structured such that every action from the highest to the lowest echelons of the state apparatus is carried out on ‘the very high instructions of the head of state.’ Paradoxically, when things go wrong, everyone else but the head of state is blamed.
Meanwhile, the year 2018 is very important in the electoral calendar of Cameroon. A total of 4 elections are scheduled to take place, these include Senatorial, Municipal, Legislative and Presidential elections. Senatorial elections were held in March, 2018 for 70 out of 100 senators, the remaining 30 were appointed by the head of state. The governing CPDM party won 63 seats while the main opposition Social Democratic Front (SDF) party won 7 seats. Going by the results of the senatorial elections, and given that the CPDM party has won every election in the decades following the return to multiparty politics in Cameroon in the 1990s, there is every reason to believe that the party is bound to maintain its tight grip in power.
Having weathered the political liberalisation of the 1990s without a significant threat to its hegemony, the governing elite in Cameroon skilfully combined authoritarian methods and democratic practices to maintain political power. In fact, the present electoral system is skewed in favour of the governing CPDM party which very often enters the electoral arena as strong contenders with very high chances of emerging victorious. This is due largely to what many observers have described as ‘electoral hold-up,’ specifically because the electoral timetable in Cameroon is the sole prerogative of the President who is often referred to by state media as the ‘sole master of the electoral calendar.’
The capacity of the electoral system to sustain the governing regime in Cameroon, and the quest by the government to maintain the status-quo makes it difficult to envisage any meaningful electoral reform that could lay the groundwork for free, fair, transparent and credible elections in the near future. Therefore, the electoral system in Cameroon could be described as a form of electoral authoritarianism whereby the ‘regime fills executive and legislative offices by elections, but the ruling party never loses elections’ ([13], p. 10). Electoral Authoritarianism in this context denotes a number of conditions, the first being that elections in Cameroon are broadly inclusive. In principle municipal, legislative and presidential elections are held regularly, under universal suffrage. The only exception being the Senatorial elections which as noted earlier is held under a two tier system i.e. indirect elections whereby 70% of senators are elected by municipal councillors and the remaining 30% are appointed by the head of state.
Secondly, elections in Cameroon are minimally pluralistic. Following the return to multipartism in the 1990s, opposition parties were allowed to openly compete for elective posts. However, in its design to fractionalise the opposition and weaken its strength, the government sponsored the formation of mushroom parties most of them allied to the governing CPDM. The result is the proliferation of opposition political parties numbering 3053 at the last count. Curiously, some of the mushroom political parties are made up of members of a nuclear family i.e. husband, wife and sometimes the children. The electoral system in Cameroon is therefore set-up such that the “hegemonic party permit other parties to exist but only as second class licensed parties thus foreclosing the possibility of an electoral loss by the hegemonic party” ([19], p. 34).
Thirdly, the political landscape in Cameroon is minimally competitive, i.e. the horde of opposition parties, while denied victory, is allowed to win votes and seats. On the one hand, opposition parties have minuscule representation in the National Assembly, Senate and Municipal Councils; some councils are controlled by the opposition, some are shared with other political parties including the CPDM, but majority of the Municipal Councils are controlled by the CPDM party. On the other hand, “by establishing multiparty elections for the highest office, Electoral Authoritarian regimes institute the concept of popular consent, even as they subvert it in practice” ([13], p. 12). In 1992, the candidate of the main opposition SDF party John Fru Ndi is widely believed to have won the presidential elections, however, the results was declared in favour of the incumbent President Paul Biya by the Supreme Court.
Fourthly, the political system in Cameroon is minimally open i.e. the opposition is not subject to massive repression as was the case during autocratic rule. In fact citizens are actively courted by the governing and opposition parties for votes because they are viewed as the “arbiters of last instance in the electoral arena.” However, when things turn sour particularly when election results are contested, opposition parties and civil society in general regularly experience repressive treatment by the police and military who are used in selective and intermittent ways by government officials as “the arbiters of the last instance over the electoral arena” ([13], p. 19).
The notion of electoral authoritarianism as applied in the context of Cameroon therefore involves the claim that the regime of Paul Biya is ‘neither democratic nor democratising but plainly authoritarian albeit in ways that depart from the forms of authoritarian rule’ that obtained prior to the democratic wind of change in the 1990s [13, 20]. Unlike during authoritarianism where everything boiled down to one-man rule, power in the context of multipartism ideally involves redistribution among those with vested interests such as ‘political parties and other interest groups. Multipartism also involves ‘institutionalised uncertainty’ and the presence of opposition parties that plays the role of ‘the conscience of the executive’ [21].
However, the financial, logistical and organisational limitations of the opposition in Cameroon prevent it from effectively challenging and defeating the governing CPDM through the ballot box. These and other shortcoming also inhibits the opposition from playing the role of ‘the conscience of the executive.’ On its part the executive in seeking to stamp-out any prospects of ‘institutional uncertainty’ in Cameroon governs the country through controlled multiparty elections whereby the CPDM party mobilises voters, and the state apparatus controls the elections. This Janus-faced action is designed to establish a pluralistic system that appears democratic on the surface, but is in reality is falling back to the one man-rule typical of authoritarian regimes.
Despite its overwhelming dominance of the electoral arena in Cameroon, the governing CPDM party sometimes faces unprecedented internal challenges that threaten to tear it apart. The next section of this chapter will analyse a number of events that have occurred over the years between the political elite and grassroots militants. These events play out the vision of the chairman of the party and head of state to create a ‘strong democracy whereby the elite lead the masses’ [22]. Whereas actualising this ‘vision’ might have gone hitch-free during the monolithic era, it is proving to be much more challenging in the era of electoral authoritarianism.
4. Selection of candidates for the municipal and legislative elections
Following the official announcement of elections, the national president of the CPDM party issued a circular letter addressed to all militants in which he outlined the mode of selection of candidates to represent the party in the polls. The circular letter cited Article 23 of the constitution and basic texts of the party, which states that “the nomination of CPDM candidates for the parliamentary and municipal elections will revert to the Central Committee” [23].
The president’s instructions to party militants were not very different from what obtained during authoritarian rule. Then, the political elite did not fail to remind militants seeking elective posts that their ‘investiture’ was thanks to the magnanimity of the party leadership and its illustrious leader, and not to their own efforts or the support of grassroots militants [18]. The circular goes on to state that selection by the central committee of the party will be done in conjunction with militants at the base, and will aim to encourage the emergence of honest and dynamic men, women and youths who can effectively convey to the grassroots the president’s vision of transforming Cameroon into an emerging country by the year 2035. The circular ended with a call for the selection of candidates to be conducted in a spirit of openness, political maturity, objectivity and the quest for consensus [23].
Consensus was therefore a key element in the strategy of the CPDM party to mobilise grassroots militants for the 2013 municipal and legislative elections. As is the norm, the party hierarchy dispatched teams throughout the country to oversee the ‘investiture’ process. These teams were divided into two; one in charge of the municipal elections and another in charge of the legislative elections. Each team included; a president, a vice president, a coordinator, a chargés des missions and members [23]. In the run-up to the elections there was a beehive of activities throughout the country by party officials, administrative authorities and grassroots militants aimed at cementing the dominance of the CPDM party in the electoral arena in Cameroon.
4.1 Pre-electoral manoeuvrings
According to electoral regulations in Cameroon, the convening of the electoral corps effectively puts an end to registration of voters on the electoral list. This also marks the start of overt and covert manoeuvres by political parties to select or elect candidates to compete for various posts. Whereas campaigning officially kicks off 2 weeks before polling day, many observers felt the governing CPDM was already on the campaign trail as far back as 19th May 2011 [24].
In his traditional annual speech delivered on the eve of national day celebrated every 20th May, the head of state announced the issuing of national identity (ID) cards cost-free to all eligible Cameroonians. Similarly, he ordered the extension of the process a couple of months later in his usual end of year speech for 2012 [25]. The official reason advanced for this move was to accelerate the registration of voters on the electoral lists, which was lagging ever since the process was announced in early 2011. In Cameroon, the ID card not only contains details (name, sex, date of birth, place of birth, etc.) of the bearer, but is essential for all official transactions. It is scrupulously controlled by security forces stationed along make-shift checkpoints on roads throughout the country.
The ID card is also an essential document for voter registration. However, inscription into the electoral register has been on a steady decline in the decades following the return to multiparty politics in the 1990s. Voter apathy is largely blamed on electoral fraud and a general feeling among many Cameroonians that the electoral process is fundamentally flawed to the point where change cannot be effected via the ballot box. As noted earlier, the current regime is a prolongation of the autocratic system created by Ahidjo which his successor Paul Biya has skilfully adapted into a ‘democratic’ environment [26].
Over the years, many citizens have lost faith in the electoral system because it is perceived to be incapable of effecting genuine political renewal in Cameroon. The 1992 presidential election was therefore seen as the turning point when Cameroonians, according to ([27], p. 114), “were made to understand that democracy is not necessarily having as president the person the majority wants.” This assessment is based on the widely held view that that election was won by the opposition SDF leader, John Fru Ndi, but declared in favour of the CPDM by the Supreme Court [28].
The then president of the Supreme Court was infamously associated with the phrase my hands are tied by the law. The inability of the Supreme Court to declare what many believed was the ‘right result’ i.e. the defeat of the incumbent head of state generated public uproar which degenerated into civil disobedience and violence for several years. The action by the Supreme Court of Cameroon not only bounded the fate of millions of Cameroonians to a regime that many people genuinely wanted out of power, but also strengthened the argument by ([29], p. 12), that “in the face of the global resurgence of democracy, [authoritarian regimes] are bending democracy into a strategy of power, using elections to disempower the people. And they are succeeding.”
On another note, the press widely reported how thousands of uncollected ID cards littered Police stations throughout the country. One newspaper reported how the Divisional Officer (DO) of Ebolowa II in the president’s home Region took it upon himself to tour villages in his administrative unit, personally handing out ID cards that had been abandoned in the South Regional capital, Ebolowa [30]. As the elections approached, other Divisional Officer’s shifted gear from distributing ID cards to distributing voter cards. In Mbankomo, barely weeks after his installation, I accompanied the Divisional Officer on the last leg of his tour of the subdivision. In his address to the population, the DO performed the role of civil administrator and party official. He called on CPDM militants to be united and vigilant, and to massively register and turn out in throve on polling day to vote for their party and President Paul Biya. His official delegation also included workers from the local branch of the election management body Elections Cameroon (ELECAM), and during each stopover their functions was to identify registered voters and hand out voter cards.
4.2 Meddling elite and discontented militants
State officials were not the only ones concerned about potential voter apathy. In a note addressed to party militants, the Secretary General of the CPDM appointed high-powered delegations of party bigwigs to the 10 regions of the country to sensitise and mobilise grassroots militants to collect voter cards [31]. This came in the wake of a bruising investiture process in which many grassroots militants were enraged by the actions of some party bosses. The deployment of senior party officials to the field was not unusual. It is common practice during electoral periods in Cameroon for the public administration, i.e. ministerial departments and other public institutions to be emptied of high ranking bureaucrats. These public servants are deployed to their home regions and villages to campaign for the CPDM party. Dispatching such high level delegations on the eve of the 2013 municipal-legislative elections came amid generalised paranoia among party hierarchy over threats of widespread dissent and a possible party split. Despite official denials, it was hard to conceal the fact that these officials were sent out to persuade grassroots supporters enraged by what many perceived as treachery by elements of the political elite not to desert the party. Acrimony was so widespread that some loyal militants who lost out in the process not only pointed accusing fingers at party hierarchy but also expressed fears for the future of the party [16].
In Mbankomo, the outgoing Mayor sought the party endorsement to run for a second term, but his re-election bid was met with stiff opposition from another faction of the party that was favoured by the political elite. According to an informant and member of the outgoing Mayor’s team the delegation sent-out by the CPDM party hierarchy to conduct the investiture process in Mbankomo was biased in favour of the Mayors opponents and connived with them to frustrate his re-election bid. As discussed below, the candidates list of the outgoing Mayor was thrown out in a rather ignominious manner. Despite this setback, my informant remained steadfast to the party and reaffirmed his undying loyalty to party president, Paul Biya. He however, expressed fears that enraged grassroots militants might transform anger into negative votes which might cause the party to lose the elections in Mbankomo and other places around the country where other militants were equally aggrieved.4 These issues will be examined in greater details subsequently in the meantime I will examine how the investiture process played out in Mbankomo.
4.3 Contesting the party elite
On 11 July 2013, the CPDM central committee delegation responsible for the supervision of the investiture process in the Mefou and Akono Division descended on Mbankomo, where a meeting was scheduled in the municipal hall. This delegation was based at the divisional headquarters in Ngoumou, whence they visited other towns in the area for similar purposes. Initially slated for 13:00 the meeting finally started around 15:00. The meeting began with presentation of the rules for the investiture of candidates by the party chairman Paul Biya. The militants present were cautioned that aspirants whose documents did not conform to the electoral code would be disqualified by ELECAM. They were also reminded that candidates would be selected via consensus lists, and the list will be forwarded to the party headquarters for approval. The militants present in the hall were asked not to pay the requisite caution fee of CFA 50.000 FRS, but to have the cash handy and wait for the appropriate moment [16].
Following this brief presentation, the floor was opened for questions and comments. The first question from the audience sought clarification from the party delegates about who was authorised to sign the attestation of residence; this person was confused about the competent authority to legalise this document. One of the party delegates responded that under normal circumstances it was the responsibility of the legal department, but due to time constraints the signature of the Divisional Officer was sufficient. The next issue was the competent authority to legalise a birth certificate, the answer to that question was that it is the responsibility of the Mayor or civil status registrar of the person’s place of birth. This was confirmed by the outgoing Mayor who expressed his availability to sign birth certificates without delay [16].
Following the outgoing Mayors clarification, the head of the central committee delegation stated that their job was to collect the list of ruling party candidates aspiring to contest the municipal elections for Mbankomo council. He added that the party chairman had recommended investiture of candidates via consensus lists. He also stated that the most important part of the meeting was to select the 25 members that will contest the municipal elections in Mbankomo on the CPDM party list. Another member of the central committee delegation stated that prior to their arrival in Mbankomo they were informed that preparatory meetings had taken place between different branches of the party (Youth, Women and Men) in Mbankomo [16]. These meetings were held in the presence of a party elite and former Minister, however, the stakeholders failed to come up with a consensus. As a result, three of the four list leaders agreed to fuse into one, but the outgoing Mayor declined to associate with them.
Following this remark, the chairman opened the floor for comments, questions and clarifications. The first hand that went up was that of the youth-wing or Y-CPDM president. He argued that not every local stakeholder was invited to the meetings at the former Minister’s residence and as a result it was unfair to hold decisions taken at that meeting to be representative of everyone’s opinions. He added that any consensus list should take into consideration the hard work of local CPDM youths who had made lots of sacrifices to represent the party at public events in Mbankomo, despite limited support from the political elite. The next person to take the floor was a man describing himself as a member of the local elite. He said the groundwork for the meeting was laid in the presence of everyone and that the statement by the Y-CPDM president was simply absurd. He added that everything had been sorted out and that the Y-CPDM president had to accept things the way they are. He then urged the Y-CPDM president to lay his political ambitions aside and join him to work for the unity of the party [16].
Responding to the controversy, the head of the central committee delegation stated that the party hierarchy sent them out to seek unity and solidarity among grassroots militants and to oversee the selection of 25 people who will continue the achievements of the outgoing team. He added that the central committee will have the final say about who is elected as councillor and will designate a Mayor among them, but for the moment the objective was to designate candidates that will form the consensus list. He also reminded the audience that Mbankomo Council requires 25 not 50 councillors and that the numbers cannot be multiplied to suit personal ambitions [16]. At that point, a suggestion was made that the contending list leaders select two people each to enter into a conclave and come up with a consensus list. Both sides accepted the suggestions and the meeting was suspended to reconvene at 18:00.
4.4 Intractable conclave: conversations on the sidelines
I returned to the venue at 18:00, but it seemed the ‘white smoke’ from the conclave that will signify ‘consensus’ between the factions vying for the CPDM candidates list for the municipal elections in Mbankomo was a long way off. While waiting for the contending parties to return, I struck-up conversations with some Y-CPDM militants who like me were watching the events unfold from the side-lines. The content of our conversations centred on the municipal and legislative elections in general and the reasons for the turmoil within the CPDM in Mbankomo and other places around the country.
One of my interlocutors, Onana (pseudonym), started off by listing the two main criteria for choosing candidates for the party, i.e. election via party primaries or selection most often by consensus. In 2007, the CPDM party designated its candidates via party primaries; however, in 2013, it was done by consensus. As discussed later, the choice of consensus was designed to avoid a repetition of events of 2007 where prominent members of the political elite were rejected by grassroots militants in several constituencies around the country.
According to this contact, selection of the 25 candidates for the 2007 municipal elections on the CPDM ticket began at the base, during which each tribal grouping comes up with its quota of candidates to make up the sociological components of the area. According to Section 151 (3) of the electoral code, “each list shall take into consideration the various sociological components of the constituency concerned…”5 However, this law is quite vague about the meaning of the term ‘sociological components,’ leaving it to various interpretations. This hazy clause is often employed by electoral officials mainly as a justification for rejecting opposition party lists. Following the selection of candidates at the base, the list was forwarded to party headquarters, where it was discovered that names of many grassroots militants were removed, and replaced with the names of members of the political elite who mainly reside in the capital Yaoundé roughly 20 km away. This, according to Onana did not go down well with the grassroots militants and almost ‘led to a revolution in Mbankomo.’6
Many people were angry at what they perceived as deliberate undermining of their choice of candidates by the party hierarchy in favour of those who are merely seeking their selfish political gains. Moreover, he went on, these outsiders only think of the grassroots during election periods and, after securing their mandates, quickly scarper off and no-one hears from them until elections are approaching again. Frustrated by such disingenuous practices, grassroots militants in 2007 decided to teach them a lesson during the party primaries.
Another interlocutor, Abogo (pseudonym), was frustrated that other councils in the area had already selected candidates, but Mbankomo always had problems because of meddling by the political elite. Pressed on the issue of meddling by the elites, he cited the furore that ensued following nationwide primaries held by the CPDM in the lead-up to the 2007 municipal elections. Back then, many prominent members of the CPDM party were humiliated and denied electoral franchise by grassroots militants. A notorious casualty of this revolt was the president of the National Assembly who in 2007 lost the party primaries in his local constituency in the Mayo Sava Division in the Extreme North of Cameroon, but was reinstated by the CPDM central committee. According to Abogo, the actions of the Central Committee greatly infuriated grassroots militants who viewed it as a blatant violation of their right to select credible people to represent them in key state and local institutions. He expressed fears that a similar action might be in the offing in Mbankomo.7
Unlike in 2007, Cameroon’s political calendar in 2013 featured municipal, legislative and senatorial elections. The creation of the Senate in 2013 wrought fundamental changes in the hierarchical order at the helm of the state. According to Article 6(4) of the constitution, the President of the Senate is next in line to fill the post of head of state, albeit temporarily in case of a vacancy for reasons of illness, death or resignation. Prior to the creation of the Senate in 2013, the role of ‘constitutional successor’ was the preserve of the president of the National Assembly who in terms of state protocol was the second personality of the state. This constitutional provision allows the individuals at the helm of the state during this delicate period to preside over the transition, but not put themselves up for election; however, they could prove to be a vital king-maker. With the advent of the Senate as the upper chamber of parliament, the role of temporary successor automatically shifted from the National Assembly to the Senate President [16].
Considering that he was rejected by grassroots militants in 2007 but forcefully reinstated by party hierarchy. The President of the National Assembly viewed the Senate as an opportunity to move away from direct dependence on grassroots militants and ‘universal suffrage’ for his political survival to an ‘electoral college’ made up of a selected number of municipal councillors. He also probably conjectured the opportunity of being appointed by the head of state into the Senate, because, as noted earlier, the latter has the constitutional prerogative to appoint 30 out of 100 senators that make up the upper chamber of the Cameroon legislature. In a desperate but ultimately futile attempt to maintain himself as the second personality of the State, ‘the MP from the Mayo Sava constituency sought to be a candidate for the Upper House. Unfortunately, his application was rejected by the CPDM party’s national nomination commission presided over by the party chairman President Paul Biya [32].’
It should be noted that in Cameroon, senators are voted by an electoral college that consists of Municipal Councillors. As a result, it is much easier for the political elite (as was observed during the 2013 and 2018 senatorial elections) to sway this select group of voters with financial and other material incentives to vote for them, than is the case with the mass of ordinary voters. In the months after the rejection of his senatorial bid, there was wild speculation that the president of the National Assembly whose mandate as parliamentarian was nearing its end was heading towards political oblivion. However, just like the mythical phoenix, his candidacy was endorsed by the party hierarchy, and he rose from the ashes to stage a remarkable comeback following the 2013 legislative elections, this time around in the position of the 3rd personality of the state and president of the National Assembly, a post he held since 1992. The next section of this chapter returns to the intractable conclave in Mbankomo to examine the outcome of the clash between the contending lists for the 2013 municipal elections.
4.5 Investiture without consensus
The conclave to select a consensus list to run for the CPDM party in Mbankomo ended late at night. The day after I met a key informant who took part in the meeting to find out whether the leaders of the conflicting factions finally agreed to form a consensus list. This informant had on previous occasions informed me that he was the chairman of the economic and social affairs committee of the outgoing council team and a close personal friend of the Mayor whose re-election bid was the subject of a robust challenge.
I was very keen to know what the shape of the consensus list looked like. He began by stating the obvious, that the meeting stretched beyond the time allotted and after intense negotiations both sides were still unable to reach a compromise. As a result the incumbent Mayor’s list of which he was a member and that supported by the political elite was forwarded that same night to the departmental committee in Ngoumou. At Ngoumou, the incumbent Mayor’s list was rejected for being incomplete.
“How is this possible…? He fumed, how can people collect a file containing documents that were complete and verified and by the time it gets to its destination it is found to be incomplete? How is this possible…? You see how these people (referring to the central committee delegation) are rubbing us of our rights as militants of the CPDM. I could tell that something was fishy in the hall when he (the head of the central committee delegation) publicly asked both sides not to pay the caution money of 50,000, despite being aware that the fees for the opposition list had been paid.”8
Asked how the plot unfolded, he said a lot of underhand tactics were employed by their adversaries in the dying minutes of the conclave. Thus, before it was decided that two lists be forwarded to the departmental committee, both sides almost reached consensus, but discussion broke down over who would head such a list. When it finally arrived in Ngoumou, on examining the Mayor’s list, it turned out to be incomplete because some documents were missing, while those of his opponents were complete. Days after the deadline for submission of documents to ELECAM had passed, the missing documents were discovered on the grounds of a secondary school in Yaoundé several kilometres from where they were deposited [16].
Not everybody was aggrieved by the outcome of the investiture process in Mbankomo. Another informant and CPDM militant I regularly interacted with during my research and who described himself as a supporter of the political elite was not very surprised at the outcome of the conclave. He said everyone from the Divisional Officer, former and current Ministers and other personalities who hail from the area were not very fond of the outgoing Mayor and his team, but could not really do much to get rid of them until the appropriate moment. He described the Mayor as an ‘absentee landlord’ who only appears when important personalities are visiting town or during public events such as the installation of the DO. He equally accused the mayor of abandoning the day-to-day management of the council to some auxiliaries and other individuals who were in his private pay. For example, he had a personal assistant who was not a member of the council staff and this person was not accountable to anybody except the Mayor. According to my informant, the Mayor also failed to delegate responsibility to his two official deputies as required by law.9
5. Conclusion
It was noted at the beginning of this chapter that 2018 is an important electoral year in Cameroon. In line with the initial calendar, legislative, municipal, senatorial and presidential elections were scheduled to take place. Senatorial elections were held in March 2018, municipal and legislative elections were postponed for 1 year, and presidential elections are scheduled for October 2018. The official reasons for the postponement of the legislative and municipal elections was a ‘congested electoral calendar’ however, many observers believe that the worsening security situation in the English-speaking North-West and South-West Regions makes it almost impossible for the conduct of elections based on universal suffrage. The question that therefore arises is why organise presidential elections which like the legislative and municipal elections that was postponed, are based on universal suffrage, even though, chances are the elections will not be effective in the two English Speaking areas of the country that are seeking to breakaway?
That question like the issue of organising elections at a period when the country is embroiled in a profound crisis that is fast degenerating into a civil war remains contentious. However, many supporters of the governing regime argue that there is no clause in the electoral code that stipulates that presidential elections or indeed any elections must be held throughout the national territory for the results to be deemed legitimate. This therefore brings up another question. Why postpone the legislative and municipal elections and proceed with presidential elections if the legitimacy of the process is not affected by the prospects of elections not being organised throughout the country? The answer to this question not only lies in the intricacies of the crisis situation in the North-West and South-West Regions of the country, but also in the believe by the electoral authoritarian regime in Cameroon that its legitimacy is not necessarily based on the results of elections but on its manipulative skills.
The announcement of the presidential elections generated a lot of debate and also speculation about whether the 84 years old President who has been in power for 36 years will run again. On the one hand, some opposition figures and civil society expressed the wish that the incumbent Paul Biya should not seek another 7 years mandate, but should instead organise free, fair transparent elections that will lead to a smooth transition of power. On the other hand, militants of the CPDM boasted that Biya is their ‘natural candidate’ and were in no doubt about the eventuality of him declaring his candidature before the expiration of the deadline, something he eventually did via twitter on Friday 13th July 2018.
In October 2018 therefore, Cameroonians will be heading to the polls to elect a new president. This will be exactly 26 years from the highly acrimonious 1992 presidential elections. Just like on previous occasions, the opposition is heading in to the electoral arena in dispersed ranks which greatly reduces its chances of electoral success. Not wanting to leave anything to chance, the government on its part has embarked on the usual divide, weaken and conquer strategy.
Following internecine squabbles within three opposition parties, the Interior Minister issued a communique which surreptitiously declared three individuals that were contesting the leadership of their respective parties as the only individuals officially authorised to represent the said parties. Few days after the minister’s communique, the ‘officially recognised’ party leaders in collaboration with a horde of other politicians came out publicly to pledge their support for the candidacy of President Paul Biya. Curiously, one of the deposed party leaders who sought to counter the minister’s declaration was denied the authorization to organise a public event, and on the day of the said event, the party headquarters was surrounded by heavily armed policemen and soldiers bent on ensuring the event did not happen.
Acknowledgments
Data collection for this chapter was conducted in Mbankomo in 2013 during fieldwork for my PhD. My doctoral studies were funded by the Human Economy Research Program at the University of Pretoria, with the financial support from the Andrew J. Mellon Foundation. I was also a recipient of the Next Generation Social Science in Africa Doctoral completion Fellowship.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of Interest.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
My PhD thesis was published in a book by Langaa RPCIG in 2016. Some elements of this chapter were extracted from the book, with the expressed approval of the publishers and presented here after major revision.
\n',keywords:"elections, campaigns, manipulation, political elite, grassroots populations",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/63923.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/63923.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63923",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63923",totalDownloads:232,totalViews:241,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 29th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 17th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 6th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Electoral periods in Cameroon involve an impressive mobilisation of human, material and financial resources. Campaigning is marked by rallies, speeches, door-to-door solicitations, as well as vote buying, intimidation, ballot box stuffing etc. Electoral manipulation involves selective voter registration, tampering with the electoral roll and other administrative manoeuvres. At the centre of these activities is a group of people known locally as the political elite. These elites notably the head of state Paul Biya, key cabinet members, government officials etc. have been at the helm of the state since independence in the 1960s. At the receiving end are grassroots populations, who over the years witnessed the political elite appear on the eve of elections and disappear immediately thereafter. On occasion, the grassroots are able to see through the mirage, which often leaves some members of the political elite staring into the abyss. This chapter is based on events around the 2013 municipal and legislative elections in Mbankomo in the Centre Region of Cameroon. I employed participant observation, document and archival analysis, interviews among others to unearth and document the complex relationship between grassroots populations, party officials and other high-ranking members of the governing CPDM party during election periods in Cameroon.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/63923",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/63923",book:{slug:"elections-a-global-perspective"},signatures:"Numvi Gwaibi",authors:[{id:"256697",title:"Dr.",name:"Wallace",middleName:null,surname:"Numvi Gwaibi",fullName:"Wallace Numvi Gwaibi",slug:"wallace-numvi-gwaibi",email:"numviv@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Conceptualising the electoral arena in Cameroon",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Selection of candidates for the municipal and legislative elections",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Pre-electoral manoeuvrings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Meddling elite and discontented militants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Contesting the party elite",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 Intractable conclave: conversations on the sidelines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5 Investiture without consensus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mozaffar S, Schedler A. The comparative study of electoral governance. International Political Science Review. 2002;23:5-27'},{id:"B2",body:'Anyangwe C. Manumission from black-on-black colonialism; sovereign statehood for the British Southern Cameroons. In: Ndlovu-Gatsheni SJ, Mhlanga B, editors. 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Regional Balance and National Integration in Cameroon: Lessons Learned and the Uncertain Future. Bamenda: Langaa RPCIG; 2011. pp. 505-533'},{id:"B7",body:'Eyongetah T, Brian R. A History of the Cameroon. London: Longman; 1974'},{id:"B8",body:'Delancy MW. Cameroon; Dependence & Independence. Colorado: Westview Press Inc; 1989'},{id:"B9",body:'Takougang J, Krieger M. African State and Society in the 1990s; Cameroon’s Political Crossroads. Oxford: Westview Press; 1998'},{id:"B10",body:'Bayart J-F. The State in Africa; Politics of the Belley. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press; 2009'},{id:"B11",body:'Anyang-Nyong\'o P. Discourses on democracy in Africa. In: Chole E, Ibrahim J, editors. Democratisation in Africa; Problems and Prospects. Dakar: CODESRIA; 1995. pp. 29-42'},{id:"B12",body:'Konings P, Nyamnjoh FB. Negotiating an Anglophone Identity; A Study of the Politics of Recognition and Representation in Cameroon. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV; 2003'},{id:"B13",body:'Schedler A. 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Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press; 2009'},{id:"B19",body:'Munk GL. Drawing boundaries: How to craft intermediate regime categories. In: Schedler A, editor. Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition. Boulder: Lynne Reinner Publishers Inc; 2006. pp. 27-54'},{id:"B20",body:'Southall R. Democracy in Africa: Moving Beyond a Difficult Legacy. Cape Town: HSRC Publishers; 2003'},{id:"B21",body:'Ottaway M. From political opening to democratization. In: Democracy in Africa: The Hard Road Ahead. Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc.; 1997. pp. 1-13'},{id:"B22",body:'Biya P. Communal Liberalism. London: Macmillan Publishers; 1987'},{id:"B23",body:'RDPC-CPDM. Circulaire N°03/RDPC/PN DU 05 Juillet 2013. [Online] 07 05, 2013. [Cited: 11 11, 2014.] http://www.rdpcpdm.cm/en/content/circulaire-n%C2%B003-rdpcpn-du05-juillet-2013-le-pr%C3%A9sident-national'},{id:"B24",body:'Mutations. Présidentielle 2011: Paul Biya décrète la gratuité de la carte d’identité. [Online] 05 23, 2011. [Cited: 11 2, 2014.] http://www.cameroon-info.net/stories/0,28752,@,presidentielle-2011-paul-biya-decrete-la-gratuite-de-la-carte-d-identite.html'},{id:"B25",body:'Le Messager. Gratuité des CNI…: La grande ruée dans les commissariats de Douala. [Online] 01 08, 2013. [Cited: 10 12, 2014.] http://cameroon-info.net/stories/0,40139,@,gratuite-des-cni-la-grande-ruee-dans-les-commissariats-de-douala.html'},{id:"B26",body:'Mentan T. Cameroon: A flawed transition to democracy. In: Gros J-G, editor. Democratization in Late Twentieth-Century Africa. Westport: Greenwood Press; 1998. pp. 41-58'},{id:"B27",body:'Nyamnjoh FB. Cameroon: A country united by ethnic ambition and difference. African Affairs. 1999;98(390):101-118'},{id:"B28",body:'Nkwi PN, Socpa A. Ethnicity and party politics in Cameroon: The politics of divide and rule. In: Nkwi PN, Nyamnjoh FB, editors. Regional Balance and National Integration in Cameroon: Lessons Learned and the Uncertain Future. Bamenda: Langaa RPCIG; 2011. pp. 247-268'},{id:"B29",body:'Ake C. Is Africa Democratizing? CASS Monograph No. 5. Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited; 1996'},{id:"B30",body:'L\'Actu. Listes électorales: Le Sous-préfet d\'EboIowa II opte pour des inscriptions forcées dans les villages. [Online] 01 09, 2013. http://www.cameroon-info.net/stories/0,40206,@,listes-electorales-le-sous-prefet-d-eboiowa-ii-opte-pour-des-inscriptions-forcee.html [Cited: May 19, 2014]'},{id:"B31",body:'RDPC-CPDM. Elections Législatives et Municipales du 30 Septembre 2013. Investiture des candidats du RDPC. Commissions Régionales de Supervision. Yaoundé, le 7 Juillet 2013. [Online] 07 7, 2013. http://www.rdpcpdm.cm/content/elections-l%C3%A9gislatives-et-municipales-du-30-septembre-2013 [Cited: November 11, 2014]'},{id:"B32",body:'La Nouvelle. Septentrion: Cavaye perd définitivement le Nord. [Online] 03 25, 2013. http://www.cameroon-info.net/stories/0,43384,@,septentrion-cavaye-perd-definitivement-le-nord.html [Cited: November 12, 2014]'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"The North-West and South West Regions of Cameroon erstwhile known as the British Southern Cameroons and today named Ambazonia by activists fighting for the restoration of its statehood."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Source: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/cameroon/cameroons-anglophone-crisis-dialogue-remains-only-viable-solution"},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Source: Ministry of Territorial Administration and Decentralisation (MINATD). accessed July 2018."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Personal communication 07/12/2013."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Law No. 2012/001 of 19 April 2012, on the Electoral Code of Cameroon."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"Personal Communication, 11 July 2013."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"Personal Communication, 11 July 2013."},{id:"fn8",explanation:"Personal communication 07/12/2013."},{id:"fn9",explanation:"Personal communication 07/13/2013."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Numvi Gwaibi",address:"numviv@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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Adnan",authors:[{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"}]},{id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",signatures:"Hai-Han Lu, Ching-Hung Chang and Peng-Chun Peng",authors:[{id:"4684",title:"Professor",name:"Hai-Han",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Hai-Han Lu",slug:"hai-han-lu"},{id:"62688",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Peng-Chun Peng",slug:"peng-chun-peng"}]},{id:"8454",title:"Optical Beam Steering Using a 2D MEMS Scanner",slug:"optical-beam-steering-using-a-2d-mems-scanner",signatures:"Yves Pétremand, Pierre-André Clerc, Marc Epitaux, Ralf Hauffe, Wilfried Noell and N.F. de Rooij",authors:[{id:"5054",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Petremand",fullName:"Yves Petremand",slug:"yves-petremand"},{id:"135512",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Clerc",fullName:"Pierre-Andre Clerc",slug:"pierre-andre-clerc"},{id:"135514",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Epitaux",fullName:"Marc Epitaux",slug:"marc-epitaux"},{id:"135516",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Hauffe",fullName:"Ralf Hauffe",slug:"ralf-hauffe"},{id:"135518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Noell",fullName:"Wilfried Noell",slug:"wilfried-noell"},{id:"135519",title:"Prof.",name:"N.F.",middleName:null,surname:"De Rooij",fullName:"N.F. De Rooij",slug:"n.f.-de-rooij"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"62967",title:"Preventive Maintenance and Fault Detection for Wind Turbine Generators Using a Statistical Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80071",slug:"preventive-maintenance-and-fault-detection-for-wind-turbine-generators-using-a-statistical-model",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Wind energy has evolved into a mature, cost effective and sustainable power technology. The sizes of wind turbines are growing on a continuous basis and new topologies allow for better integration into electricity grids. Power electronics development has provided the functionality of variable speed operation, which is more energy efficient. A wind turbine typically comprises 8000 parts or more with the blades, rotor, main bearing, drivetrain and power module its major components. Figure 1 depicts the typical components of a wind turbine. A major component of the power module is the electrical generator. Squirrel-Cage Induction Generators (SCIG) are currently the most common electrical generator type used in wind turbines, because these are robust and cheaper to manufacturer compared to other generator types. As a complex power system it is important to understand how failures in wind turbines occur despite its current level of maturity. High reliability and availability is thus expected over a typical 20-year design life.
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Figure 1.
Wind turbine components [1].
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2. Wind energy overview
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2.1. Wind energy evolution
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Wind energy adoption has seen year-on-year continued growth and implementation. The global installed wind energy capacity is illustrated in Figure 2.
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Figure 2.
Global wind energy installed capacity [2].
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The operating principle of all wind turbines make use of either aerodynamic lift or aerodynamic drag forces. Aerodynamic lift forces are perpendicular to the direction of the wind whereas drag forces are in the same direction. Modern day wind turbines are mainly designed to use aerodynamic lift forces where the rotor blades are turned into the direction of the wind. The perpendicular lift force produces the required driving torque via the leverage of the rotor. Only wind turbines operating on aerodynamic lift will be discussed here and these are classified in accordance to the direction of the rotating axis i.e. horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs).
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2.2. Wind energy cost
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Wind energy has reached commercial maturity remarkably fast and has seen its cost dropped significantly to such levels that it’s now cost competitive with coal power generation [2]. For any power generation technology, the cost of production is variable and influenced by technology maturity, operating conditions, location and the capacity rating of the plant [3]. The LCOE for wind energy is affected mainly by the following factors [4]:
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs;
Annual energy production (AEP);
Capital costs;
Financing costs.
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Figure 3 indicates the capital cost breakdown of all the major wind installation of a typical onshore wind turbine and it is evident that the major costs are related to the turbine itself. LCOE can be reduced if wind turbine manufacturers enhance turbine technology so that a variety of designs are available for different wind resource conditions. This can be achieved through larger rotors, improved blade aerodynamics and taller towers [4].
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Figure 3.
Cost breakdown of onshore wind farms [2].
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The capacity factor (CF) indicates how frequently the wind turbine was able to produce power at rated or name plate capacity over a given period (normally a year). Capacity factors for onshore wind turbines fall in the range between 30 and 35% [4]. This figure varies considerably depending on turbine design and the local wind resource. In conventional power generation technologies the AEP is generally proportional to the generator size. However in a wind turbine the rotor swept area can have a bigger influence than the generator size on the power generation capability [5].
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Therefore the relationship between the rotor swept area and generator size can influence capacity factors of wind turbines. In other words a wind turbine with a specific rotor swept area connected to two different size generators will have different capacity factors. The smaller size generator will operate at a higher capacity factor compared to the bigger size generator with the same wind conditions. Wind turbine manufacturers should therefore optimise this relationship for specific site conditions and grid integration requirements to ensure the lowest possible costs. O&M costs of wind turbines vary over the lifespan of the plant and escalate with age as the risks of failure of the equipment increase. The O&M costs of wind turbines have reduced considerable over the last 30 years and accounts between 20 and 30% of the total life cycle costs for onshore projects [2]. O&M costs for offshore wind projects are higher because of the severe operating conditions in the sea, access to site, complex maintenance tasks and transmission infrastructure costs. The costs for onshore wind projects are approximately USD 30-60/MWh versus USD 71-155/MWh for offshore projects [6].
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2.3. Speed characteristics of wind turbines
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Wind turbines can rotate at a fixed speed where the optimum energy conversion takes place at a specific wind speed or at variable speed which has a more complicated electrical design [7] but is efficient over a wind speed range. The fixed speed of the wind turbine technology depends on the gearbox ratio, frequency of the grid and the electrical generator design characteristics [8]. From 1980 to early 1990s all wind turbines used for large scale power generation was fix speed and used gearboxes.
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Fixed speed wind turbines are rugged, cost effective to build but experience higher power fluctuations as a result of the constant generator speed against varying wind speeds [7]. These turbines unfortunately draw large reactive power from the grid which are compensated for by installing power factor correction capacitors. The disadvantage of power factor correction capacitors is power quality problems like harmonic resonance on the grid [8].
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Variable wind speed turbines are designed to reduce mechanical stresses, maximise wind energy capture and provide smoother output power which is more suited to the grid. This technology became popular in the 1990s at the same time when advances in power electronics, reactive power control, variable speed induction generators and synchronous generator systems happened [9].
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By connecting the electrical generator via a power electronics system to the grid, the wind turbine speed can be adjusted. Harmonic currents from the power electronics systems in variable speed wind turbines also cause power quality problems. Associated transient voltage peaks of 100 times more than the expected values between windings cause insulation damage of windings and ultimately failure of the machine [10].
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For a certain wind resource with specific Weibull distribution parameters, it was shown that additional annual energy captured by a variable speed turbine was 2.3% more than a similar rated fixed speed turbine. The additional costs of a variable speed wind turbine compared to a fixed speed wind turbine of the same rating at a given location are off-set by its ability to capture more energy in the wind [10].
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The study in [10] revealed that a variable speed wind turbine produces more power than the fixed speed turbine of the same rating. Although the difference might appear small, the amount of power generated over the life cycle of the wind turbine which is typically 20 years can deliver substantial generation profit.
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Power regulation is normally done by pitching the rotor blades, stall control or a combination of the two in order to avoid overloading the wind turbine. The aerodynamic forces acting on the rotor and the output power of the turbine are reduced during high wind speeds. Variable speed wind turbines in conjunction with dynamic blade pitch for power and load control is considered as the accepted industry standard for most modern wind turbines.
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2.4. Wind turbine classes
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Factors such as the average yearly wind speed magnitude, wind turbulence and severe gusts speeds, determine if a wind turbine design is suited for safe operation at a particular site. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard IEC 61400-1, stipulates the different wind turbine classes based on aerodynamic loading [11]. Wind turbines classified as low wind “Class IV” i.e. S111 according to IEC 61400-1 are now becoming feasible to enter the power generation market [11].
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Wind classes I, II and III can be equated to high, medium and low wind sites in general. Locations with low wind resources are suited for wind turbines designed with bigger rotors and higher towers to balance energy conversion and costs. These wind turbines types are largely coupled to smaller drivetrain and power generating units to increase their effectiveness in these less promising wind conditions. Medium and low wind turbines have become more popular than high wind turbines with Asia leading the international market.
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3. Wind turbines generator types
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The electrical generator in the wind turbine converts the mechanical energy from the turbine rotor into electrical energy which is supplied to the grid. In conventional power systems where synchronous generators are used, power is produced at constant speed. Applying these generating systems in wind energy is a challenge because of the variable nature of the resource.
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Induction generators also known as asynchronous generators because they do not rotate at a fixed speed are the most commonly used electrical generator in WECs today. The application of induction generators in the power industry is limited compared to induction motors, which are seen as the workhorses in power systems consuming approximately 33% of global generated electricity. There are several advantages that make induction generators suitable for wind energy technologies as mentioned by Das et al. [12].
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Induction generators are classified according to their rotor structure, which is, squirrel cage and wound rotor types. The stator designs of both induction machines are the same. The term power converter in the following paragraphs refers to all power electronic systems such as soft-starters, inverters, rectifiers or frequency converters.
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3.1. The squirrel cage induction generator
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SCIGs are used in fixed speed or variable speed wind turbine concepts. The SCIG stator is connected to the grid via a power transformer and a power converter is used to reduce the inrush current. The function of the capacitor bank is to reduce the reactive power consumption and support the generator voltage. This configuration is also known as the Danish concept and the first generation was directly connected to the grid without any power converters Technology developments and subsequent reduction in power electronics costs have been main drivers for the use of SCIGs in variable speed wind turbines. The generator is connected to the grid via a full rated converter, which controls the stator current instead. This configuration has full control of real and reactive power and operates across the full speed range.
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The size of the generator is more compact and lighter compared to other full converter designs. This type configuration is predominantly used by Siemens Wind Power which has a 4.1% global market share [11]. According to [11] North America has an installed capacity of 1.5 GW, the rest of the world 0.98 GW excluding European and Asian markets.
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The power quality of SCIGs at low and high wind speeds are better compared to wound rotor induction generators (WRIGs) while the latter produce less harmonics near synchronous speed [76]. Other attributes, which make SCIGs desirable over WRIGs, are:
Better grid stability because of the larger converter;
No brushes or slip ring maintenance as well as reduced losses;
Robust rotors which can provide better electrical and mechanical performance;
It is cost effective and readily available.
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The converter in this configuration needs to be sized to the full capacity of the generator, which makes it very expensive. The harmonic filters are also rated at full converter capacity which is costly and difficult to design [13]. The performance of the converter has to be very good over the entire power range to ensure optimum efficiency and generation capacity.
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3.2. Synchronous generators
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Synchronous generators are matured technologies in fossil fuels and nuclear power systems and produce grid power at constant speeds. Their robustness and ability to control grid voltage by adjusting the rotor excitation make them ideal for power systems. This is particularly important during grid problems like faults where the generator is to remain connected to the grid and support the grid voltage through reactive power control. Because of these attributes synchronous generators are now being used in WECs and their rotors can be separately excited or make use of permanent magnets [13].
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For a synchronous generator the absence of slip rings, gearbox and external excitation reduce the overall losses and the full rated power converter maintains its flexibility. The full rated converter and magnetic material costs make this concept very expensive but energy efficiency is improved [13]. Different permanent magnet synchronous generators designs are described and analysed by [14].
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4. Failures in wind turbines
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4.1. Wind turbine failures overview
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Failures in wind turbines can result from various sources including poor quality, inferior design and manufacturing standards, construction and erection deficiencies, local operating conditions, transmission system design and general maintenance [15]. Mechanical failures occur most often, gearbox failures cause the longest downtimes and failure rates above one failure per turbine annually is still common [16]. The failure rate of the majority of wind turbine components or systems increase as designs move away from well-established designs towards new concepts, which are less, matured. A similar observation was made when the wind turbine generator rating increases from small to large [17]. In a study of about 800 wind turbines it was established that the availability was over 90% for the majority of turbines irrespective of size [15]. This study also showed that the difference between availability figures amongst major wind turbine manufacturers were small. The primary course of failures is due to wear out as the hazard rate increases during the last phase of component design life [17]. The authors in [16] concluded that gearbox failures cause the longest downtimes and that the average downtime reduced as technologies improved. The failure rates and downtime of subsystems during a survey done on more than 1500 wind turbines in Germany over a 15 year period show generator failures represent approximately 4% of the total number of failures in the wind turbines.
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4.2. Generator failures
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The major cause of failure in electrical machines irrespective of their applications is related to bearings and windings. The following components are responsible for the majority failures in wind generators using induction generators [18]:
Bearings;
Winding failures in both the stator and rotor;
Rotor cages and leads;
Slip rings;
Magnetic wedges in the stator;
Cooling plant.
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The size of the generator also influences which components fail as manufacturers try to optimise designs for various power requirements and wind conditions. The three major faults identified across various generator ratings are summarised in Table 1 [18]. Failure modes 1–3 represent the major faults ranging from most dominant to less dominant failure modes.
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Generator size
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Failure mode 1
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Failure mode 2
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Failure mode 3
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Small <1 MW
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Rotor
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Stator
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Bearings
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Medium 1–2 MW
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Bearings
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Collector rings
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Rotor
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Large >2 MW
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Bearings
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Stator
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Stator wedge
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Table 1.
Major failure modes across different wind generator sizes.
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Rotor winding problems in small to medium generators are caused by conductor and banding failures while stator winding problems are related to contamination and maintenance issues. Failures of bearings, stator windings and rotor windings contribute more than 80% of the total failures in induction machines [18]. This translates to a failure distribution for bearings (41%), stator (37%), rotor (10%) and other faults (12%).
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4.3. Stator failures
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4.3.1. Stator windings failures
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Main ageing mechanisms causing insulation failure of rotor and stator windings are thermal effects, vibration stresses, voltage spikes from the power converters and material degradation because of temperature changes. Environmental conditions can accelerate insulation degradation and moist operating conditions should be avoided. The occurrences of short circuits escalate with time and are caused by overheating; ageing and vibrations while open circuits result from termination problems or damaged windings. Voltage spikes caused by power converters in variable speed induction machines are also responsible for winding insulation failures. Because of very fast switching times in the PWM circuit, multiple reflected waves travel between the converter and the machine. Impedance differences between the output cable and the generator create these reflected waves which become more severe as the cable length increases and the switching frequency of the semiconductors increases [16]. The reflected waves occur at the front of the voltage wave and can reach magnitudes up to 2.5 kV for a generator rated at 690 V.
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Winding insulation design requirements should comply with the following conditions as a minimum [19]:
Design life and mean time between failure (MTBF) of 20,000 h under accelerated ageing tests conditions;
Rated voltage capacity test plus 10–15% and then 2.5 kV peak—peak “withstand” voltage after the ageing test;
Initial partial discharge voltage test higher than the maximum peak—peak voltage after ageing test.
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4.3.2. Stator wedge failures
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Conductive wedges are used to keep the stator windings in the core and secure it against mechanical forces and vibrations. It also improves efficiency, limits magnetic flux distortion, inrush currents and increases the thermal properties of the machine [19]. There are instances of exposed stator coils where the wedges came loose and fell out of the stator slots. Figure 4 shows an example of this [18]. The rotating magnetic field is the main cause that stator wedges become loose and this can result in grounds faults and or damage to stator coils.
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Figure 4.
Missing stator slot wedges.
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4.3.3. Bearing failures
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Bearing failures contribute a significant amount towards wind generator failures and common causes are incorrect installation or misalignment as well as poor lubrication, overheating and mechanical breakage [15]. Bearing wear through normal ageing together with “indentation, smearing, surface distress, corrosion”, electric current flow and overloading can also lead to bearing failure. It is recommended that maintenance practises comply with bearing lubrication schedules to reduce bearing failure rates. Damaged bearings can cause excessive vibrations of the rotor, which disturbs the uniform shape of the air gap between the stator and rotor. If not picked up these vibrations can cause contact between the stator and rotor, which will lead to catastrophic damage of both components.
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5. Wind turbine maintenance
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5.1. Maintenance strategies
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Maintenance is the activity that assist production operations with optimum levels of availability, reliability and operability at the lowest cost. Maintenance strategies can be broadly classified into three main strategies namely breakdown maintenance, preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance.
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Currently all three maintenance strategies or a combination of them are used in the wind industry depending on the age of the wind turbine. Breakdown maintenance is the typical “run to failure” approach, preventive maintenance is done before a problem leads to a failure and corrective maintenance is scheduled to rectify existing plant specific problems. Preventive maintenance is further classified as use-based or predictive maintenance and the former is performed at predetermined instances which is related to the age of the equipment or at certain expired calendar times [20]. Use-based maintenance can lead to over or under maintenance as resources are not optimally used [21].
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Condition based maintenance has the capability to estimate the remaining useful life of equipment in order to implement the best maintenance strategy before failure occurs. Doing inspections or monitoring certain variables using sensors like temperature, voltage, current, noise or vibrations to determine the condition of the equipment can do it. The process of condition monitoring can be online or offline and is made up of three primary steps [22]:
Data acquisition—gathering data that is pertinent to equipment health;
Data processing—analytical verification, comprehension and refinement of collected data;
Decision-making—deciding which maintenance strategy is ideal to ensure long term plant health at the lowest cost.
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5.2. Condition monitoring techniques in wind turbines
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The application of condition monitoring in WEC systems is ideal as concluded by [20]. Several condition monitoring techniques like oil analyses, vibration analysis, electrical effects, acoustic emissions, ultrasonic methods, radiographic inspections, strain measurements, thermography, temperature measurements, shock pulse method and equipment performance are used as discussed by [21]. Current wind turbine condition monitoring focus on critical equipment like the gearbox, generator and main bearing, which are high, cost components and cause long downtimes.
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Vibration analysis is the most common condition monitoring method used in wind turbines although its ability to detect electrical faults could be limited. Its effectiveness in direct driven or other modern wind turbine concepts is also questionable. Probabilistic measures in addition to data received from sensors are required for a more precise determination of the equipment condition as the operating nature of wind turbines is stochastic.
Accurate condition monitoring techniques of stator winding faults are required as it is the second largest failure mechanism in generators. Shorted windings cause the most damage in the machine as it produces additional heat in the windings, which further reduce the design life of winding insulation material. These faults originate as undetected inter turn faults that gradually isolate multiple turns or when an arc exist between two points on a winding. Detection of inter turn winding faults is complex because the machine can still operate without any obvious fault signatures. These faults can rapidly evolve and cause complete failure of the winding and damage to the machine.
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Temperature monitoring is considered as one of the oldest conditioning monitoring techniques and is commonly used in wind turbines to detect abnormalities in bearings and generator windings [22]. High stator winding temperatures under normal operating conditions is generally a sign of possible winding damage. Other factors such as high ambient temperatures or problems with the generator cooling have a similar effect. Insulation life is reduced by 50% for every 10°C increase in temperature as oxidation rates increase above certain temperature limits. Oxidation makes the insulation material fragile and some parts of the winding might experience delamination.
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Majority of modern wind turbines are designed with condition monitoring systems, which incorporates a Supervisory Control, and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. One of the functions of the SCADA system is to capture operating parameters from the wind turbine. Various mechanical and electrical sensors measure operating and performance data, which are recorded on a computer system for analysis. The SCADA data is typically recorded and stored by the computer system. Analysis of SCADA data for fault prognosis is seen as cost effective maintenance strategy although its data content does not reveal abnormalities in a clear and explicit manner.
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Proper data analysis and modelling techniques are required to identify and understand component degradation. This will enhance component health predictions and guarantee the implementation of optimum maintenance strategies. According to [21] physical models depend on detailed understanding of failure modes whereas data driven models involve extensive data requirements to validate continuous degradation processes.
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The application of SCADA data as a condition monitoring technique in the wind industry has become a prevalent research topic. These methods usually consist of various physical and statistical models of a particular system. Harmonics in line currents and magnetic flux, torque pulsations, reduced mean torque, high losses, abnormal winding temperatures and reduced efficiency are all indicators which highlight problems in induction machines [23]. The literature reveals that inter turn faults and asymmetries in the rotor or stator are the main focus of most condition monitoring techniques [23]. Electrical signature analyses of the stator parameters such as current, voltage and power under steady state operating conditions prove to be successful in sensing winding faults as well as other failure mechanisms.
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6. System modelling and design
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6.1. SCIG design parameters
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The SCADA data was obtained from Siemens, the operator for the electrical utility, Eskom’s Sere wind farm in the Western Cape, South Africa. This is a 100 MW wind farm with a total of 46 x 2.3 MW turbines. The SCIG in this study has the following design parameters as shown in Table 2.
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SCIG 2.3 MW, 690 V, 50 Hz
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Rated output power
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2.3 MW
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Rated line to line voltage
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690 V
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Rated phase voltage
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398.4 V
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Rated stator current
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2100 A
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Rated stator frequency
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50 Hz
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Rated power factor
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0.88
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Rated rotor speed
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1510 rpm
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Synchronous speed
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1500 rpm
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Rated slip
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−0.0069
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Number of poles
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4
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Stator winding resistance, Rs
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1.01 mΩ
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Rotor winding resistance, Rr
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1.3 mΩ
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Stator leakage inductance, Lls
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0.093 mH
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Rotor leakage inductance, Llr
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0.054 mH
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Magnetising inductance, Lm
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2.78 mH
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Rated mechanical torque
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16.313 kNm
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Moment of inertia
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63 kgm3
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Table 2.
SCIG design parameters.
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6.2. Prediction model for stator winding temperatures
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SCADA data from two wind turbines is used to model generator winding temperature between minimum and maximum output power which corresponds to 0–2.4 MW. Data for wind turbines (WTs) number 4 and number 38 were collected from June 2015 until October 2015. The maximum designed generator stator winding insulation temperature for the wind turbines is 155°C, which corresponds to a Class F rated insulation material.
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Multiple linear regression analysis is a statistical method that estimates or model relationships between different variables that are linked in a nondeterministic way [24]. It uses more than one independent variable compared to linear regression, which has only one independent variable. The stator winding temperature prediction model is designed using Stepwise Regression (SR) in Microsoft Excel. The model output also highlights which variables have the biggest influence on stator winding temperature. Modelling of stator winding temperature in this study equates to the generator temperature.
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SR performs multiple regressions that add or remove independent variables at each step based on performing a partial F-test on the new independent variable. The F-test calculates if different variables are mutually important and that their output has a significant effect on the dependent variable. It selects the independent variable with the highest correlation with the dependent variable initially, then adds or removes independent variables in the model based on calculating its F-test value, which should be higher or at least equal to the previous value.
\n
When there are two independent variables, the F-test value is calculated using [24]:
where F1, F-statistic of independent variable x1; SSR, sum of squared residuals due to regression; MSE, mean square error for the model containing x1 and x2; β0, β1, β2, slope coefficients.
\n
The following assumptions are made to establish how a linear regression model fits the data [24].
The residuals should be uncorrelated random variables with a zero average and constant variance.
The residuals should be normally distributed.
The order of the model is correct and that the data being investigated has linear characteristics.
\n
A linear regression model where the dependent variable Y is related to k regressor (independent) variables has the form [24]:
where Y, dependent variable; β0, intercept; βj, j = 0,1,…,k, regression coefficients; x, regressor variables; \n\n∈\n\n, random error term.
\n
The model therefore provides an acceptable estimation of the dependent variable across certain ranges of the independent variables because the real relationship between them cannot be determined [24]. Regression coefficients represent the rate at which the dependent variable changes in relation to individual independent variables.
\n
They are calculated in SR using the least squares method represented by the following matrix notations:
The SR model needs to satisfy certain criteria to justify whether its linear function is sufficient to predict generator stator winding temperature over the proposed output power range of the wind turbines.
\n
The following parameters are selected as variables in the SR model:
Ambient Temperature (AT)
\n
The AT refers to the outside temperature conditions. The outside air is used to cool the generator as well as the inside of the nacelle. This independent variable is labelled as “Mean Ambient Tmp” in the SR model.
Nacelle Temperature (NT)
\n
The temperature in the nacelle affects the generator operating conditions directly as well as other components. High nacelle temperatures cause the generator to run hotter which affects its performance. The nacelle temperature is not regulated. This independent variable is labelled as “Mean Nacelle Tmp” in the SR model.
Generator Output Power (GOP)
\n
The stator winding temperature is related to the square of the phase current flowing in the windings. Therefore the higher the generated output power, the hotter the windings become. This independent variable is labelled as “Active Power” in the SR model.
Stator Winding Temperature (SWT)
\n
The stator winding temperature is the dependent variable, which the model regresses. Having knowledge which independent variable has the highest influence on stator winding temperature is important to optimise the generator operation. The SWT is predicted by the model based on the values of the independent variables AT, NT and GOP. The dependent variable is labelled as “Mean Winding Tmp U1” in the SR model.
\n
\n
\n
6.4. Significance of regression model
\n
The first check if the SR model is acceptable is to evaluate the value of the Coefficient of Determination R2 (0 ≤ R2 ≤ 1), which also means the goodness of fit test. It shows the proportion of the variation of the dependent variable explained by the independent variables. A value of R2 close to 1 is ideal but it does not always imply that the model fits the data best or that future predictions by the model are perfect. It is affected by the number of independent variables, scatter or distribution of the independent variable(s) as well as adding higher polynomial values of the independent variable(s) in the model [24]. R2 can be calculated using:
\n
\n\n\nR\n²\n\n=\n\n\nSS\nR\n\n\nSS\nT\n\n\n\nE5
\n
where SSR, regression sum of squares; SST, total sum of squares.
\n
The F-test based on an F- distribution confirms the significance of the regression model. The following hypothesis is valid:
\n
H0: β1,β2…..βk = 0.
\n
H1: βj ≠ 0…..for at least one j.
\n
The F- critical value of the F- distribution is calculated in Microsoft Excel using the function:
F.INV, calculates the inverse of the F-distribution; Probability, 95% confidence level; DoF 1, degrees of freedom. Number of independent variables; DoF 2, degrees of freedom. Number of residuals.
\n
If F- critical >value needs to be larger than F—model value for the Null Hypothesis H0 to be rejected which confirms that the model fits the data adequately with a 95% confidence level. Additionally the regression coefficients (β0-β3) in this model should all have p-value less than 0.05, which also confirms that H0 can be rejected.
\n
\n
\n
6.5. Analysis of residuals
\n
The residuals also called the errors, are defined as the difference between the actual observation and the predicted observation from the model:
where \n\n\ne\ni\n\n\n, residual or error; \n\n\ny\ni\n\n\n, actual observation; \n\n\n\ny\n̂\n\ni\n\n\n, - predicted observation from the model.
\n
By plotting the residuals it can illustrate how the model best fit the data and show up any deviations from the previous assumptions made on applying linear regression. To check for normality in the residuals of the model, a normal probability plot of the residuals can be obtained in Microsoft Excel. A plot of the residuals versus the predicted observation \n\n\n\ny\n̂\n\ni\n\n\n can also be retrieved in the same manner. This plot has to show the residuals outlined in a horizontal distribution about the zero average without any distinctive pattern for the model to be adequate [24]. Residual plots can have one of the four general outlines as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5(a) shows that the model is ideal, whereas the other plots (b–d) contain anomalies which show that the model could be inadequate for the data sample.
\n
Figure 5.
General residual plot patterns.
\n
In this study a normal probability plot of residuals versus their standardised Z-scores is given. The procedure to construct the normal probability plot is as follows:
Obtain the normal residuals from Microsoft Excel (SR);
Rank each of the residuals;
Calculate the percentile or proportion of the residuals that is smaller than a particular residual using:
This method is considered an improvement of the normal probability plot of the residuals in Microsoft Excel. If the residuals are normally distributed, 99.72% of the data will fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean. Therefore we can conclude that Z-score values outside these ranges do not have the same characteristics as the rest of the data and are possible outliers.
\n
\n
\n
6.6. Intrinsically linear models
\n
Linear regression can also be applied to investigate nonlinear characteristics between variables. Instead of using a straight line, linear regression has the functionality to fit curves to data which could be more appropriate for nonlinear conditions. In this case transformation of the dependent and or independent variables are required.
\n
Intrinsically linear models or curve fitting the data can be done through polynomial regression where the independent variables are transformed in consecutive powers i.e. X, X2, X3 etc. Polynomial regression is used to detect any nonlinearity between the independent and dependent variables. Therefore the 2nd and 3rd powers of all three dependent variables AT, NT and GOP together with the linear values are used in the SR model.
\n
A cubic polynomial with one independent variable has the following form:
This is a multiple linear regression model similar to Eq. (2).
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Statistical model analysis
\n
Generator output power followed by nacelle temperature affects stator winding temperature the most as shown in Table 3.
\n
Table 3.
Independent variables coefficients.
\n
This is expected as higher generated output power, cause more current flow through the windings and more heat is generated which is proportional to the square of the current. The nacelle temperature represents the ambient temperature of the generator and therefore also has a big impact. Insulation material of electrical machines is generally designed for an ambient temperature of 40°C and higher temperatures degrades the winding insulation material. Temperatures higher than 40°C in the nacelle can therefore cause the generator to shutdown to maintain the temperature raise limit of the insulation, which is 105°C for Class F. The temperature rise limit is calculated by subtracting the ambient temperature from the hot temperature of the insulation, which is 155–40°C. The outside temperature referred to as ambient temperature in the SR model is used for cooling of the stator windings. The outside air temperature has a limit of 45°C before the controller shuts down the machine to prevent overheating of the stator. Dirty or blocked air filters can also affect effective cooling. These can be checked during routine maintenance activities and replaced as required.
\n
According to the SR model its ability to predict stator-winding temperature for WT4 and WT38 can be obtained using:
where AP, active power (Generator output power); NT, nacelle temperature; AT, ambient temperature.
\n
It can be concluded that the location and wind resource of the two turbines have a significant impact on the stator winding temperature. Environmental conditions could be less ideal for one turbine, which effects the cooling of the nacelle and generator. Access to optimum wind conditions means a higher capacity factor and also higher average stator winding temperatures. The level of maintenance also needs consideration as one turbine can be exposed to severe dusty or moist conditions.
\n
\n
7.1. Adequacy of the SR model
\n
Linear regression models such as SR need to meet certain criteria for accurate modelling of relationship between variables. It is generally assumed that these relationships between the variables are linear for the modelling to be successful.
\n
\n
7.1.1. Significance of the model
\n
The coefficient of determination or R2 indicates how well the independent variables explain the variability in the dependant variable. The SR model calculated R2 = 0.911 for WT4 and R2 = 0.9234 for WT38. Although the value of R2 in both models is high, the ability of the models to predict stator-winding temperature accurately is not guaranteed. It does however indicate that GOP, NT and AT has a huge impact on the stator winding temperature.
\n
The F-test (value) confirms if the regression is significant. If the F-test falls to the left of the F-critical value in the F Distribution, the Null Hypothesis is accepted which means the regressors have no influence on the depended variable. If F-test > F-critical, the Null Hypothesis is rejected. The ANOVA Tables of both SR models in Table 4 shows that the regression is significant which means the models for both wind turbines are adequate. In Table 4 the p-values of the regressors are all less than 0.05, which also confirms the significance of the model.
\n
Table 4.
ANOVA statistics of SR.
\n
\n
\n
7.1.2. Using intrinsically linear models
\n
The use of intrinsically linear models allows linear regression to model nonlinear relationships through the transformation of the variables. In this study a 3rd degree polynomial regression model was applied to establish if it predicts stator-winding temperature more accurately than the straight-line model. The results of the polynomial regression models of WT4 and WT38 are shown inTable 5.
\n
Table 5.
Polynomial regression model.
\n
X—AT, NT and AP; X2—ATT, NTT and APP; X3—ATTT, NTTT and APPP.
\n
The value of R2 in the polynomial regression models show an improvement of less than 0.1% compared to the SR models. Therefore both models explain the variation in stator winding temperature by the independent variables with the same accuracy. The F-test of the SR model is much higher than the polynomial regression model, which means the SR model is more significant. The significance of the independent variables as determined by SR indicates that the linear independent variables are more important than the transformed independent variables. The SR model is simple, easy to implement and performs better than the polynomial regression model according to the various tests that were done. Considering the complexity and timeous development of the polynomial regression model, its application in this study is not justified.
\n
\n
\n
7.1.3. Performance of the SR models
\n
The regression model in this study is applied to identify abnormal high stator winding temperatures in the induction generator. Stator temperature SCADA logs of 10-minute intervals during November 2015 will be used as input to both wind turbine models. High stator winding temperatures outside the normal operating range of the generator can possibly be attributed to:
Physical damage of the stator winding;
Inadequate maintenance or cooling;
Incorrect measurements,
Equipment failure or
Adverse operating conditions.
\n
In WT4 where stator winding temperatures are below 40°C, the predicted temperatures by the SR model are higher than the actual temperatures. This over estimation can also be observed at the higher temperature ranges although the prediction errors are smaller. The SR model for WT38 has similar performances when the stator winding temperatures are below 40°C but has frequent under estimations at higher temperatures. The performances of the SR models for WT4 and WT38 are shown inFigures 6 and 7. Both models are able to predict the temperature trends in an acceptable manner and show very good accuracy when the stator winding temperatures are between 50°C and 90°C.
\n
Figure 6.
WT4 SR model performance.
\n
Figure 7.
WT38 SR model performance.
\n
The SR model deficiencies at the two extreme ends of the data distribution are possibly caused by nonlinear behaviour. These data points fall outside the three standard deviations of the normal distribution of temperature ranges as shown by Figure 7. There is a clear deviation by these data points away from the straight-line function used in SR model. Because wind turbines produces power below rated capacity the majority of the time, very low power regions just above the cut-in wind speed can result in different stator winding temperatures even if the environmental conditions are the same. These represent the stator winding temperatures below 40°C where the SR model performances are inadequate. Above rated speeds the wind turbine control system regulates its output power, which requires predominantly nonlinear control strategies. The rotor blade aerodynamics are changed rapidly to prevent excess power generation and loading on the wind turbine.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusion
\n
The aim of this study was to develop a new condition monitoring technique for stators in SCIGs. A statistical model was developed using SCADA data to estimate the relationships between winding temperatures and other variables. Predicting faults in stator windings are challenging because the unhealthy condition rapidly evolves into a functional failure. The analysis of SCADA data as a condition-monitoring tool for stator windings has been proven to be adequate. Active power, ambient and nacelle temperatures showed that the effects on stator winding temperature are significant as calculated by the statistical model. The capability of the model is proven in the analysis of the normal probability plots of the residuals, F-test and the value of R2. The statistical model performs very well when the wind turbine produces power at a constant rate below rated capacity. This operating region of the wind turbine has a more linear characteristic. Since a wind turbine spends the majority of the time in this operating region, the model can definitely be used as a conditioning monitoring tool for the SCIGs at Sere and similar wind farms.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"fault diagnosis, preventative maintenance, wind turbine, electrical generator, statistical model",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62967.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62967.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62967",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62967",totalDownloads:334,totalViews:303,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 28th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"November 7th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Vigilant fault diagnosis and preventive maintenance has the potential to significantly decrease costs associated with wind generators. As wind energy continues the upward growth in technology and continued worldwide adoption and implementation, the application of fault diagnosis techniques will become more imperative. Fault diagnosis and preventive maintenance techniques for wind turbine generators are still at an early stage compared to matured strategies used for generators in conventional power plants. The cost of wind energy can be further reduced if failures are predicted in advance of a major structural failure, which leads to less unplanned maintenance. High maintenance cost of wind turbines means that predictive strategies like fault diagnosis and preventive maintenance techniques are necessary to manage life cycle costs of critical components. Squirrel-Cage Induction Generators (SCIG) are the prevailing generator type and are more robust and cheaper to manufacturer compared to other generator types used in wind turbines. A statistical model was developed using SCADA data to estimate the relationships between winding temperatures and other variables. Predicting faults in stator windings are challenging because the unhealthy condition rapidly evolves into a functional failure.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62967",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62967",signatures:"Ian Kuiler, Marco Adonis and Atanda Raji",book:{id:"7501",title:"Fault Detection and Diagnosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fault Detection and Diagnosis",slug:"fault-detection-and-diagnosis",publishedDate:"November 7th 2018",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7501.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Wind energy overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Wind energy evolution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Wind energy cost",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Speed characteristics of wind turbines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Wind turbine classes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Wind turbines generator types",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. The squirrel cage induction generator",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Synchronous generators",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Failures in wind turbines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1. Wind turbine failures overview",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2. Generator failures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3. Stator failures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.3.1. Stator windings failures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.3.2. Stator wedge failures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.3.3. Bearing failures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Wind turbine maintenance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.1. Maintenance strategies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.2. Condition monitoring techniques in wind turbines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.3. Generator stator windings condition monitoring",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"6. System modelling and design",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.1. SCIG design parameters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"6.2. Prediction model for stator winding temperatures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"6.3. Evaluating the adequacy of the model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"6.4. Significance of regression model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"6.5. Analysis of residuals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"6.6. Intrinsically linear models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28",title:"7. Statistical model analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"7.1. Adequacy of the SR model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"7.1.3. Performance of the SR models",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'IRENA. Renewable Energy Benefits: Leveraging Local Capacity for Onshore Wind. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency; 2017\n'},{id:"B2",body:'IRENA. Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2017. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency; 2018\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Wu B, Lang Y, Zargari N, Kouro S. Power Conversion and Control of Wind Energy Systems. Piscataway, NJ, USA: IEEE Press; John Wiley & Sons; 2011\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Boccard N. Capacity factor of wind power realized values vs. estimates. Energy Policy. 2009;37(7):2679-2688\n'},{id:"B5",body:'EWEA. The economics of wind energy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2009\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Lazard, Lazard’s Levelized Cost of Energy Analysis. Version 11.0; November 2017\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Saheb-Koussa D, Haddadi M, Belhamel M, Koussa M, Noureddine S. Modeling and simulation of wind generator with fixed speed wind turbine under MATLAB-Simulink. Energy Procedia. 2012;18:701-708\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Bustos G, Vargas LS, Milla F, Sáez D, Zareipour H, Nuñez A. Comparison of fixed speed wind turbines models: A case study. In: Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IECON-2012), Montreal, Canada, October 25-28. 2012\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Murthy SS, Singh B, Goel PK, Tiwari SK. A comparative study of fixed speed and variable speed wind energy conversion systems feeding the grid. In: 7th International Conference on Power Electronics and Drive Systems. 2007. pp. 736-743\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Pao LY, Johnson KE. A tutorial on the dynamics and control of wind turbines and wind farms. In: American Control Conference, 2009. ACC’09. 2009. pp. 2076-2089\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Serrano-Gonzalez J, Lacal-Arantegui R. Technological evolution of onshore wind turbines—A market-based analysis. Wind Energy. 2016, 2016;19(12):2171-2187\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Mohammad S, Das N, Roy S. A review of the state of the art of generators and power electronics converter topologies for wind. 2013;3(3):283-291\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Soter S, Wegener R. Development of induction machines in wind power technology. IEEE International Electric Machines & Drives Conference. 2007;2:1490-1495\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Chen Y, Pillay P, Khan A, Member S. PM wind generator topologies. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 2005;41(6):1619-1626\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Gowdar RD, Mallikarjune Gowda MC. Reasons for wind turbine generator failures: A multi-criteria approach for sustainable power production. Renewables: Wind, Water, and Solar. 2016;3(1):9\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Hahn B, Durstewitz M, Rohrig K. Reliability of wind turbines. In: Wind Energy. 2007. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer; pp. 329-332. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-33866-6_62\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Shipurkar U, Ma K, Polinder H, Blaabjerg F, Ferreira JA. A review of failure mechanisms in wind turbine generator systems. In: 17th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE\'15 ECCE-Europe), Geneva. 2015. pp. 1-10\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Alewine K, Chen W. A review of electrical winding failures in wind turbine generators. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine. 2012;28(4):8-13\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Gao G, Chen W. Design challenges of wind turbine generators. In: IEEE Electr. Insul. Conf., no. June. 2009. pp. 146-152\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Tian Z, Jin T, Wu B, Ding F. Condition based maintenance optimization for wind power generation systems under continuous monitoring. Renewable Energy. 2011;36(5):1502-1509\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Agrawal KK, Pandey GN, Chandrasekaran K. Analysis of the condition based monitoring system for heavy industrial machineries. In: IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Computing Research, Enathi. 2013. pp. 1-4\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Yang W, Tavner PJ, Crabtree CJ, Feng Y, Qiu Y. Wind turbine condition monitoring: Technical and commercial challenges. Wind Energy. 2014;17(5):673-693\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Amirat Y, Benbouzid MEH, Al-Ahmar E, Bensaker B, Turri S. A brief status on condition monitoring and fault diagnosis in wind energy conversion systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2009;13(9):2629-2636\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Montgomery D, Runger G. Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers. 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley; 2014\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ian Kuiler",address:null,affiliation:'
Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
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Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. The values of our business are based on the same ones that all good scientists apply to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly, and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
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Openness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
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Disruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\\n\\n
What makes IntechOpen a great place to work?
\\n\\n
IntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\\n\\n
If this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\n\n
Openness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\n
Disruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\n
What makes IntechOpen a great place to work?
\n\n
IntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\n
If this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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