Input parameters used to estimate enteric methane emission factors for Gobra and Ndama cattle using the Tier 2 methodology and their sources.
\r\n\tSQL is worth learning because it’s a programming language that’s in demand in the tech industry and in other sectors that need technology. Most software developers who know SQL earn respectable salaries. Learning SQL can not only enhance your skills, but it can also give you a better understanding of the applications you work with daily. In this book, we will go through the details of SQL and how to use it effectively. The goal of this book is to have many practical application examples that will help learners easily acquire and self-study SQL.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-946-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-945-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-947-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"d1d908cd61561c1e813552fbd6cb9ed1",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Duc-Man Nguyen and Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11919.jpg",keywords:"Database Classification, Types of Databases, SQL Basic, Drop Statement, Aggregate Functions, Conversion Function, Date Function, Mathematical Functions, User-Defined Types, User-Defined Functions, String Data Type, Pivoting Data in SQL",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Nguyen Duc Man is a member of the DSA-Da Nang Software Association, Vietnam. He was awarded the Award for Excellent effort in Training and Management by the Duy Tan University, Vietnam for several years in a row, and received the Certificate of Merit for Excellent effort in Training and Management by the Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam. His current research interests are software testing, mobile testing, test automation, test case generation, context-driven testing, and ML for testing.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen received his Master of Engineering in Computer Science from the University of Danang, Vietnam in 2010, and a Ph.D. degree from Soongsil University, Korea, in 2017. He is currently a lecturer at the Vietnam - Korea University of Information and Communication Technology, the University of Danang. He has over 18 years of experience teaching and researching programming, databases, machine learning, information retrieval, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227628",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Duc-Man",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"duc-man-nguyen",fullName:"Duc-Man Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227628/images/system/227628.jpg",biography:'1.\tName:\tNguyen Duc Man\n\tOffice: Room 601, 254 Nguyen Van Linh, Danang, Vietnam\n\tTel: +84-2363 650 403 (Ext 601)\n Mobi: 0904 235 945\n\tEmail: mannd@duytan.edu.vn\n\n2.\tEducation:\nBSc.\tInformation Technology\tDuy Tan University, Vietnam\t1999\nMSc.\tComputer Science\tDanang University, Vietnam\t2009\nPhD.\tComputer Science\tDuy Tan University, Vietnam\t2020\n\n3.\tAcademic experience:\nDuy Tan University, Vietnam\tTeaching\tLecturer\t2004- Present\tFT\n\t\n4.\tNon-academic experience:\nHSD Corporation, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam\tAnalysis, Design and Code, DB Design\tSoftware Developer\t1999-2001\tFT\nDuy Tan Software Center, Vietnam\tTeam leader, Planning, A&D\tProject Lead\t2001-2003\tFT\n\n5.\tCertifications or professional registrations:\n-\tCertificate for completion of Train the Trainer courses (Software Capstone Project, Requirements Engineering, Software Architecture, Software Project management, software Process and Quality management, Software Integration Practices). Institute of Software Research, Carnegie Mellon University, USA. (2010, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019).\n-\t7 Professional Development Hours for participation in the Fundamentals of Program Assessment Workshop, ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\t7 Professional Development Hours for participation in the Self-Study Development Workshop ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\t14 Professional Development Hours for participation at the 2017 ABET\nSymposium, ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\tSoftware Testing and Automation Conference. VISTACON 2011, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam (2011).\n-\tFagan Software Inspection Method. ECCI Group, Vietnam (2011).\n-\tHP Train the Trainer courses: HP QTP, LoadRunner, Quality Center (2011).\n\n6.\tMembership in professional organizations:\n-\tMember of DSA-Da Nang Software Association, Vietnam.\n\n7.\tHonors and awards:\n-\tAwards for Excellent effort in Training and Management. Duy Tan University, Vietnam (2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012).\n-\tCertificate of Merit for Excellent effort in Training and Management. Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam (2008- 2009, 2010- 2011, 2013- 2014).\n-\tCertificate of Merit of the People Committee of Da Nang. Danang, Vietnam (2011-2012).\n\n8.\tService activities:\n-\tInstitutional service: \n•\tStudents’ Awards Committee \n•\tFaculty Development Committee \n•\tScholarship Committee \n•\tFaculty Council \n\n9.\tPublications and presentations from the past five years:\n\n1.\t\tCheng, Y. H., Chang, P. C., Nguyen, D. M., & Kuo, C. N. (2020). Automatic Music Genre Classification Based on CRNN. Engineering Letters, 29(1).\n2.\t\tHuynh, Q. T., Pham, L. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, D. M. (2020). An Effective Approach for Context Driven Testing in Practice—A Case Study. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, 30(09), 1245-1262.\n3.\t\tNguyen, D. M., Huynh, Q. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, T. H. (2020). Automated test input generation via model inference based on user story and acceptance criteria for mobile application development. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, 30(03), 399-425.\n4.\t \tNguyen, D. M., Do, H. N., Huynh, Q. T., Vo, D. T., & Ha, N. H. (2018, August). Shinobi: A Novel Approach for Context-Driven Testing (CDT) Using Heuristics and Machine Learning for Web Applications. In International Conference on Industrial Networks and Intelligent Systems (pp. 86-102). Springer, Cham.\n5.\t\tHoang-Nhat, D. O., NGUYEN, D. M., HUYNH, Q. T., & Nhu-Hang, H. A. (2018). One2Explore-Graph Builder for Exploratory Testing from a Novel Approach.\n6.\t\tNguyen, M. D., Huynh, T. Q., & Nguyen, T. H. (2016, November). Improve the Performance of Mobile Applications Based on Code Optimization Techniques Using PMD and Android Lint. In International Symposium on Integrated Uncertainty in Knowledge Modelling and Decision Making (pp. 343-356). Springer, Cham.\n7.\t\tBao Le Nguyen, Nguyen Duc Man, Minh Nguyen Cong and Luong Vo Van (2013). Difficulties in the Operation of an International Program in Vietnam. FICAP-1 Proceedings, BrownWalker Press, 2013, ISBN-13: 9781612337043.\n8.\t\tDuc Nguyen Duc Man, Tien Vu Truong, Nguyen Bao Le (2013). Deployment of Capstone Projects in Software Engineering Education at Duy Tan University as Part of a University-wide Project-based Learning Effort. Learning and Teaching in Computing and Engineering (LaTiCE), IEEE Computer Society -CPS, 2013, E-ISBN :978-0-7695-4960-6 (pp. 184 -191).\n9.\t\tGia Nhu Nguyen, Nhat Tan Tran, Thanh Trung Nguyen and Nguyen Duc Man (2014). The Benefits of CDIO for ABET Preparation from a Hands-on Study in Vietnam. Proceedings of the 10th International CDIO Conference. Barcelona \n10.\t\tVu T Truong, Bao N Le, Man N Duc, Thang M Nguyen (2014). Accessing the Maturity of Teamwork Capabilities through CDIO Projects. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International CDIO Conference. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.\n11.\t\tPhuong A Pham, Man D Nguyen, Long Q Nguyen, Thang M Nguyen, Bao N Le (2014). Learning Computer Programming In Cdio’s Team Settings. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International CDIO Conference. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.\n12.\t\tVo, Q. N., Tran, N. P., Van Dat Ngo, V. H. T., Huynh, Q. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, D. M. LEVERAGE THE BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY TO MANAGE SMART CONTRACT IN ASSET TRADING. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị KHCN Quốc gia lần thứ XII về Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin (FAIR); Huế, ngày 07-08/6/2019 DOI: 10.15625/vap.2019.00032\n\n13.\t\tHa, N. H., Nguyen, D. M., Liu, C. A., Van Van, T., Nguyen, A. D., & Huynh, Q. T. AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF THE MPOS SYSTEM ON THE PROCESS CHANGE OF RESTAURANTS. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị KHCN Quốc gia lần thứ XII về Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin (FAIR); Huế, ngày 07-08/6/2019 DOI: 10.15625/vap.2019.00032\n\n14.\t\tNguyễn Thanh Hùng, Nguyễn Đức Mận, Huỳnh Quyết Thắng (2019), Thử Nghiệm Đánh Giá Áp Dụng Một Số Kỹ Thuật Kiểm Thử Để Nâng Cao Độ Tin Cậy Cho Ứng Dụng Di Động Trong Môi Trường Phát Triển Linh Hoạt. Section on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) - No. 13, Journal of Science and Technique - Le Quy Don Technical University - No. 199, ISSN 1859-0209\n15.\t\tHuỳnh Quyết Thắng, Nguyễn Đức Mận, Nguyễn Thị Bảo Trang, Nguyễn Thị Anh Đào (2016). Kỹ thuật kiểm thử hồi qui hiệu quả cho phát triển ứng dụng di động. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị khoa học công nghệ quốc gia lần thứ IX, ngày 4-5/8/2016 - "Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin" (FAIR 2016), trang 255-265. Nhà xuất bản Khoa học tự nhiên và Công nghệ. ISBN 978-604-913-472-2\n\n10.\tRecent professional development activities:\n-\tCoordinator and Assistant Director of ACM/ICPC Asia Regional Contest, Danang, Vietnam (2013). \n-\tParticipated in the 7th National Conference on Fundamental and Applied IT Research (2014).\n-\tAttended the 7 Professional Development Hours the Fundamentals of Program Assessment Workshop (2017).\n-\tParticipated in the 12th National Conference on Fundamental and Applied IT Research (2019).\n-\tINISCOM 2018, INISCOM 2019, KSE 2019, CITA2021, CITA2022\n-\tAttended the CDIO Regional Meeting - Asia-Pacific (2019).',institutionString:"Duy Tan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Duy Tan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"473326",title:"Dr.",name:"Van-Loi",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"van-loi-nguyen",fullName:"Van-Loi Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003Sa5QKQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:01:50.jpg",biography:"Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen received his Master of Engineering in Computer Science from the University of Danang, Vietnam in 2010, and a Ph.D. degree from Soongsil University, Korea in 2017. He is currently a lecturer at the Vietnam - Korea University of Information and Communication Technology, the University of Danang. He has over 18 years of experience teaching and researching in the fields of programming, databases, machine learning, information retrieval, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.",institutionString:"University of Danang",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429342",firstName:"Zrinka",lastName:"Tomicic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429342/images/20008_n.jpg",email:"zrinka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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It is the foundation of society itself, as it implies an interaction between interlocutors and therefore an exchange, that can be social, interpersonal, verbal, nonverbal, analogical, digital and so on. During the evolution process, the majority of the animal species developed the ability of conveying and receiving messages that could be understood by every member of the same species. These messages may be about: reporting of food or warning of danger, sexual desire, prohibition linked to the social hierarchy, the will to play (which may be found in cubs) and so on. Even newborns are able to communicate in a comprehensible way and the adults who take care of them are able to understand and reply to their messages.
All these forms of communication belong to the nonverbal type and are extremely varied and complex. In each species, the nervous system has evolved so that it could decode and produce nonverbal and at times very complex messages. The human brain is “naturally” suitable to communicate in a nonverbal way within our species. Moreover, the human form of nonverbal communication, which until 4–5 million years ago was identical to the one of chimpanzees, has evolved even more, becoming extremely sophisticated and allowing humans to interact and cooperate in a more and more well-structured way [1].
How preschool and school children communicate today? Do they prefer verbal or nonverbal channel? Do they use their body? What is the task of Kindergarten and Primary school teachers to encourage the nonverbal channel?
Communicating means sending, passing down, handing over, notifying, making see, making feel, describing, meeting, spending, infecting, sharing, connecting, share with others what belongs to us. Communicate means so many things and can mean nothing: it all depends on the meaning we want to give to the word itself and on the way we act to achieve the aim [2].
Communication is linked to the exchange of information between two or more entities capable of produce and receive signals, but, to do it at best, it is necessary to pay attention to have consistency between the explicit message, given by the verbal language, and the implicit message, transmitted by using the nonverbal language. Although it may seem obvious, the two types of message do not go hand in hand, so that communication can leave the interlocutor in a situation of ambiguity and uncertainty towards the other one. In that case, he tends to rely on the message got nonverbally, compared to the verbal one, which is more spontaneous and more difficult to hide [3].
A communicative event, besides the fundamental abilities of “know the language”, “know how to do the language” and “know how to do with the language”, requires complementary abilities. The complementary ability par excellence is the emotional intelligence, discovered in 1990 by Salovery and Mayer, who defined as “the ability to control ourselves and others feelings and emotions, distinguish between them and use this information to guide his own thoughts and actions”.
Therefore, communication is the process of transmission of an idea or emotion from one person to another through facial expressions, gestures, speech or via means of communication like writing, telephone, radio, television, etc. Communication skill can be defined as “one’s ability to express his/her emotions, ideas, beliefs and attitudes comprehensibly way and relevantly” [4].
About it, Mehrabian (1967), having regard to the results of his research, has pointed out the importance of nonverbal communication for years. His studies determined that of any given message, only thirty–five percent is verbal; the remaining sixty–five percent is communicated through various nonverbal channels. The nonverbal component of a message includes movements and body position which we unconsciously sense but often overlook. The major part of any message is conveyed through non-verbal channels, but then why do the education system, from the first childhood, takes the most of his time and efforts in ensuring that children master the thirty–five percent of communication, which means words?
The ability to communicate is an essential skill that has roots in early childhood. Children begin communicating from birth, but they need attention of adults, be they parents or caregivers, so they can develop communicative skills to express themselves clearly and confidently. Parents are the young child’s first teachers of communication who help him to master non-verbal and verbal communication through listening, watching and responding to the sounds, communicative gestures and language the child uses [5]. The child learns to know the body language by observing the one of the adult and by imitating him, that’s why the first step to improve communicative abilities is to recognise non-verbal signs that we are sending in relation to the verbal ones sent.
Therefore, this research try to investigate and consider all aspects of nonverbal communication in today society, focusing on a target audience of preschool and school children.
In 1967, Mehrabian claims that, daily, the human being communicates through three different channels (Figure 1):
verbal, composed of words and content, that accounts on the communication for 7%;
paraverbal, composed of tone of voice and rhythm of word, that accounts for 38%;
nonverbal, composed of gesture, mimicry, posture, proxemics, that accounts for 55%.
Therefore, verbal channel, even though it is considered the main communication channel, accounts for 10% in living beings communication; more than 90% of what is communicated is not given by words, so it is not verbal, it does not come out of the mouth and it is not received by ears.
This distribution is not related to a particular age group or to a temporary vital moment; in fact, at the moment when, growing, the use of word is acquired, the nonverbal transmission aspects of messages are not lost, they become a particular feature of every person. Many of these attitudes are linked to a characteristic of the person itself, while others are more properly identifiable in each of us, at the moment we are in a specific situation, with a specific mood [3].
Nonverbal communication is a highly efficient and pervasive means of interpersonal exchange [6]; therefore, in a communication, the aspects that have to be considered are not only the verbal ones (digital language), that is, related to the meaning of words and on <what>, but also the nonverbal ones (analogical language), that is, related on <how> [7].
Know the nonverbal language is therefore very important to communicate well, to transmit or interpret others messages, to hear and understand at the same time.
The essential aim of a communication is that it results effective; the communication effectiveness, encouraged by nonverbal communication and his main elements, comes from the mood of the interlocutor and from the aim that the interlocutor wants to give to the communication. If these components are missing, the risk is to obtain the opposite effect or at least different from intentions.
What makes a message incisive and productive, combined with a clear and effective verbal channel, is the body. This is the first means with which the individual experience the environment, it is the first communication channel between him and the others, between his inner and the outside world. The body expression, intended as the spontaneous nonverbal demonstration of every of our acts, precedes and comes with communicative and artistic techniques [8].
Body language is a universal language code, with a no precise syntax, but with strong cultural influences, in fact, to be understood, it has to be inserted in his reference cultural context. The socio-cultural context is the main learning form of body language, but it is passed on even by daily and family relationships and it remains by lived experiences [1].
Voluntarily or involuntarily the body is the means by which we appear to others. It communicates, through subjective ways, our most deep and true feelings, it reveals our moods and our emotions: that’s the reason why it becomes essential the importance of being conscious of what our body can tell about us, so that to send or understand better messages and have a better relationship with ourselves and with others.
Human beings, since birth, are capable of emotion and recognise feelings. The major need of the human being is to have the possibility to reveal his own emotional language, by communicating his own feelings. But too often, words are not enough to express completely the sense and the meaning of feelings; in this way, they come out through the body language, through the face, through attitudes, etc. Expressions and external modifications represent, therefore, internal expressions and mutations, with which they are always in connection.
So, an excited body allows people establish relations with each other through the deepest level of communication [9].
Nonverbal communication is composed of different components, each of which, in turn, includes various elements describing small parts [3]. The main components of non-verbal communication are 4:
paralanguage;
kinesics;
proxemics;
haptics.
Being able to recognise all these parameters gradually, from the first development, within the communication, means realise the inner state of a person to handle a dialogue and maintain a climate of confidence, by adjusting our intervention.
Paralinguistic is the study of intonations and inflexions of the voice. Paralinguistic system concerns the prosody, that is, the trend and the dynamic of phonatory flux [10]. This is considered the main element of a communication, both to characterise the real meaning and his significant. The voice and his characteristics such as duration, intensity, tone, intonation, modulated by the reference culture, can reveal subjective and relational feelings and emotions such as anxiety, fear, anger, pain and joy, especially through the rhythm modulation, the intonation and the speech intensity. In addition, in communication, the trend of the rhythm is modified by pauses, that are distinguished in empty and full pauses. Full pauses are the typical interjections (mmm, ehm…) without a verbal meaning, that are inserted between two sentences; empty pauses, on the other hand, represent silence.
Kinesics involves all communicative acts that are expressed by body movements, by the expression of the face and by gestures, both voluntary and involuntary, mostly linked to emotions. These signals sent by the body most of the time can be interpreted.
Posture, which means the position of the body or parts of it, is a very significant factor or communication because it reveals different information about the subject: basic attitude, mood and self-image, but interlocutors must be “good readers” to avoid being deceived by appearances. It is dynamic and it changes continuously during the interaction, by signalling and showing internal emotions or particular attitudes to the parties involved. Posture is determined by different factors: the psychic component, since it depends on emotional dynamics inherent in the relationship between the individual and all others; anatomical components, as is the morphological and muscular conformation or pathologies that determine the posture; proprioceptive capacity, on which depends the static and dynamic self-perception that affects the position of the body [1, 3, 11].
Clearly, there is no model posture, but on the contrary, it varies according to all social and context elements, to the situation, to people and to the dialogue type [12]. Some studies have shown even the presence of the “Chameleon effect”: the tendency to adopt the partner positions during the social interaction [11].
The face expression is the communicative means par excellence and it can be defined as such thanks to mimicry and look, which allow the inscription of state of mind and emotions on the face, as well as interpersonal attitudes. In fact, the face is the most observed part of the body by interlocutors; particularly, look is the channel by which the nonverbal message is sent and helps to perceive nonverbal messages sent by others [13]. This last is characterised by intensity, duration and direction; these elements vary according to the level of intimacy between the parties, to behind emotions and social value in a specific cultural context.
Eye contact, during a conversation, serves to send and collect information, has the function of acquire the partner feedback; in addiction, it promotes the climate of cooperation and is a power signal to obtain consent. Eye contact is the first important step to start every interpersonal relationship, whether it is positive or negative. In fact, reciprocity and frequency of looks represent an indication of directness, transparency and trustworthiness of the interlocutor and are linked to positive emotion, like joy and tenderness, while negative emotions like disgust or embarrassment require a swerve of the eye from the interlocutor. Eye contact plays a central role also in conversation scheme to modulate empathy [14] and to suggest the speaking time between speakers. Therefore, eye contact is essential to collect and receive information, whether parties intend to communicate with the eyes or not.
On the other hand, smile, one of the fundamental signs of human species, plays important functions in social interactions: can act as regulator of social relations, as promoter of relational affinity by representing an attitude of relational availability or interpersonal closeness, as information tool [15]. It is strongly related to social interaction, not the emotional state. Smiles are divided in “Duchenne1” (natural, genuine) and “Non-Duchenne” (false, forced): the first smiles involve both muscles lifting the corners of the mouth and muscles surrounding the eyes and reflecting the positive affect; the second smiles, concern only muscles lifting the corners of the mouth and are considered like masked smiles, often produced in absence of positive affects [16].
In 2010, Bonaiuto enhance that <<through eyebrow and forehead movements, eyes displacement, use of the smile, in fact, the face express emotions and interpersonal attitudes>>.
Finally, gestures are movements of hands or the body, coordinated motor actions, that allow a more rapid and efficient communication system which goes beyond words and verbal language [17]. Gestures are immediate, since with one only gesture a lot of information is sent which would need lot of words, and incisive, because requiring a minimum sending time with respect to a verbal message.
Additionally, gestures can be conscious and unconscious. Conscious gestures are movements made voluntarily to make clearer the message to the interlocutor, unconscious gestures are activated regardless our intention and express the current mood (for example cold sweat, red cheeks, etc.).
Gestures can be directly related to the speech
Proxemics is the semiologic discipline that studies individuals behaviour, space and distances inside a communication [11]. The proxemic components of communication is therefore in strong relation with space and its occupation; that’s why it is called proxemic space: this space has to be considered as the minimum subjective space that a person draws around her. Even though this distance could apparently seem causal, actually there are very precise rules and it vary according to the type of the existing relationship [11].
In this regard, E. T. Hall2 defined four interpersonal zones:
the intimate area (0–45 cm) reserved to some close relatives and the partner,
the personal area (45–120 cm) used for relatives and friends,
the social area (1,2–3,5 cm) used for interactions between acquaintances or formal meetings,
the public area (over 3,5 cm) synonym for public relations of official occasions.
The physical distance helps to understand the existing relationship between interlocutors, even is the radius of these zones varies necessarily according to the crowding, to the age, to sex, and to the importance of interlocutors. Moreover, the physical distance signs to every individual the relationship built with beloved persons, friendly people and the world in general, by making him conscious of the relationships he is living.
Haptics focuses on body contact in managing relational and communicative dynamics. Communicative messages expressed through physical contact can be codified or spontaneous; codified communicative forms are those universal and conventional, such as handshake, kisses on cheeks, while spontaneous communicative forms are not conventional and they are subjective. Contact, additionally, can be mutual, like a handshake, or individual, wanted by only one person and that, for one reason or another, is not returned. In fact, the body contact, which influences the nature and the quality of the relationship and which express various interpersonal attitudes, has multiple effects: can, on one hand, facilitate empathy and socialisation, on the other hand, create discomfort, harass, annoy and raise negative reaction. Moreover, some zones of human body allow the contact only between people in close relationship and, equally to distances and proxemics, the contacts show a major or minor intimacy between individuals.
Finally, haptic system does not consider only gestures with which we touch others and we enter into relationship with them, but even self-contact gestures, as is, those referred to ourselves. These behaviours allow to the individual to adapt to external stimulus, because they allow the manipulation of a part of the body (for example the gesture of rub the arms to calm down) [11]. Psychoanalyst Anna Maria Sepe has identified the most frequent self-touch gestures and she group them as follow: touching hair (gesture used as tranquilliser), rubbing the root of the nose (gesture that express rejection), touching the throat (gesture that communicate anxiety and agitation).
Last studies concerning communication involve also chronemics and vestemics between the main components of nonverbal communication.
Chronemics is the science that studies the perception, the organisation and the manifestation of the time in human contexts. Every individual has a personal rhythm and does not know that of the other, or he takes for granted that every rhythm is the same as his. This can lead to discomfort and dystonia at the moment in with rhythms don’ match; communication, instead, could result synchronic at the moment in which there is a regular and flowing communicative flux [10].
Vestemics is the system referred to the physical structure, to clothing and personal ornaments, therefore we can speak about physical appearance; this last, subjected to constant changes of fashion, involves, as well as clothes, even makeup, hairstyle, accessories, belonging objects, status symbol signals. Consequently, tends to influence what others think about us, as it leads to self-presentation, it helps to provide our image in interpersonal relationships, both private or public.
Ultimately, is useful, while observing a person, do not focus only on one of the elements of nonverbal communication (only hand gestures) or on one dimension (only kinesics behaviour), but consider all dimensions and also the person in his/her uniqueness and context in which the person is [3].
As already said, nonverbal communication is used to send messages of the body, to express emotional states, attitudes, emotions, one’s personality, to strengthen verbal expressions, to send feedback and signals in order to achieve better empathy with the interlocutor [1].
It has function:
Individual-expressive, to satisfy interior affective needs;
Cognitive, to relate the subject with the external world;
Psychological-developmental, to build the individual autonomy and awareness relating to the external world;
Cultural-social, to transmit history and culture of a society.
Nonverbal communication is therefore used for:
Establish interpersonal relationships: it can be considered as “relationship language”; through nonverbal language there is the possibility to influence others behaviour: according to the way we act in front of the interlocutor, he will act accordingly. If, for example, we act in a way that expresses a sense of superiority, it is at least possible that the who is in front of us will act in a defiant attitude. It has been observed, In the wake of Mehrabian studies, how nonverbal language has major power than verbal communication, in influence others behaviour [3]. Consequently, the most used signals are gestures, voice tone, posture, mimicry and look, that allow to express our feelings with regard to other persons and create relationships between interlocutors. These signals are the first that have been used to communicate and represent the first means of expression in the relationship infant-mother.
Show the personality: it allows to express the image of ourselves and introduce to others. Face expression, look, gestures and movements make it clear the personality of who is in front of us. Sometimes we try to send controlled o modified nonverbal signals to give a better presentation of us.
Support verbal language: nonverbal signals, linked to what it is said, influence this last and give more information to the interlocutor. Nonverbal signals complete the verbal communication and have a meta-communicative function, as they supply elements to interpret verbal expression.
Express emotions: interlocutors are capable of understand and recognise body status and moods through the analysis of face, eyes, gestures, postures and voice tone.
Culture has strong and pervasive influences in communication [18]. Verbal and non-verbal languages are determined by cultures, that is, they are not natural and equal for all regardless of cultures but they change depending on cultures themselves [19, 20]. Understand cultural foundations of the communication, in today’s multicultural and pluralistic world, is an essential help for human beings to handle a conversation. The lack of knowledge of cultural aspects, that extend beyond of the purely linguistic knowledge, can lead to the rise of misunderstandings and communicative problems for interlocutors [20], who stop the social coordination and increase the conflict potential [18]. It’s easier for people coming from expressive cultures (Mediterranean cultures, Latin American …) to judge as untrustworthy, inscrutable, smart, misleading or elusive those belonging to reserved culture. At the same time, it’s easier for people coming from reserved cultures (Asian, northern European…) to judge as arrogant, noisy, immature or vulgar.
Hall, in 1968, remarks that people of different cultures, as well as speaking different languages, live different sensory worlds, set according to cultural influences. Therefore, it is usual that in multicultural communication a different perceptive way could lead to contrasting meanings and obstacle to communication. In such context, recognise a nonverbal signal, do not always lead to an adequate interpretation of its meaning. Consequently, it’s easier to misunderstand, especially when we suppose, perhaps unconsciously, that a particular behaviour has the same meaning in every culture.
Nonverbal communication components vary considerably according to the reference culture: native and stranger speaker communicative competences depend on different cultural background, is therefore clear what are the inconveniences that could arise after have used or interpreted gestures that can be innocent in a language but rude and insulting in another. In fact, gestures, can be more or less conventional, but it is important to know that they show relevant cultural variations, especially for what concerning emblems (gestures with the verbal meaning that id different from word, like the OK signal) and the sign language, used by deaf-mute. The knowledge of gestures and their specific use can be very useful, particularly to know when use them as to not appear ridiculous or rude.
Face expressions and smiles are universal and biologically instinctual, in fact, they have the same meaning in all nations, but culture plays an important role in moderating their use [18]. For what concerning eye contact, it has strong cultural influences: for example, Eastern people tend to look a stranger person for a long time, thing that can be particular according to Western people.
The use of silence, on the other hand, has an ambiguous and ambivalent nature, in fact his meaning varies according to the situational context, the type of relationship of the participant of the communication act, the reference culture [10]; as a matter of fact, Westerners, who are constantly surrounded by a life characterised by din, perceive silence as resignation, powerlessness, and paradoxically connect it to death or disgrace; the Eastern culture instead, is still perceiving and living silence as a force that reaches the bottom of someone’s inner reality, digs down into it, and that is able to protect the individual. Just as much as the voice tone that, used in a conversation both high or low, varies according to the discussing topic and the cultural influence, but in general, as shown by Matsumoto and Hwang in 2013, expressive cultures encourage the use of higher vocal tones, while in restricted cultures, the voice tone is weaker and lower [18]. So, different vocal tones can cause embarrassment, discomfort and misunderstandings, especially if interlocutors are from different cultures [20].
Proxemics first of all depends on culture; for example, during a communication situation, distant for an Asian person, is shorter than the one of a European person. Moreover, inside the same culture, proxemics is influenced by the type of the existing relationship: there’s a restricted space, same for everyone in the world, inside of which are included only affectively close people. This space is enlarged in case of working relationships and increases more and more as quickly as people in front of us are less known and are perceived as more far away [1].
Body contact and the effects, favourable or not to relations, depend on the subject and his personal inclination, but also cultural differences play a crucial role. There are countries in which contact is frequent and intense (like those Arabian and Latin American) and others in which the contact is even forbidden.
In public relation, vestemic system influences the communication and leads to relations of dominance and persuasion between individuals. Especially in modern society, more and more people give importance to external appearance, not only given by the way of clothing and dressing up, but also given by the purely physical condition, by considering it a benchmark in the relationship choice. Different persons have major or minor confidence even through the way of dressing and the choice of personal objects that often act as status symbol [21].
Finally, it is important that the interaction between interlocutors is adequate from the point of view of chronemics (as is, that respects others’ rhythms), so that the communication results effective: each individual has a personal rhythm and does not know the ones of other people, or presumes that they are identical to his; this can lead to awkwardness and dystonia, and it happens when rhythms do not correspond with each other, while when a regular and fluid communication flow is established, communication is synchronous [10]. In modern world, this aspect of communication is very neglected, mostly in Western culture. The time, in fact, in the fast culture if western world is not considered as a resource or an asset to spend in communication, but it is actually lived in a completely frenetic way, in a temporary perspective always future-oriented and economically respecting the “time is money” rule. On the other hand, in Eastern culture, the time has not yet been charged of these negative meaning and it is not lived with such anguish, people live in view in which “time is relation”.
In conclusion, being expert in nonverbal communication and knowing the main analogical and intercultural differences, allows to establish effective and beneficial communicative relationships, even ignoring completely o partially interlocutors language.
Communication, especially from the nonverbal point of view, assumes a basic position in personal and social development of every individual. With children communication assumes a relevant aspect even in relationship because it is necessary to adjust and moderate every message according to their age. Knowing and understanding how the child’s brain matures, when it reaches specific competences, when it is capable of doing specific types of mental operations, can be a very big help for adults, both parents and teachers, which daily interact with children. Working on the way to communicate of the adult with the child at school and at home (but even during free time) can truly make the difference for significance relationships of life. Talk in a respectful, empathic and friendly way to children is an attitude that helps a lot in little daily difficulties and during learning times, that brings real harmony affective moments with children, which ask constantly to the reference adult to help and understand them.
For a healthy development, the child, since birth, needs to live daily communicative situations that are challenging, rewarding and most of all clear. With the beginning of kindergarten, the student, who is living a great development moment both physical, cognitive and especially lexical, gets in touch constantly with peers and adults, with which he spends time and establishes solid and significant relationships, by communicating regularly, giving and receiving information [22]. It is therefore important that kindergarten gives to students effective communicative exchanges, that are adequate to subjects age, by increasing in them cognitive and relational curiosity. The key role is the one of the teacher: as communication is an important component of early years education, pre-school teachers also need to have adept communication skills [4]. He has to transit to students not only didactic information, but also rules applicable in the society, for example he has to be able to teach them to communicate effectively to solve in the right way their problems or inconveniences, without the use of verbal or physical violence. However, a good communication is based on empathy and listening, both of the teacher and the student.
Focusing on languages development steps, it must be kept in mind that preschool children, between 3 and 5 years, still need to learn using properly the verbal and nonverbal coherence principle3; to do so they have to concentrate and rely on nonverbal signals, despite their salience during the incoherent communication.
2003 research by Eskritt and Lee suggests that children below 5 years old do not have this capacity yet, that can be acquired during primary school; therefore, during the pre-school age, for a lot of children is difficult to understand an interlocutor’s mixed message (in which the verbal shows to be different from the non-verbal or even contradictory), finding thems99elves in a position where they have to choose a source on which they can concentrate. Most of the time, the verbal part of the message is chosen, while sometimes people rely on the non-verbal part, but only when these messages are salient, exaggerated. The research has shown also that preschool children have just start recognise the importance of intention of the speaker in communication; with the rising of the mind theory beyond the preschool years, children can develop the capacity of deduce the communicative intention of a speaker when he/she communicates in an incoherent way [23].
In addition, during this period, children, according to Boyatzis and Satyaprasad research [24], have developed major capacities for what concerning decoding, so the interlocutor emotions and gestures understanding, rather than coding, as is the production thereof [24].
So, many researchers argue that preschool years are a critical period for the development of the language; is therefore important to understand all factors that can potentially influence or interact with language development during this period. Assessment and monitoring of language and communication development should be integrated into each country’s healthcare settings, alongside easy and timely access to quality early interventions and services, in case the child experiences difficulties in communication and language development [5, 25].
Preschool children, which was mentioned earlier, prefer the body as means of communication; this allows them to handle themselves, to be conscious of themselves and support the development of the person in all dimensions. The way to communicate nonverbally can have long term effects on how children listen, act, process information and talk to others; therefore, it is necessary to analyse non-verbal characteristics in order to determine emotions shown by aforementioned [16].
Word and gesture, as already demonstrated, are intimately interwoven. This strong relationship between gesture and word, emerges soon in life and gets stronger when children learn the language. The gesture, influenced by cultural differences and personal social status, has a particularly important role during starting language development. Children, when using gestures when they are not yet able to produce word and combining words and gestures when their repertoires are still limited, increase their communicative potential and communicate over the ability of their talking way [17].
Up to 3 years infants do not combine gestures with words, then they arrive to a turning point in which they start to combine them and synchronise le production of gestures and words. The start of this combination, in correspondence of kindergarten, announces a new linguistic developing phase of children and expands notably the range of their communicative systems. These characteristics of semantic integration and temporal sync, characterise the relationship between gesture and language even in adults. In fact, children from 3 years use gestures like adults [26].
As for adults, even for children, the use of gestures during a speech supports the collection of information from the memory and it lightens, by acting as an instrument, the charge of cognitive work of vocal process, by facilitating the lexical research [25].
In addition, Goldin-Meadow, Cook and Mitchell’s 2009 research, showed a strong relation between gesture learning: in fact, the use of gestures helps children learning, therefore, the teacher has to stimulate it. For example, Clark et al., in 1974, showed that indicative gestures of adult speakers have helped understanding adults speech. Tfouni and Klatzky, in 1983, discovered that indicative gestures help children understanding the meaning of deictic words as, for example, “this”. In 2008, McGregor reported a series of studies that show that hand gestures used in communication adult-child have been functional for the acquisition of an early vocabulary. Gesturing, by students, increases their implicit knowledge and prepares them to learning [17, 25].
As already said, gestures can be more or less conventional, but every child is different, so it is important to pass time with him to learn his gestures and meanings. It is fundamental, during Primary school, to promote the transition from the dimension of spontaneous expression to that of intentional gestural communication [1].
Smile is one of the first mechanisms of social intelligence that is developed by children, to the point that 90% of infants has already smiled during the first two months of life. When one relates to such young subjects, a smile can reduce many barriers during the communication; a smile is also able to create a comfortable situation, that “connects” the subjects, provides and opens the communication channels. This aspect has strong cultural roots; therefore, the essence and intensity of children smiles varies according to the sociality and the culture to which they belong [16]: as a matter of fact, in the same occasions we smile neither in the same way nor with the same frequency. At first, children find it easy to smile and laugh, but their culture can inhibit their spontaneity, especially in girls, insisting on the fact that a woman should be introverted and reserved with advancing age. To the boys, on the other hand, could be taught to hide their feelings, as a sign of masculinity, with the result that, besides the tears, they will inhibit also a smile or a laugh. Ultimately, it seems that a child inherits a raw action, and then refines it with social experience. A person who belongs to an expansive culture could judge insincere a smile of another person who belongs to a more reserved culture, when in reality it’s just an attenuated form of expression, conveyed by the cultural contest of belonging. In this case, knowing how to be on the specific wavelength of the culture with which one gets in touch becomes essential.
Look is linked to the internal emotive component of children: the expression of his own emotions, in fact, supply information on the internal status of the child that, at the same time through look direction (that is eye movement), check the stimulation that he sends or perceives. Therefore, the child look can have a different functional meaning according to social-scientific relevance of stimulus. So, focusing on the combined role of the smile, the look and the emotive expression, researchers examining the early affective development in developing subjects, claim that children smile more when they look people and interact with them [14].
In general, children do not have the same capacity as adults to filter, cover and hide their own emotions, so they tend to show always their feelings. Facial expressions generally arise what a child is thinking or feeling and it is very easy to understand when he likes something or not.
The space is a very important aspect, in fact, since birth are necessary relationships that are built inside an intimate and personal space. But age is an aspect that affects the space use; in fact, a research has shown that from 3 years old to almost 21, personal space increase gradually and constantly. This has been demonstrated both in naturalistic and experimental contexts. However, Proxemics is not influenced only by age, but also by cultural, familiar and gender differences [11]. The teacher, in fact, has to try to establish physical contact with his/her students, but respecting times and modality of each one of them; if not he/she risks to invade the student personal space by creating inconveniences and negative reactions, that affect the relation and the development of the child.
Throughout history, experts have succeeded in formulate various strategies to try to improve non-verbal communication in children, included those with disabilities. For example, children, especially those with ASD, often need to be taught about eye contact or to hold body contact. Eye contact can be stimulated and taught by holding objects, that they draw their attention, in front of own eyes; as time goes by, ASD individual will look up independently, when he/she chase something.
These strategies are important because, first of all, allowing all of them to learn how to communicate with each other without the barrier of verbal language, creates a sense of empathy, patience, understanding and equality.
The presence of motivated, prepared teachers that are also careful to children groups specificity, is an essential quality factor for the construction of a friendly, inclusive, sure and well organised environment, also capable to stimulate trust in parents and community [27]. So, the teacher has to create conditions in order that students can learn in the best conditions, by identifying his/her role of speaker, harmoniser and stimulus in relationships between students and knowledge. Context is a fundamental element for the child, because, when he realises of being in a suitable space, he starts to communicate in a relaxed manner, not only verbally, but also with his own body; in addition, the child can establish good relations with his friends in a conscious way [15].
Teachers communication is of great importance in children educative process; in fact, according to Pianta studies, have effective communicative capacities is very important for their development and education. It was determined that pre-school children who perceive their relation with their teachers as positive, warm and close had better school adaptation. However, school adaptation of students who perceive their relation with their teachers as negative were poorer compared to others. In similar studies, Brich and Ladd in 1997, and Justice, Cottone, Mashburn, RimmKaufman in 2008, it was revealed that when child-teacher relationship is negative, children exhibit negative attitudes towards school, have poor academic success, spend less time at school environment, and avoid from being at school and cooperation in the class [4].
It is fundamental that the teacher, starting from kindergarten, is capable of transmit messages effectively, as is, that is an expert in oral expression and in verbal explanation of certain concepts. But it is not enough: it’s not only about what it said, but how is said [28]. The positive or negative attitudes and behaviours that the teacher assumes towards the child, and the verbal and non-verbal messages, which he sends, are closely correlated with the confidence, autonomy and emotions of assertiveness, which the child begins to develop in this period [4]. Nonverbal messages, in fact, are a fundamental component of communication in the learning process.
For example, find, in the morning, a smiling teacher, who says hi to students and parents by welcome them with open arms, rather than with crossed arms and pour, modifies the sent message making the difference for positive relationships. Greeting is done in both examples but emotions that arise are totally different [23]. So, it must understand, that it is not only important to refer a message, but even find the right way to transmit it. This can happen only by accompanying and controlling gestures and expressions.
The teacher could be conscious of which are nonverbal messages circulating inside the class; this consciousness makes the teacher more watchful to messages sent by the child, it allows him/her to be more effective in the communication of didactic information and he/she is capable to implement the psychologic degree of closeness between student and teacher [28].
A good teacher could try to improve every aspect of his/her nonverbal communication. First of all, to make the communication style effective, it is fundamental that he/she know how to vary voice elements, as tone, rhythm, timbre, volume, cadence. Otherwise, the risk is to be monotonous, demoted, to annoy the children and not be able to attract their attention.
For what concerning postures, it is necessary to be in an upright position but not rigid, with the bust slightly extended forward; in this way children understand that the teacher is “approachable”, receptive and friendly [22]. In addition, staying stationary in class and to not transmit the presence, motivation and care to children, on the other hand, walking in the class or suddenly get up, allow to achieve every student and reactivate a declining attention. Finally, it is important to speak to children in the face, avoiding to direct to them with the back turned or looking the floor. This make the student more involved in the communication and contributes to make him feel a real interlocutor.
As already demonstrated, the face of individuals transmits, besides their intention, emotions, thoughts and feelings. In the education sector, face mimicry constitutes one on communication means between the teacher and the group he has in front of him/her, and it becomes one of the most important factor to determine the environment. About it, the teacher, through his facial expression, communicates his/her mood and links to the topic a specific emotion. So, be able to relax face muscles, by smiling and keeping an eye contact, will have the effect of transmit a joy, warmth and emotive closure to children, who, by feeling relaxed and considered, will enforce the learning process. Particularly, smile can result contagious and contribute to the creation on a peaceful environment in the class; eye contact, instead, allow the teacher to have a total control in managing relationships and concentrate the attention and interest of students on him/her, facilitating communication. Is necessary that the teacher distributes his/her look in a circular manner, to avoid to ignore any part of the classroom, and that stops himself on every student to prove him not only to look him but to watch him. Look the student is therefore important because it increase the probability that children return the look and follow the speech carefully; in addition, through eye contact, that’s the possibility to collect precious feedback, as attention level, interest, tiredness degree, understanding [15].
So as gestures, lessons containing gestures improve interest a more specific learning: new reasoning forms, generalisation of new types of problems, conservation of knowledge, etc. In addition, as is known that gestures can promote learning, teachers can consider to improve their students to gesture, that have the potential to activate implicit knowledge and make students particularly receptive to education [17].
Finally, the teacher figure, as well as have and use correctly nonverbal communication elements in class, has to be a good listener. If the teacher is a good listener, he makes sense of not only what children say but also their facial expressions and gestures, and body language. She/he also attracts attention to the messages she/he communicates with his body language [4]. However, the first step to arrive to a good communicative intervention is to use an “active listening” with regard to children, which consists in thinking on the student message by only absorbing it, without emit personal messages. So, active listening allows the teacher to feel important and receive information, advices and interests. In 1991, Gordon claims that active listening improves discussions in class; it allows to support the class in case of problems, both in-school and after-school, as this strategy helps the child to express lived feelings, which are considered and respected. The teacher, thanks to this type of listening, is capable of observe very carefully interests, training needs, strengths of his/her students, that can be used to support the group-class in learning.
Since ancient times, human beings have felt the need to group in societies so establish relationships and socialise with others. This process is possible due to dialectical exchanger and in general to communication. Every communication form is possible due to signs, that link to a concrete and intelligible referent (as word), and to symbols. These two systems form the set of expressive forms (symbolic), given by language, science, myth, religion, philosophy, art, etc. It should however be noted that communication is not a simple linguistic act, but it is an action inserted in a dynamic process that a person does through another as the consequence of the information or the message sent and/or received, of transformations and changes, more or less significant, in behaviours, in attitudes, in moods, in the ways to interact with our and someone else’s social world [1, 8].
Inside the communication, as already said, it is possible to distinguish two forms, which have different characteristic and appear in totally different way. Verbal communication is deliberate and arbitrary, it serves to argue, describe and narrate, by giving information about expressed topics. On the other hand, nonverbal communication is mostly unconscious, not intentional and can be ambiguous; it gives information about the subject expressing it, but not about the expressed concepts. In addition, it is important to notice that, while verbal communication tends to be characterised by partners that, in turn, speak and listen, sending and receiving nonverbal signs normally occurs simultaneously. Communication comes before and results more effective and relevant through nonverbal channel, with respect to the verbal one [6, 20].
In conclusion, it is possible to underline how communication is the fundamental base of interpersonal relationships and how the most spontaneous way to transmit something about us to another person is through verbal and nonverbal language. This last, most of the time, is not controlled by the transmitter, but allows to send important information about us, our mental status, about the humoral one, about characteristics of our own personality and even about our own story. By sending this type of information it is possible, in some way, to influence the other, by suggesting contents that the recipient can accept or not. One more time this underlines the importance of communication in all the different forms and the need to explore the knowledge of all various aspects of it [3].
Ongoing has already been highlighted the cultural influence in various communication elements; in summary, in intercultural communication it must surely learn to be aware of differences in nonverbal forms and other cultural aspects. Knowledge of nonverbal language of its meaning and verbal expressions, to which it corresponds, in fact, it can help to achieve a better communicative competence and develop a major comprehension and tolerance through interlocutors. More information and multicultural communicative competences we manage to acquire, and it will be easier to adopt strategic behaviours for a successful communication.
Nonverbal communication characterises most of the communicative process that can occur between two or more persons: it is always present and it can reveal lots of particulars related to a person with which there is communication. These components are not often very considered as, in adults, the importance is mostly given to the verbal aspect of the communication; thing that do not occur with children. These last, since childhood, tend to trust mostly the nonverbal attitude, the face expression, smiles, looks, gestures and the interlocutor position in front of them [29], mostly when the interlocutor is incoherent.
Kindergarten welcomes children between 3 and 5 years, to which teaches verbal and nonverbal communication prerequisites. Children of these ages, do not even develop totally the language, so, in order that their communication is incisive, they need the use of the body and its parts to get in touch with peers and adults. It is clear that the knowledge of these arguments taught at kindergarten are not the only element for teacher to keep in mind and maybe neither the most important to the transmission of competences. In fact, for teachers, not only of kindergarten but of all levels, it is fundamental base the work on an effective communication, in which occur, all communication elements, both verbal and nonverbal. Sure, is that everything concerning nonverbal communication development it is easily implemented when competences that have to be transmitted are mastered.
Accordingly, positive teacher-child communication makes it easier for children to adapt to school environment and it positively affects their emotional, social and even cognitive development during this adaptation. Several studies reported that positive teacher-child communication influences children’s academic, social success and even their school life in the future [4]. Therefore, for a teacher is strongly important the interpersonal relationship and the communication with his/her students. Interpersonal relationship and communication centrality, in its complexity, are one of the major interesting aspects of the teacher job, since his/her behaviour in various situations often serves to children and people around him/her as a model; so, the more coherent are all body movements, the more believable will be the teacher body language and so his/her own person. The contact with the class, in fact, is established firstly through an effective body language.
This chapter has focused mostly on cultural differences and on children analogic language. At the end of this path inside the communication, it is possible to claim that an optimal development of nonverbal communication elements, sins kindergarten, is fundamental in order that children learn and grow. Investing in language development, and in particular that of the body from early childhood (ECD), is one of the best investments a country can make [5]. A password to get first and better inside their world, that it is even ours.
The important role of the livestock sector in food security is well understood [1]. At the same time, the sector plays a significant role in greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere [2, 3]. Among total agriculture sector emissions (5.4 Gt CO2e), 60% is due to livestock emission sources, mostly (63%) enteric fermentation [4].
Within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), developing countries are presently required to submit national GHG inventory reports through National Communications. These reports are to be prepared following the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for GHG inventories [5]. The 2006 IPCC Guidelines set out three levels (or tiers) of increasing complexity (called Tiers 1–3) for use by a country. The purpose of the tiers is to provide unbiased and accurate estimates of national GHG emissions, and to enable inventory compilers to focus the use of resources on improving accuracy for key emission categories in the inventory. The Tier 1 method provides default values for GHG emissions per head of livestock and can reflect only variation in livestock numbers. The IPCC 2006 Tier 2 method for estimating enteric fermentation emissions from ruminants is based on net energy estimated using the National Research Council model [6]. This approach requires details on the characteristics of livestock sub-categories and their performance, for example, in terms of production (e.g., milk yield, daily weight gain) and reproduction (e.g., percentage of lactating cows).
At present, due to the scarcity of appropriate information on agricultural production in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), most countries in this region use the Tier 1 approach to quantify agricultural GHG emissions [7]. However, adopting the IPCC Tier 2 methodology can increase the accuracy of emission estimates [8]. In the SSA region [9, 10], provide enteric methane emission factors (EF) for cattle in South Africa and Benin, respectively, using the Tier 2 approach. A Tier 2 inventory for dairy cattle has also been produced by Kenya [11]. Since its second national communication in 2010, Senegal’s national GHG inventory, prepared by the Ministry of Environment, has used EFs calculated using a Tier 2 approach.
However, caution is required when applying the IPCC Tier 2 method to livestock systems in Africa. A recent study reported that the Tier 2 model had low predictive ability when the quality of diet changes [12]. In addition, estimation of enteric methane through the IPCC Tier 2 model assumes that animal is reared in ad libitum conditions throughout the year. In extensive livestock systems such as in West Africa, feedstuffs from grazing resources are typically available in the wet season but is very scarce during the dry season [13, 14, 15].
In recent years, further methods have been developed which allow highly accurate determination of emissions [16, 17, 18]. However, for developing countries, these measurement techniques may be very expensive and require significant knowledge to implement [19, 20]. Despite its possible shortcomings, therefore, the 2006 IPCC Tier 2 method is a practical method to estimate enteric methane emissions from cattle with greater accuracy than the default Tier 1 method [5].
Implementing a detailed uncertainty and sensitivity analysis of the input parameters in the IPCC Tier 2 model can provide guidance for targeting future research efforts to improve enteric fermentation estimates, with which to inform national GHG inventories, Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
In this study, the first objective is to use uncertainty analysis (UA) to identify which input parameters contribute significantly to the overall uncertainty of enteric methane emission factors estimated using the IPCC Tier 2 model. The second purpose is to apply sensitivity analysis (SA) in order to identify which parameters, need additional research, thereby increasing the accuracy of enteric methane emission factors.
Senegal is the most westerly country in Africa with a tropical climate. It covers a surface area of 196,712 square kilometers and has an estimated population of 15.7 million [21]. Approximately 77% of the working population are employed in the agricultural sector [22]. According to the latest population estimates for the year 2018, the rural population represents about 53% of the total population [21]. The estimated ruminant livestock numbers provided by the Senegalese Ministry of Livestock and Animal Production (MEPA) are 3.6 million cattle, 6.7 million sheep and 5.7 million goats [23].
Extensive livestock farming systems in Senegal are based on two native cattle breeds which are found in different agroecological zones. The zebu Gobra (
Our evaluation was implemented using the Tier 2 model recommended by IPCC [5]. This model (Eq. (1)) allows to approximate enteric methane emission factors (MEF, kg CH4/head/year) which is the output variable. To calculate gross energy intake (GE, MJ/d), net energy (NE, MJ/d) needed for different metabolic functions (i.e., maintenance, activity, growth, lactation, work and pregnancy) was predicted for each cattle subcategory using various formulas presented in the IPCC Guidelines. The output variable is calculated based on input parameters, such as average live body weight (LW, kg), average daily weight gain (ADG, kg/day), milk production (Milk, kg/day), feeding situation, and digestible energy (DE, %). Finally, these parameters together with the methane (CH4) conversion factor (Ym, %) enable calculation of net energy (NE, MJ/day), average daily feed intake (in terms of gross energy content, MJ/d) and the MEF (i.e., output) for each animal sub-category.
where:
EF = emission factor, kg CH4 head/yr,
GE = gross energy intake, MJ head/yr,
Ym = methane conversion factor, per cent of gross energy in feed converted to methane.
The factor 55.65, (MJ/kg CH4) is the energy content of methane.
The data for input parameters used derived mainly from two Livestock Research Centres (LRC) of the Senegalese Agricultural Research Institute (Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, ISRA, see www.isra.sn): the Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Dahra (CRZ-D) and the Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Kolda (CRZ-K). These LRCs are located in the Ferlo and the Casamance areas, respectively. The general focus of these LRCs is to disseminate bulls to Senegalese family farms, so as to maintain and improve the productivity (milk and meat) of indigenous cattle. CRZ-D and CRZ-K frequently collect data on reproductive (e.g., rank of calving, calving interval) and productive (e.g., LW, ADG, Milk) performance through surveys and direct measurements implemented as part of research programs conducted independently or in partnership with international research organizations (e.g., CIRAD, FAO).
For this study, research reports, theses, publications and data sourced from ISRA databases (http://intranet.isra.sn/aurifere/opac_css/) were examined for relevant information. Documents (e.g., annual reports) from the Senegalese Livestock Ministry (MEPA, http://www.elevage.gouv.sn/) and the National Agency for Statistics and Demography (ANSD, http://www.ansd.sn) were also consulted. When country-specific data was not available, values from the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories was used. Table 1 presents the data sources used to estimate emission factors for Senegalese cattle breeds.
Parameters | Symbol | Unit | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gobra cattle | Ndama cattle | |||
Coefficient for calculating Net energy for maintenance | Cfi | MJ/d/kg | [5] | |
Activity coefficient corresponding to animal’s feed situation | Ca | MJ/d/kg | [5] | |
Average live body weight | LW | Kg | CRZ-D database | CRZ-K database |
Mature live body weight | MW | Kg | From expert opinion | From expert opinion |
Average daily weight gain | ADG | kg/d | [26, 27, 28] | CRZ-K Research reports |
Coefficient | C | dim. | [5] | |
Average daily milk yield | Milk | kg/d | [24] | CRZ-K Research reports |
Fat content of milk | Fat | % | [29] | CRZ-K Research reports |
Number of hours of work | Hour | H | CRZ-D research reports | CRZ-K research reports |
Pregnancy coefficient | Cp | dim. | [5] | |
Methane conversion rates | Ym | % | [5] | |
Feed Digestibility | DE | % | [5] |
Input parameters used to estimate enteric methane emission factors for Gobra and Ndama cattle using the Tier 2 methodology and their sources.
d: day; dim.: dimensionless; CRZ-D: Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Dahra; CRZ-K: Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Kolda.
Authors from many scientific fields have described the application of uncertainty analysis (UA) and sensitivity analysis (SA) procedures to various modeling situations [30, 31, 32] and for a number of purposes [33]. For example, to achieve comprehensive uncertainty analysis, the 2006 IPCC Guidelines [5] recommend to use the Monte Carlo (MC) simulation method. The MC methodology is useful for dealing with great uncertainties, complex models and existing correlations between parameters [34, 35]. However, expanding the MC domain increases the requirements of the user, in terms of acquiring additional data and designing the analysis, and thus requires strong collaboration between experts [36]. For this present study, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the standardized regression coefficient (SRC) were implemented for UA and SA, respectively.
Analysis was applied to emission factors for lactating cows (LC) and adult males (MA). The latest national communication indicates that these two animal classes are the largest emission sources among all cattle categories in Senegal [37]. For each of these animal categories, only the relevant parameters were estimated. For example, parameters such as milk yield (Milk, kg/day), fat content of milk (Fat, %) and the coefficient for pregnancy (Cp) were not estimated for MA, while number of hours of work (Hour, h/day) was not estimated for LC. Hence, 11 and 9 input parameters were considered for LC and MA, respectively. The number of simulations were 200,000 and 20,000 for LC and MA, respectively. These numbers were assumed to be satisfactory to stabilize the output. Indeed, a 3-level complete factorial design was defined [38] and considering the K dichotomous input parameters, the design requires 3 K simulations, i.e., 311 and 39 combinations of values for LC and MA, respectively [39].
Uncertainty analysis (UA) was applied to the enteric methane emission factors (MEF) of Senegalese native cattle derived using the IPCC Tier 2 method.
The input parameters characterized were from two main sources, i.e., parameters with values proposed by the 2006 IPCC Guidelines (PM) and parameters specific to extensive livestock farming systems in Senegal (PS).
The uncertainties of PM expressed in this study were those taken from the literature [5, 40]. The uncertainties of PS were not defined in the Senegalese NIR. Therefore, expert judgment was used to characterize the uncertainty of each PS. To do this, we proceeded as follows. The average value of each PS was estimated using livestock data reported from research conducted in Senegal. Then, these values were shared with national experts for assessment. These national specialists, who had worked previously on countrywide livestock research programs, suggested standard deviations around each mean values of PS, and these were used to represent relative uncertainties of each PS.
Consequently, an uncertainty of ±15% around the value of average live weight (LW, kg) and average daily gain (ADG, kg/day) were assumed. The fitted values of mature weight (MW, kg) had a relative uncertainty of ±25%. Milk production per lactating cow (Milk, kg/day) reported from the extensive livestock farming systems varies widely within and between Senegalese traditional farms, so an uncertainty range of ±20% was assumed, while the value of fat content of milk (Fat, %) was set to randomly fluctuate by ±2%. Regarding feed digestibility (DE, %), an uncertainty of ±15% is most commonly reported in the literature [40, 41, 42]. For this study, a value of ±20% was recommended by Senegalese experts, considering the extensive livestock farming systems, which are largely based on the use of rangeland forage resources. The probability density functions (PDFs) of all used input parameters is believed to be symmetrical.
The overall uncertainty in the estimated output is assumed to be normally distributed, with a 95% confidence interval of plus or minus the uncertainty of the assigned value for each input parameter. The Tables 2 and 3 list the used values of the input parameters, for each breed and animal category.
Symbol1 | Unit | Used value2 | Uncertainty (±%) | Sources of used uncertainties | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gobra | Ndama | ||||
ADG | kg/day | 0.135 | 0.110 | 15 | Expert opinion |
C | dimensionless | 0.8 | 0.8 | 30 | [40] |
Ca | MJ/day/kg | 0.36 | 0.36 | 30 | [40] |
Cfi | MJ/day/kg | 0.386 | 0.386 | 30 | [40] |
Cp | dimensionless | 0.10 | 0.10 | 10 | [40] |
DE | % | 50 | 50 | 20 | Expert opinion |
Fat | % | 4.7 | 4.24 | 2 | Expert opinion |
LW | kg | 250 | 200 | 15 | Expert opinion |
Milk | kg/day | 0.922 | 0.870 | 20 | Expert opinion |
MW | kg | 200 | 180 | 25 | Expert opinion |
Ym | % | 6.5 | 6.5 | 15 | [5] |
Symbol1 | Unit | Used value2 | Uncertainty (±%) | Sources of used uncertainties | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gobra | Ndama | ||||
ADG | kg/day | 0.135 | 0.110 | 15 | Expert opinion |
C | dimensionless | 1.2 | 1.2 | 30 | [40] |
Ca | MJ/day/kg | 0.36 | 0.36 | 30 | [40] |
Cfi | MJ/day/kg | 0.37 | 0.37 | 30 | [40] |
DE | % | 50 | 50 | 20 | Expert opinion |
Hour | h/day | 1.23 | 1.23 | 10 | Expert opinion |
LW | kg | 300 | 250 | 15 | Expert opinion |
MW | kg | 200 | 180 | 25 | Expert opinion |
Ym | % | 6.5 | 6.5 | 15 | [5] |
To estimate the specific contribution of each parameter to overall uncertainty (i.e., uncertainty associated with calculation of enteric methane emission factors), the analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure was applied. To do this, the uncertainty ranges related to the input parameters were used to define the maximum and minimum values of each input parameter. The distributions were defined as uniform (i.e., normal distributions). Then, using the “runif” instruction, input parameter values were randomly generated using R software [43]. To mimic the contributions of the generated values of each input parameter to output uncertainty, the equations proposed by the IPCC [5] were used. To rank the input parameters according to their effect on the output, the sums of the squares (Sum Sq) computed by the ANOVA procedure for each input parameter were divided by the total sums of squares. Therefore, the results were expressed as a proportion and ordered in terms of percentage contribution to output uncertainty, using the instruction order in the R software. The total uncertainty of enteric methane emission factors was calculated using Rule A [5], which is approximation approach based on first-order Taylor series expansion, often referred to as error propagations [44].
Some of the SA approach used in this study has been presented previously as a case study (see https://www.agmrv.org) for the Livestock Research Group of the Global Research Alliance for Agricultural Greenhouse Gases (https://globalresearchalliance.org).
A sensitivity package developed by [45] and implemented in R software was used to conduct a global sensitivity analysis procedure [46]. First, to generate values between a minimum and the maximum, we set a range of variation of ±20% around the allocated value of each input parameter, assuming a uniform distribution (with a 95% confidence interval). Second, these values were input into the 2006 IPCC Tier 2 model to generate a range of values for the output. Finally, the standardized regression coefficient (SRC) was used to obtain sensitivity indices for each input parameter [47]. The SRC reflects the change in the standard deviation of the MEF when all other input parameters are fixed and unchanged [48, 49].
The estimated values of the effect of each input parameter on overall uncertainty are presented in Tables 4 and 5 for lactating cows and adult males of the Gobra and Ndama cattle breeds, respectively.
Species | Parameters | Sum sq | Mean sq | F value | Pr (>F) | Contribution (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gobra | Cfi | 6302301 | 6302301 | 7319021 | 0.000 | 58.2 |
DE | 2064336 | 2064336 | 2397366 | 0.000 | 19.1 | |
Ym | 1823864 | 1823864 | 2118099 | 0.000 | 16.8 | |
Ca | 350673 | 350673 | 407245 | 0.000 | 3.2 | |
LW | 96244 | 96244 | 111770 | 0.000 | 0.9 | |
Milk | 20210 | 20210 | 23470 | 0.000 | 0.2 | |
Cp | 3330 | 3330 | 3867 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
ADG | 109 | 109 | 127 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
Fat | 83 | 83 | 96 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
C | 66 | 66 | 77 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
MW | 16 | 16 | 18 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
Residuals | 172207 | 1 | NA | NA | 1.6 | |
Ndama | Cfi | 4509591 | 4509591 | 6005876 | 0.000 | 54.4 |
DE | 1438224 | 1438224 | 1915428 | 0.000 | 17.3 | |
Ym | 1293936 | 1293936 | 1723265 | 0.000 | 15.6 | |
LW | 625802 | 625802 | 833444 | 0.000 | 7.5 | |
Ca | 253737 | 253737 | 337927 | 0.000 | 3.1 | |
Milk | 15579 | 15579 | 20748 | 0.000 | 0.2 | |
Cp | 2938 | 2938 | 3913 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
Fat | 119 | 119 | 158 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
MW | 72 | 72 | 95 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
C | 68 | 68 | 90 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
ADG | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.659 | 0.0 | |
Residuals | 150164 | 1 | NA | NA | 1.8 |
Contribution to the overall uncertainty of input parameters used to calculate enteric methane emission factors for lactating cows of Senegalese native cattle breeds.
NA: not applicable.
Species | Parameters | Sum sq | Mean sq | F value | Pr (>F) | Contribution (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gobra | Cfi | 760631 | 760631 | 605099 | 0.000 | 56.3 |
DE | 216733 | 216733 | 172416 | 0.000 | 16.0 | |
Ym | 195408 | 195408 | 155451 | 0.000 | 14.5 | |
LW | 107049 | 107049 | 85160 | 0.000 | 7.9 | |
Ca | 46181 | 46181 | 36738 | 0.000 | 3.4 | |
Hour | 646 | 646 | 514 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
ADG | 8 | 8 | 6 | 0.014 | 0.0 | |
C | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0.241 | 0.0 | |
MW | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.536 | 0.0 | |
Residuals | 25128 | 1 | NA | NA | 1.9 | |
Ndama | Cfi | 595693 | 595693 | 611755 | 0.000 | 57.0 |
DE | 161026 | 161026 | 165368 | 0.000 | 15.4 | |
Ym | 148597 | 148597 | 152604 | 0.000 | 14.2 | |
LW | 82999 | 82999 | 85237 | 0.000 | 7.9 | |
Ca | 37722 | 37722 | 38739 | 0.000 | 3.6 | |
Hour | 276 | 276 | 284 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
MW | 14 | 14 | 15 | 0.000 | 0.0 | |
C | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0.273 | 0.0 | |
ADG | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.746 | 0.0 | |
Residuals | 19465 | 1 | NA | NA | 1.9 |
Contribution to the overall uncertainty of input parameters used to calculate enteric methane emission factors for adult male Senegalese native cattle breeds.
NA: not applicable.
The results show the effect of broad differences in the values for input parameters used in terms of their influence (expressed as a percentage, %) on overall uncertainty. The coefficient for maintenance (Cfi) contributes more than 55% of the overall uncertainty. Digestibility (DE) and the methane conversion factor (Ym) were the second and third most significant input parameters, respectively. The contributions of the other parameters were less than 10%.
In general, these results were similar for each animal sub-category of each breed, although there was some difference in terms of the contribution of these parameters to overall uncertainty. For example, with respect to lactating cows, the effect of Cfi on the total uncertainty of the enteric methane EF calculation was greater for Gobra (58.2%) compared to Ndama (54.4%). By comparison, the contribution of Cfi for adult males was 57.0% and 56.3% for Ndama and Gobra, respectively.
Figures 1 and 2 show the standardized regression coefficients (SRC) of each input parameter used to evaluate the enteric methane emission factors for lactating cows and adult males of Senegalese native cattle, respectively.
Sensitivity indices based on standardized regression coefficients of input parameters used to calculate enteric methane emission factors for lactating cows of Senegalese native cattle breeds.
Sensitivity indices based on standardized regression coefficients of input parameters used to calculate enteric methane emission factors for adult males of Senegalese native cattle breeds.
According to the linear regression method implemented, the methane conversion rate (Ym) and the coefficient for calculating net energy for maintenance (Cfi) are the parameters with the largest SRC. The results show also the importance of the digestibility of feed (DE%) and liveweight (LW). The rank order in terms of sensitivity was identical for both cattle breeds and each animal sub-category. Moreover, our results reveal that among breeds, the SRC obtained for Ndama cattle was slightly larger. Differences were also observed between sub-categories. Compared to lactating cows, the SRC was higher for adult male Gobra cattle for parameters such as Ym, Cfi, and LW. For lactating cows, compared with adult males, Ym and DE showed more sensitivity for Ndama cattle. However, irrespective of breed or sub-category, the differences observed between SRC of input parameters did not exceed 8%.
To date, because of the scarcity of relevant data in developing countries in the SSA region, the Tier 1 approach is most commonly used to evaluate enteric methane emission from livestock [50, 51]. Assessments at the regional level suggest that Africa has a higher uncertainty for each livestock product compared with Europe [52]. Additionally, [8] reported that only about one third of countries located in developing regions have conducted evaluation of uncertainty in their national GHG inventory. Considering the absence of reliable information on livestock in the SSA region, the IPCC Guidelines suggest that the uncertainty of enteric fermentation emission factors ranges from ±30% to ±50% for Tier 1 and ± 20% for Tier 2 approaches, respectively [5]. Hence, the use of a Tier 2 approach may enable a decrease in the uncertainty of predicted enteric methane emission factors used in national GHG inventories [53, 54, 55]. In Senegal, the third GHG emission inventory was submitted to the UNFCCC in 2015 (see https://unfccc.int/documents/89618). In that inventory, enteric methane emission of cattle was assessed using the Tier 2 methodology. Within the overall emissions from the agricultural sector, enteric methane was identified as a key source of emissions (accounting for 72% of total agricultural emissions). Cattle were responsible for 65% of total agricultural emissions. However, uncertainty analysis has not previously been performed on that national GHG inventory.
Considering the results of both uncertainty and sensitivity analysis computed in this study, our calculations indicate that the coefficient of maintenance (Cfi), the digestibility of feed (DE) and the methane conversion factor (Ym) are the input parameters which require further research, because of their influence on the accuracy of enteric methane emission factors calculated using the 2006 IPCC Tier 2 approach.
The importance of Cfi has been pointed out in previous research conducted in other regions [41, 42, 53]. The value of Cfi implemented in our assessment was sourced from the IPCC Guidelines. To our knowledge, studies focusing on this parameter are very few, particularly in developing countries, despite the dependence of this parameter on variation in temperature [5].
The composition of fodder consumed by ruminants is well documented in Senegal, and the profile of organic matter digestibility (OMd) is available [13, 14, 15, 54]. However, there is a need to determine at the national scale, an average value for OMd which takes into consideration seasonality. To date, the default value for feed digestibility (DE, %) from the IPCC Guidelines (i.e., 50 ± 5%) has always been applied in the Senegalese national GHG inventory. In general, estimation of DE is very complex, considering the various factors which need to be taken into consideration [56, 57, 58]. To estimate DE, robust formula needs to be developed based on numerous data which consider the diversity of diet [59]. For example, in West African livestock farming systems, the largest proportion of feed is from natural pastures [60, 61, 62]. Cattle herds in this region graze different types of feedstuffs (e.g., trees, crop residues, woody species, grasses). Throughout the seasons, the composition of the diet and the nutrient content of feedstuff both fluctuate [13, 63, 64]. Given the diversity of feedstuff and seasonal fluctuations in the West African context, determining an annual average value of DE is challenging. A fixed value for DE is reasonable as it is supposed to represent the annual average. Additionally, apart from the proposed values of DE in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines, reports of the value of DE are very limited in the literature, even in some developed countries. Indeed, with the lack of country-specific data related to the feeding system, Belgium applies DE values from the Netherlands, assuming that feed systems are comparable [65]. Slovenia uses a predicted equation sourced from INRA and German feeding tables [66]. In the national inventory of the UK, the DE values applied for dairy cattle were from tables of nutritive value and chemical composition of feeds, while for beef cattle values were based on expert opinion [67].
The methane conversion factor (Ym, %) is the third parameter which needs to be better estimated when using the Tier 2 approach. Ym is defined as the percent of gross energy intake that is converted into methane (kg CH4/kg GEI). The appropriate value of Ym is the subject of considerable research by scientists [68]. Using a meta-analysis approach, [69] propose using 8.4 ± 0.4% (range 4.8% to 13.7%) for Ym, while [70] suggest a value which varies from 5.0% to 7.2%. Several countries apply values for Ym other than the default values suggested by the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. For example, Croatia calculated Ym using a model reported by [56]. Denmark used a value for Ym for dairy cattle (ranging from 5.98% to 6.13%) reported by [71].
Hence, in view of the diverse diet composition consumed by cattle over the course of the seasons in West Africa [72, 73, 74], determination of an appropriate value for Ym is clearly important for estimating the expected enteric methane emission factor using the IPCC 2006 Tier 2 approach.
In our case, we used expert judgment to characterize the uncertainties of input parameters. In addition, it is possible that the inputs parameters can be correlated. In Senegal, due to the scarcity of relevant reports related to the percentage of native cattle breeds in the total cattle herd, it is probable that uncertainty of activity data is actually higher than uncertainty of emission factors and should be a priority for GHG inventory improvement.
The purpose of conducting uncertainty and sensitivity analysis was to identify the most important factors driving emission factors in order to prioritize future data improvement and research efforts so as to improve livestock GHG emission estimates and reduce the uncertainty of inventory estimates for Senegal. Having applied analysis of variance and regression techniques for uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis, respectively, our results suggest that future research should focus on the estimates of the coefficient of maintenance, feed digestibility and the methane conversion factor.
We thank colleagues who contributed to improving this manuscript.
The author declares that no conflicts of interest have affected the conduct of the work proposed in this paper.
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\\n\\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\\n\\nInspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
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\\n\\nOur books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
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\\n\\nRepresentative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
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\\n\\nLSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
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\n\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
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\n\nOrders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
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\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\nIn accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\nThe combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nTax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nCustoms: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n\nP.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\n\nIntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
\n\nWhen ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nRestricted Ship-to Countries:
\n\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\n\nInspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nPrint copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
\n\nOur books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\n\nBooks International
\n\nRepresentative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
\n\nChina Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\n\nRepresentative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
\n\nIndia - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\n\nRepresentative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
\n\nLSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
\n\nRepresentative for Mexico, Chile and Colombia
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\n\nFor partnership opportunities, please contact orders@intechopen.com.
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He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11675",title:"Advances in Skeletal Muscle Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11675.jpg",hash:"e1d9662c334dd78ab35bfb57c3bf106e",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"April 19th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"281317",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Iannotti",slug:"fabio-iannotti",fullName:"Fabio Iannotti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11677",title:"New Insights in Mammalian Endocrinology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11677.jpg",hash:"c59dd0f87bbf829ca091c485f4cc4e68",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 5th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"321396",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Subhan",surname:"Qureshi",slug:"muhammad-subhan-qureshi",fullName:"Muhammad Subhan Qureshi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11676",title:"Recent Advances in Homeostasis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11676.jpg",hash:"63eb775115bf2d6d88530b234a1cc4c2",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Zaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:48,paginationItems:[{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"81681",title:"Immunomodulatory Effects of a M2-Conditioned Medium (PRS® CK STORM): Theory on the Possible Complex Mechanism of Action through Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of the TLR System and the Purinergic System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104486",signatures:"Juan Pedro Lapuente",slug:"immunomodulatory-effects-of-a-m2-conditioned-medium-prs-ck-storm-theory-on-the-possible-complex-mech",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. 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