Evaluation of the object detector.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8912",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",subtitle:"Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book explores the role of nucleic acid analysis and the advances it has led to in the field of life sciences. The first section is a collection of chapters covering experimental methods used in molecular biology, the techniques adjacent to these methods, and the steps of analysis before and after obtaining raw DNA data. The second section deals with the principles of chromatography, method development, sample preparation, and industrial applications.",isbn:"978-1-78984-857-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-856-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-903-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82530",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",numberOfPages:206,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"10a6269502e58eda525718afec8e667e",bookSignature:"Oana-Maria Boldura, Cornel Baltă and Nasser Sayed Awwad",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8912.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15458,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:32,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 29th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 18th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 17th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"189429",title:"Prof.",name:"Oana-Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Boldura",slug:"oana-maria-boldura",fullName:"Oana-Maria Boldura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189429/images/system/189429.jpg",biography:"Oana-Maria Boldura is licensed in Genetic Engineering with specialization in Molecular Biology (2005), Master\\'s Degree in Genetic Manipulation (2007) and Pharmacy (2014), and PhD in Biotechnology field (2010). From 2015 she has been an Assistant Professor at Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine 'King Michael I of Romania” Timisoara, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and researcher at ,,Horia Cernescu” Research Unit. Her main scientific competences are in the field of Molecular Biology, Biotechnology, Genomics and Biosecurity with technical aptitudes in manipulation and experimentation with nucleic acid and proteins (purification, sequencing, gene expression studies, SDS-PAGE analysis of proteins fractions, ,,Lab-on-chip” electrophoresis, Immunological Testing). Her areas of interest are Molecular Forensic Methods and Apoptotic Process Pathways.",institutionString:"Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"222863",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornel",middleName:null,surname:"Balta",slug:"cornel-balta",fullName:"Cornel Balta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/222863/images/system/222863.jpg",biography:"Dr. Cornel Baltă, MD, DVM, is a licensed veterinarian with both\na PhD and MD in Veterinary Medicine. He is a researcher at the\nInstitute of Life Sciences, at “Vasile Goldis” Western University\nArad, Romania. Dr. Baltă’s main scientific competences are in\nthe fields of laboratory animals, molecular biology, physiology,\nhistology, and clinical Laboratory. He has technical aptitudes in\nnucleic acid examination by electrophoresis techniques, PCR and\nqPCR, and qualitative and quantitative determination of proteins by Western Blot\nand microelectrophoresis. His areas of interest include molecular mechanisms involved in the evolution of liver and gastrointestinal diseases, and bone regeneration\nand remodeling using different types of polymers.",institutionString:'"Vasile Goldis" Western University of Arad',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Vasile Goldis Western University of Arad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/145209/images/system/145209.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nasser Awwad received his Ph.D. in inorganic and radiochemistry in 2000 from Ain Shams University . Nasser Awwad was an Associate Professor of Radiochemistry in 2006 and Professor of Inorganic and Radiochemistry in 2011. He has been a Professor at King Khalid University, Abha, KSA, from 2011 until now. Prof Awwad has edited four books (Uranium, New trends in Nuclear Sciences, Lanthanides, and Nuclear Power Plants) and he has co-edited two books (Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments and Biochemical Analysis Tools). He has also published 137 papers at ISI journals. He has supervised 4 Ph.D. and 18 MSc students in the field of radioactive and wastewater treatment. He has participated in 26 international conferences in South Korea, the USA, Lebanon, KSA, and Egypt. He has reviewed 2 Ph.D. and 15 MSc theses. He participated in 6 big projects with KACST at KSA and Sandia National Labs in the USA. He is a member of the Arab Society of Forensic Sciences and Forensic Medicine. He is a permanent member of the American Chemical Society, and a rapporteur of the Permanent Committee for Nuclear and Radiological Protection at KKU. He is Head of the Scientific Research and International Cooperation Unit, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University.",institutionString:"King Khalid University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"King Khalid University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"43",title:"Biochemistry",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-biochemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"71721",title:"Latest Implications of Next-Gen Sequencing in Diagnosis of Acute and Chronic Myeloid Leukemia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92068",slug:"latest-implications-of-next-gen-sequencing-in-diagnosis-of-acute-and-chronic-myeloid-leukemia",totalDownloads:779,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The spectacular progress which was present in the past few years in the field of genome sequencing, together with the appearance on the market of some high performance devices in this field, the reduction of the costs regarding the analysis of the samples and the standardization of some protocols, has led to the establishment and introduction of the new generation of sequencing techniques in clinical diagnostic labs. An important role is played by the implementation of this technique in the oncology clinics. In this context, we found it appropriate to discuss in this chapter about the role of next-gen sequencing in determining the genetic probabilities of occurrence of oncological pathologies in the healthy population, the screening of these diseases at the population level, the diagnosis and classification of this pathology, the establishment of the therapeutic conduct using the technique, as well as the progression of the disease. In this chapter, we intend to discuss in particular the involvement of this technology in hemato-oncological diseases.",signatures:"Oana Maria Boldura, Cristina Petrine, Alin Mihu and Cornel Balta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71721",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71721",authors:[{id:"189429",title:"Prof.",name:"Oana-Maria",surname:"Boldura",slug:"oana-maria-boldura",fullName:"Oana-Maria Boldura"},{id:"222863",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornel",surname:"Balta",slug:"cornel-balta",fullName:"Cornel Balta"},{id:"316272",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Petrine",slug:"cristina-petrine",fullName:"Cristina Petrine"},{id:"316273",title:"Dr.",name:"Alin",surname:"Mihu",slug:"alin-mihu",fullName:"Alin Mihu"}],corrections:null},{id:"66704",title:"Biological Evidence Analysis in Cases of Sexual Assault",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82164",slug:"biological-evidence-analysis-in-cases-of-sexual-assault",totalDownloads:1668,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sexual assault (SA) is a crime of violence against a person’s body resulting in a physical trauma, mental anguish, and suffering for victims generating expenses for government intended criminal investigation, medical care, and psychological attention. During the crime scene investigation, the identification and recovery of biological evidence (BE) are utmost important, since sometimes these are the only way to prove sexual contact and the perpetrator’s identity. The examiner, with the help of specific technologies and techniques, must be able to find evidence that otherwise could go unnoticed. Forensic laboratories identify biological evidence with systemized protocols and use molecular methods to generate DNA profiles based on the amplification and DNA sequencing. Before the arrival of the new-generation sequencers, the application of other markers (single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertion-deletion of nucleotides (INDEL), or microhaplotypes (MHs)) was laborious, expensive, and not very informative for forensic purposes; however, now they are useful in this field. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) brought a new series of applications like epigenetics, microbiota, messenger RNA, and microRNA analysis and the inferences in the ancestry and phenotyping of individuals. In the end, the results obtained from such analyses and stored in databases are very useful for the identification of sexual aggressors.",signatures:"Benito Ramos González, Miranda Córdova Mercado, Orlando Salas Salas, Juan Carlos Hernández Reyes, Martín Guardiola Ramos, Elton Solis Esquivel, Gerardo Castellanos Aguilar and Porfirio Diaz Torres",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66704",authors:[{id:"88480",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Benito",surname:"Ramos-González",slug:"benito-ramos-gonzalez",fullName:"Benito Ramos-González"},{id:"271333",title:"BSc.",name:"Miranda",surname:"Córdova Mercado",slug:"miranda-cordova-mercado",fullName:"Miranda Córdova Mercado"},{id:"271335",title:"BSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Hernández Reyes",slug:"juan-carlos-hernandez-reyes",fullName:"Juan Carlos Hernández Reyes"},{id:"271336",title:"MSc.",name:"Mártin",surname:"Guardiola Ramos",slug:"martin-guardiola-ramos",fullName:"Mártin Guardiola Ramos"},{id:"271337",title:"Dr.",name:"Elton",surname:"Solis Esquivel",slug:"elton-solis-esquivel",fullName:"Elton Solis Esquivel"},{id:"271338",title:"BSc.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Castellanos Aguilar",slug:"gerardo-castellanos-aguilar",fullName:"Gerardo Castellanos Aguilar"},{id:"271339",title:"MSc.",name:"Porfirio",surname:"Díaz Torres",slug:"porfirio-diaz-torres",fullName:"Porfirio Díaz Torres"},{id:"271340",title:"BSc.",name:"Orlando",surname:"Salas Salas",slug:"orlando-salas-salas",fullName:"Orlando Salas Salas"}],corrections:null},{id:"67852",title:"DNA Sequencing Resolves Misdiagnosed and Rare Genetic Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86556",slug:"dna-sequencing-resolves-misdiagnosed-and-rare-genetic-disorders",totalDownloads:803,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the mandatory requirement of DNA sequencing approaches for genetic diagnosis and recurrence prevention of inherited diseases. Sequencing the DNA and coded transcripts has intensely promoted our understanding of functional genomics and the fundamental importance of non-coding genomic sequences in causing heritable diseases, when mutated. Though Sanger sequencing, the first employed approach in identifying genetic mutations has been replaced nowadays in many laboratories with the highly robust massive parallel sequencing techniques, “Sanger” remains vital in countries with limited resources and also of essential importance in validating the results of large scale sequencing technologies. Next generation sequencing (NGS) enabled the parallel sequencing of the whole exome (WES) and whole genome (WGS) regions of human genome and has revolutionized the field of genetic and genomic research in human. WES and WGS have facilitated the identification of the role of previously unrecognized genes in causing neurologic phenotypes, brain structural malformation, and resolved the causal genes in puzzling and misdiagnosed genetic phenotypes. Role of fusion genes and non-coding RNA in causing neurogenetic recessive diseases has been uncovered by the application of NGS platforms, published examples are presented in this chapter. Extensive phenotypic variability that retained patients either as misdiagnosed or undiagnosed cases for years has been correctly diagnosed through NGS research applications.",signatures:"Alice Abdel Aleem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67852",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67852",authors:[{id:"289784",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Alice",surname:"Abdel Aleem",slug:"alice-abdel-aleem",fullName:"Alice Abdel Aleem"}],corrections:null},{id:"69756",title:"Molecular Tools for Gene Analysis in Fission Yeast",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84896",slug:"molecular-tools-for-gene-analysis-in-fission-yeast",totalDownloads:897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Schizosaccharomyces pombe or fission yeast has been called micromammal due to the potential application of the knowledge derived from the yeast in the physiology of higher eukaryotes. Fission yeast has been consolidated as an excellent model for the study of highly conserved cellular processes. The possibility of using haploid or diploid strains facilitates the analysis of the dominant or recessive phenotype of an allele as well as its function, making it a model of first choice for the development of any investigation in eukaryotes cells. With a growing community that employs fission yeast as a model system for the study of numerous cellular processes, it has motivated the simultaneous development of molecular tools that facilitate the study of genes and proteins in the yeast. In this review, we present the most used molecular techniques in fission yeast for the analysis of genes, its characterization, as well as the determination of its function.",signatures:"Irma Pilar Herrera-Camacho, Lourdes Millán-Pérez-Peña, Francisca Sosa-Jurado, Nancy Martínez-Montiel, Rebeca Débora Martínez-Contreras and Nora Hilda Rosas Murrieta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69756",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69756",authors:[{id:"86998",title:"Prof.",name:"Irma",surname:"Herrera-Camacho",slug:"irma-herrera-camacho",fullName:"Irma Herrera-Camacho"},{id:"169522",title:"Dr.",name:"Lourdes",surname:"Millán-Pérez-Peña",slug:"lourdes-millan-perez-pena",fullName:"Lourdes Millán-Pérez-Peña"},{id:"169523",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisca",surname:"Sosa-Jurado",slug:"francisca-sosa-jurado",fullName:"Francisca Sosa-Jurado"},{id:"174538",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora-Hilda",surname:"Rosas-Murrieta",slug:"nora-hilda-rosas-murrieta",fullName:"Nora-Hilda Rosas-Murrieta"},{id:"174818",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebeca D.",surname:"Martínez-Contreras",slug:"rebeca-d.-martinez-contreras",fullName:"Rebeca D. Martínez-Contreras"},{id:"174819",title:"MSc.",name:"Nancy",surname:"Martínez-Montiel",slug:"nancy-martinez-montiel",fullName:"Nancy Martínez-Montiel"}],corrections:null},{id:"69570",title:"Detection of the Species Composition of Food Using Mitochondrial DNA: Challenges and Possibilities of a Modern Laboratory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89579",slug:"detection-of-the-species-composition-of-food-using-mitochondrial-dna-challenges-and-possibilities-of",totalDownloads:612,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Monitoring food quality is an important and constant element of the food market. This need is connected with health issues, religious beliefs of consumers, and economic considerations. For analysis, mtDNA is most commonly used because it is resist to physical factors such as temperature and pressure, which very often accompany food processing. Nowadays, scientific publications present a number of methods describing species identification from both farm animals and also less common animals. The most effective methods for determining species are based on PCR, real-time PCR, and sequencing. The methods are very sensitive, limit of detection (LOD) is 0.001% for many of them. An indispensable element of performing the described research is the strict application in the laboratory of several principles, which are intended to improve the work and make it safe for the lab technician, as well as guarantee the quality and effectiveness of the experiments carried out. The high work requirements set for the crew naturally shape the quality system from which the most popular is ISO/IEC 17025. Modern methods based on mtDNA are a good tool for food analysis, creating great opportunities for the researcher, at the same time causing challenges for the contemporary laboratory.",signatures:"Małgorzata Natonek-Wiśniewska and Piotr Krzyścin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69570",authors:[{id:"304480",title:"Dr.",name:"Małgorzata",surname:"Natonek-Wiśniewska",slug:"malgorzata-natonek-wisniewska",fullName:"Małgorzata Natonek-Wiśniewska"},{id:"309474",title:"Dr.",name:"Piotr",surname:"Krzyścin",slug:"piotr-krzyscin",fullName:"Piotr Krzyścin"}],corrections:null},{id:"68722",title:"Molecular Markers and Their Optimization: Addressing the Problems of Nonhomology Using Decapod COI Gene",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86993",slug:"molecular-markers-and-their-optimization-addressing-the-problems-of-nonhomology-using-decapod-coi-ge",totalDownloads:720,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advancements in DNA sequencing and computational technologies influenced almost all areas of biological sciences. DNA barcoding technology employed for generating nucleotide sequences (DNA barcodes) from standard gene region(s) is capable of resolving the complexities caused due to morphological characters. Thus, they complement taxonomy, population analysis, and phylogenetic and evolutionary studies. DNA barcodes are also utilized for species identification from eggs, larvae, and commercial products. Sequence similarity search using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) is the most reliable and widely used strategy for characterizing newly generated sequences. Similarity searches identify “homologous” gene sequence(s) for query sequence(s) by statistical calculations and provide identity scores. However, DNA barcoding relies on diverse DNA regions which differ considerably among taxa. Even, region-specific variations within barcode sequences from a single gene leading to “nonhomology” have been reported. This causes complications in specimen identification, population analysis, phylogeny, evolution, and allied studies. Hence, the selection of appropriate barcode region(s) homologous to organism of interest is inevitable. Such complications could be avoided using standardized barcode regions sequenced using optimized primers. This chapter discusses about the potential problems encountered due to the unknown/unintentional/intentional use of nonhomologous barcode regions and the need for primer optimization.",signatures:"Deepak Jose and Mahadevan Harikrishnan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68722",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68722",authors:[{id:"293863",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepak",surname:"Jose",slug:"deepak-jose",fullName:"Deepak Jose"},{id:"293867",title:"Prof.",name:"Harikrishnan",surname:"Mahadevan",slug:"harikrishnan-mahadevan",fullName:"Harikrishnan Mahadevan"}],corrections:null},{id:"71889",title:"Ambient Biobanking Solutions for Whole Blood Sampling, Transportation, and Extraction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91995",slug:"ambient-biobanking-solutions-for-whole-blood-sampling-transportation-and-extraction",totalDownloads:776,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biobanking increases the rate at which precision medicine can be used to successfully refine currently existing medical treatment methodologies. The purpose of precision medicine is to increase a patient’s likelihood of defeating a chronic disease, by creating a unique and personal treatment method. However, the research necessary to develop precision medicine requires thousands of biospecimens, which is why biobanking is necessary to move precision medicine forward. Traditional biobanks are a library of preserved biological specimens, such as tissue and whole blood, that can be later accessed for further testing and analysis. Maintaining these types of biobanks is cumbersome and expensive, due to freezer care. Biobank samples are used to support therapeutic drug monitoring in clinical trials, epidemiology, public health screening, and biomarker discovery. Collecting samples for large translational studies requires making regular trips to the phlebotomist or a clinic, which is an inconvenience that is exacerbated when collecting samples in remote and/or resource-limited locations. Inconsistencies in sample collection can affect downstream clinical studies. Remedies for these procedural issues include the development of a medium that effectively preserves the samples at ambient temperature and developing a virtual biobanking system that allows for long-distance access to bioinformatic data of previously analyzed biospecimens.",signatures:"Armaity Nasarabadi Fouts, Alejandro Romero, James Nelson, Mike Hogan and Shanavaz Nasarabadi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71889",authors:[{id:"311399",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shanavaz",surname:"Nasarabadi",slug:"shanavaz-nasarabadi",fullName:"Shanavaz Nasarabadi"},{id:"312331",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Hogan",slug:"michael-hogan",fullName:"Michael Hogan"},{id:"316859",title:"Mrs.",name:"Armaity",surname:"Fouts",slug:"armaity-fouts",fullName:"Armaity Fouts"},{id:"316860",title:"Mr.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Romero",slug:"alejandro-romero",fullName:"Alejandro Romero"},{id:"316873",title:"Dr.",name:"James",surname:"Nelson",slug:"james-nelson",fullName:"James Nelson"}],corrections:null},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92206",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3552,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72074",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72074",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}],corrections:null},{id:"69775",title:"Principles of Chromatography Method Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89501",slug:"principles-of-chromatography-method-development",totalDownloads:4117,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter aims to explain the key parameters of analytical method development using the chromatography techniques which are used for the identification, separation, purification, and quantitative estimation of complex mixtures of organic compounds. Mainly, the versatile techniques of ultra−/high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC/HPLC) are in use for the analysis of assay and organic impurities/related substances/degradation products of a drug substance or drug product or intermediate or raw material of pharmaceuticals. A suitable analytical method is developed only after evaluating the major and critical separation parameters of chromatography (examples for UPLC/HPLC are selection of diluent, wavelength, detector, stationary phase, column temperature, flow rate, solvent system, elution mode, and injection volume, etc.). The analytical method development is a process of proving the developed analytical method is suitable for its intended use for the quantitative estimation of the targeted analyte present in pharmaceutical drugs. And it mostly plays a vital role in the development and manufacture of pharmaceuticals drugs.",signatures:"Narasimha S. Lakka and Chandrasekar Kuppan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69775",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69775",authors:[{id:"304950",title:"Prof.",name:"Chandrasekar",surname:"Kuppan",slug:"chandrasekar-kuppan",fullName:"Chandrasekar Kuppan"},{id:"309984",title:"Mr.",name:"Narasimha S",surname:"Lakka",slug:"narasimha-s-lakka",fullName:"Narasimha S Lakka"}],corrections:null},{id:"68865",title:"Online Automated Micro Sample Preparation for High-Performance Liquid Chromatography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89079",slug:"online-automated-micro-sample-preparation-for-high-performance-liquid-chromatography",totalDownloads:914,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Sample preparation is one of the most labor-intensive and time-consuming operations in sample analysis. Sample preparation strategies include the exhaustive or non-exhaustive extraction of analytes from matrices. Online coupling of sample preparation with the separation system is regarded as an important goal. In-tube solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is an effective sample preparation technique that uses an open tubular fused-silica capillary column as an extraction device. In-tube SPME is useful for trace enrichment, automated sample cleanup, and rapid online analysis. Moreover, this method can be used to determine the analytes in complex matrices by direct sample injection or merely by simple sample treatment such as filtration. In-tube SPME is frequently combined with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using online column-switching techniques. Various operating systems and new sorbent materials have been reported to improve extraction efficiency, such as sorption capacity and selectivity. This chapter discusses efficient micro sample preparation techniques for HPLC, especially online automated in-tube SPME.",signatures:"Hiroyuki Kataoka, Atsushi Ishizaki and Keita Saito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68865",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68865",authors:[{id:"88155",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",surname:"Kataoka",slug:"hiroyuki-kataoka",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kataoka"},{id:"308808",title:"MSc.",name:"Atsushi",surname:"Ishuzaki",slug:"atsushi-ishuzaki",fullName:"Atsushi Ishuzaki"},{id:"308809",title:"Dr.",name:"Keita",surname:"Saito",slug:"keita-saito",fullName:"Keita Saito"}],corrections:null},{id:"67828",title:"Preparation, Characterization and Ion-Exchange Properties of an Organic-Inorganic Composite Cation Exchanger: Polyaniline-Bi(III) Iodovanadate and Catalytic Properties of Bi(III) Iodovanadate Inorganic Ion Exchanger",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87064",slug:"preparation-characterization-and-ion-exchange-properties-of-an-organic-inorganic-composite-cation-ex",totalDownloads:624,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polyaniline based composite cation exchange materials have been used in industrial application for more than 100 years. The organic-inorganic composite cation exchanger was prepared by using sol-gel process. The organic polymer part furnishes the good chemical and mechanical properties, whereas the inorganic part improves the ion-exchange behavior and thermal stability. A new and novel polyaniline-Bi(III) iodovanadate composite cation exchanger prepared by using sol-gel process and was characterized by FT-IR, XRD, SEM-EDS studies. The ion exchange capacity, effect of size and charge of metal ion, eluent concentration, effect of time on IEC elution behavior and oxidizing properties of Bi(III) iodovanadate was also studied by column method. Polyaniline-Bi(III) iodovanadate composite exhibits ion exchange capacity for Na+ ion is 1.48 meq/g.",signatures:"Nainar Kohila, Kasi Sathiyaseelan and Mariyathanislas Sagaya Lourdhu Sumithra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67828",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67828",authors:[{id:"302929",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sathiyaseelan",surname:"K",slug:"sathiyaseelan-k",fullName:"Sathiyaseelan K"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6621",title:"Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Life Sciences Practical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f56a7cec216143862d31daab30431b44",slug:"electrophoresis-life-sciences-practical-applications",bookSignature:"Oana-Maria Boldura and Cornel Baltă",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189429",title:"Prof.",name:"Oana-Maria",surname:"Boldura",slug:"oana-maria-boldura",fullName:"Oana-Maria Boldura"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7004",title:"Metabolomics",subtitle:"New Insights into Biology and Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"35a30d8241442b716a4aab830b6de28f",slug:"metabolomics-new-insights-into-biology-and-medicine",bookSignature:"Wael N. 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Waisundara"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"64452",slug:"erratum-processing-parameters-for-selective-laser-sintering-or-melting-of-oxide-ceramics",title:"Erratum - Processing Parameters for Selective Laser Sintering or Melting of Oxide Ceramics",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64452.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64452",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64452",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64452",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64452",chapter:{id:"60707",slug:"processing-parameters-for-selective-laser-sintering-or-melting-of-oxide-ceramics",signatures:"Haidong Zhang and Saniya LeBlanc",dateSubmitted:"June 5th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 11th 2018",book:{id:"6306",title:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys",subtitle:"Modeling and Optimization",fullTitle:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys - Modeling and Optimization",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-high-performance-metals-and-alloys-modeling-and-optimization",publishedDate:"July 11th 2018",bookSignature:"Igor V. Shishkovsky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6306.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178616",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:"V.",surname:"Shishkovsky",slug:"igor-shishkovsky",fullName:"Igor Shishkovsky"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"213235",title:"Prof.",name:"Saniya",middleName:null,surname:"LeBlanc",fullName:"Saniya LeBlanc",slug:"saniya-leblanc",email:"sleblanc@gwu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"George Washington University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"213239",title:"Dr.",name:"Haidong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Haidong Zhang",slug:"haidong-zhang",email:"haidongzhang@email.gwu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"George Washington University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"60707",slug:"processing-parameters-for-selective-laser-sintering-or-melting-of-oxide-ceramics",signatures:"Haidong Zhang and Saniya LeBlanc",dateSubmitted:"June 5th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 11th 2018",book:{id:"6306",title:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys",subtitle:"Modeling and Optimization",fullTitle:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys - Modeling and Optimization",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-high-performance-metals-and-alloys-modeling-and-optimization",publishedDate:"July 11th 2018",bookSignature:"Igor V. Shishkovsky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6306.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178616",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:"V.",surname:"Shishkovsky",slug:"igor-shishkovsky",fullName:"Igor Shishkovsky"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"213235",title:"Prof.",name:"Saniya",middleName:null,surname:"LeBlanc",fullName:"Saniya LeBlanc",slug:"saniya-leblanc",email:"sleblanc@gwu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"George Washington University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"213239",title:"Dr.",name:"Haidong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Haidong Zhang",slug:"haidong-zhang",email:"haidongzhang@email.gwu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"George Washington University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},book:{id:"6306",title:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys",subtitle:"Modeling and Optimization",fullTitle:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys - Modeling and Optimization",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-high-performance-metals-and-alloys-modeling-and-optimization",publishedDate:"July 11th 2018",bookSignature:"Igor V. Shishkovsky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6306.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178616",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:"V.",surname:"Shishkovsky",slug:"igor-shishkovsky",fullName:"Igor Shishkovsky"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11285",leadTitle:null,title:"Spinal Cord Injury - Current Trends in Acute Management, Function Preservation and Rehabilitation Protocols",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tSpinal cord injury represents a relatively frequent clinical scenario that emergency doctors, neuroradiologists, and spine surgeons have to deal with in their daily practice.
\r\n\r\n\tAlthough there are many publications on this topic, a consensus on the preferred management has not been reached yet. In fact, other than clearly surgical or non-surgical patients, there is a non-negligible number of cases where an interdisciplinary discussion is strictly needed, eventually determining a case-by-case treatment selection.
\r\n\r\n\tEmergency decompression surgery, often associated with fusion, represents an effective treatment for critical compressions of the spinal cord, while its role in subacute cases is still debated. Different medical managements have been proposed for the acute, subacute, and chronic phases, respectively. Since function preservation is the primary outcome to be pursued, the multidisciplinary case discussion is a fundamental step in the decision-making process. However, a practical guide on the state of the art on spinal cord injury management may result as useful to a large audience of practitioners.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-877-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-876-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-878-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"fc1ece21c6d20adecf2b9fe16489a07d",bookSignature:"Dr. Luca Ricciardi, Dr. Giorgio Lofrese, Dr. Andrea Perna and Ph.D. Sokol Trungu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11285.jpg",keywords:"Concussion, Medullary Edema, Paraplegia, Neurotrauma, Functional Impairment, Neurorehabilitation, Physiotherapy, Steroids, Rhiluzole, Arthrodesis, Fusion, Instrumentation",numberOfDownloads:16,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 4th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 24th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 12th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"The clinical researcher focused on spine and spinal cord disorders. Dr. Ricciardi serves as a guest editor, editorial board member, and reviewer of many indexed journals such as the Journal of Neurosurgical Sciences and Frontiers in Neurooncology, Life, and Cell. He is a co-chairman for SPINE20, the World Congress on Spine Disorders at the G20 conference in Rome, Italy, and an individual delegate at the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A neurosurgeon specialized in craniocervical junction diseases and minimally invasive spine surgery. Dr. Lofrese was awarded the European Young Researcher Award (AOSpine) and the Young Neurosurgeon Award (WFNS). He is a member of EUROSPINE, SPINE20, and the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Perna's main fields of study are the pathologies of the spine, with particular attention to spinal deformities, traumatological surgery, and infectious pathologies such as spondylodiscitis. His publications give particular attention to lateral surgery, while his other fields of interest are hand surgery and biomechanics applied to orthopedics.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Dr. Trungu completed his Ph.D. in Neuroscience and Neurosurgery at Sapienza University of Rome, Italy. His areas of special interest are Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery (MISS), complex spine surgery, spine trauma focusing on acute spinal cord injury, primary and secondary spinal tumors, and Neuro-oncology.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"421212",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Ricciardi",slug:"luca-ricciardi",fullName:"Luca Ricciardi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/421212/images/system/421212.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ricciardi graduated in Medicine and Surgery in 2013 and finished his residency in Neurosurgery in 2019.\nIn 2017, he completed a fellowship in spinal deformities at the Catholic University of Rome - Italy, and in 2018 he completed a research fellowship at the Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, US. He also completed the four-year training course of the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies and completed the European Board Exam part-1 for FEBNS.\nDr. Ricciardi has authored more than 60 papers published in peer-reviewed international journals. He has been serving as a reviewer for more than 15 scientific journals. He has been awarded as Publons Academy Mentor for training in peer-review, and he has conducted more than 80 certified peer reviews by the date. ( https://publons.com/researcher/1705851/luca-ricciardi/ ) \nIn 2021, Dr. Ricciardi was invited as Guest Editor for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses on the Journal of Neurosurgical Sciences, and as Invited Editor on Frontiers in Neurooncology, Life, and Cell. \nIn 2021, Dr. Ricciardi has been nominated co-Chairman and President of the Scientific Committee at SPINE20, the World Congress on Spine Disorders at the G20 conference in Rome, Italy.",institutionString:"Sapienza University of Rome",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"436982",title:"Dr.",name:"Giorgio",middleName:null,surname:"Lofrese",slug:"giorgio-lofrese",fullName:"Giorgio Lofrese",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003FVMDgQAP/Profile_Picture_1633074659823",biography:"Dr. Lofrese is a neurosurgeon specialized in cranio-cervical junction diseases and minimally invasive spine surgery. As a former resident of the Catholic University in Rome, he completed his training in Milan, Bologna, and New York, concluding it in Curitiba with an AOSpine clinical fellowship. He is currently a permanent neurosurgeon at the Bufalini Hospital in Cesena, and a consultant neurosurgeon at the State Hospital of the Republic of San Marino. He was awarded with the European Young Researcher Award (AOSpine) and the Young Neurosurgeon Award (WFNS). Dr. Lofrese is in his final year as a PhD student in Neuroscience and Neurotechnologies at the University of Ferrara, developing new applications software addressed to patients with spinal cord injury.",institutionString:"University of Ferrara",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Ferrara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"436984",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Perna",slug:"andrea-perna",fullName:"Andrea Perna",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003FVMdQQAX/Profile_Picture_1633585227288",biography:"Dr. Perna concentrates his fields of study on the pathologies of the spine, with particular attention to spinal deformities, traumatological surgery, and infectious pathologies such as spondylodiscitis. He also has numerous scientific publications relating to spinal deformity correction surgery and minimally invasive surgery, with particular attention to lateral surgery. His other fields of interest are hand surgery and biomechanics applied to orthopedics.",institutionString:"Gemelli Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:{id:"440065",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sokol",middleName:null,surname:"Trungu",slug:"sokol-trungu",fullName:"Sokol Trungu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003FYl9aQAD/Profile_Picture_1633512850348",biography:"Dr. Trungu graduated with honors in Medicine and Surgery in 2010 and finished his residency in Neurosurgery in 2017. In 2021, he completed his PhD in Neuroscience and Neurosurgery at the Sapienza University of Rome, Italy. Currently, he is working as a consultant neurosurgeon at Cardinale G. Panico Hospital, Tricase, Italy. His areas of special interest are Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery (MISS), complex spine surgery, spine trauma focusing in acute spinal cord injury, primary and secondary spinal tumors, Neurovascular and Neuro-oncology. He has authored and co-authored more than 30 papers published in peer-reviewed international journals and he is serving as a reviewer for different scientific journals.",institutionString:"Pia Fondazione Cardinal Giovanni Panico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"81143",title:"Role of Biokinetics Rehabilitation among Spinal Cord Injured (SCI) Patients",slug:"role-of-biokinetics-rehabilitation-among-spinal-cord-injured-sci-patients",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"418641",firstName:"Iva",lastName:"Ribic",middleName:null,title:"M.Sc.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418641/images/16830_n.png",email:"iva.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Image data can be in many forms, such as image, video, depth image, multi-camera views, or multidimensional data from a medical scanner.
The objective of CV is to model the real world or to recognize objects from digital images enabling computers or devices to “see”, interpret, manipulate, analyze, and understand what was seen and draw conclusions about the properties of the 3D world based on a given image or a sequence of images [1].
Basic CV tasks are image classification, segmentation, similarity calculation and object localization. Recognition of objects present on the scene and their features (e.g., shapes, textures, colors, sizes, spatial arrangement,) is often prerequisite for more complex CV tasks such as image retrieval, image description, object detection, object tracking, action recognition, image or scene analysis, and image understanding [2].
In all tasks, the starting point are the image features that carry important information and need to be extracted and processed in order to generate new information and conclusions. The image features can be divided into low-level features such as corners, edges, or contours that can be extracted with relatively simple image operations, and high-level features that require domain-knowledge to get structured information related to the object or action being taken [3].
Feature extraction can be described as a pre-processing step to remove redundant parts from the data and keeping the key information for accomplishing the task. Some well-known features that can be extracted are Optical flow for extracting motion information, Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) and Silhouette for extracting shape information, Space–Time Interested Points for extracting interest points, etc.
To accomplish typical CV tasks, Image processing and Machine learning (ML) play an important role. Image processing is focused on low-level features and manipulation of image data for normalizing photometric properties of visual data, removing digital noise, data augmentation, etc., and is not concerned with understanding the content of visual data. However, when it comes to interpret the content and draw conclusions about the image to automate CV tasks, the most important fields are ML and its subfield Deep learning (DL) [2].
Before DL, computer vison tasks required a lot of coding and manual effort to define the features that can be extracted from images, with little automation involved [4]. With DL methods such as Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) [5], much of that work related the features to be extracted can be inferred automatically from data. Even though many features can be extracted automatically in the CNN framework for different tasks, manual feature extraction can still be useful for either augmenting the automatically extracted features or perform other tasks such as temporal segmentation of video or detection of active players.
Typical CV tasks such as object detection, object tracking, and action recognition, the tasks we will focus on the most here, are supervised learning tasks (Figure 1). Supervised learning relies on labeled ground truth data, based on which the learning algorithm infers the mapping between the raw data and the desired labels in the training stage. Thus, a prerequisite for supervised learning is data preparation, which includes data collection and labeling, pre-processing and feature extraction, followed by splitting data into a training and testing set, then selecting an appropriate learning algorithm and model structure for the specific task. After training and validating the model, the model needs to be tested and the obtained results need to be compared with the ground-truth data to evaluate the performance. The performance evaluation is represented with different metrics appropriate for the specific task.
Supervised learning process.
CV tasks can be implemented for image and video analysis in different domains, including the sports domain. Various CV techniques can be very useful for all parties interested in analyzing the game, including the coach, the reporters, the referee team, the physiotherapists and others, for making decisions about an occurred event, for monitoring and comparing the performance of each individual player, for choosing a strategy, for fast automatic analysis of video materials captured during a match or practice and the like.
In this chapter, the focus will be on handball, a team indoor sport played with a ball by two teams with seven players, one of whom is the goalkeeper. To analyze handball sports videos, different CV tasks can be combined. For example, the object or person detection can be applied to detect the players on the field, the object tracking to follow the players’ movements across the field, and action recognition to analysis of the players’ performances.
In the next sections, a created dataset for handball will be presented, and then the simple CNN architecture and typical measures for evaluation of model performance are described. In the following sections, CV tasks will be described and implemented in the context of handball. Object detection with YOLO and Mask R-CNN is presented in Section 5, object tracking with Hungarian algorithm and Deep SORT in Section 6, and action recognition using LSTM model in Section 7. Applications of optical flow and spatiotemporal interest points for temporal segmentation and active player determination are presented in Section 8.
The handball dataset used for the following experiments was recorded during a handball school, where participants were young handball players and their coaches.
The dataset consists of high-quality video recordings of practices and matches, filmed in a sport hall or in an outdoor handball field, without additional scene preparation or player instruction to preserve real-world conditions. The recordings were made using different stationary cameras positioned on the left or right border of the field on a tripod at 1.5 m, or from the spectator’s viewpoint at the height of approximately 3.5 m and the distance from the filed limit of 10 m. The recordings are in full HD resolution (1920x1080) and contain from 30 to 60 frames per second.
The dataset is quite challenging with a cluttered background, a variable number of players at different distance from the camera, who move fast and often change direction, are often occluded with another player, have jerseys of similar color to the background, etc.
The data needs to be prepared, processed and labeled for each specific task that will be considered here, so that domain- and task-specific models can be made by either training from scratch if there is sufficient data, or preferably, by tuning an existing model for a similar task using examples from the new domain.
For the player and ball detection task, 394 training and 27 validating images were extracted from the videos in the handball dataset and manually labeled, to form the PBD-Handball dataset [6].
To obtain the ground-truth data for the player tracking task, a subset of videos from the handball dataset was first processed using the YOLOv3 object detector, then with the DeepSORT tracker to bootstrap the annotation process, and lastly manually corrected. The total duration of the annotated dataset, named PT-Handball, prepared for this task is 6 min and 18 s [7].
For the action recognition task, parts of the videos containing the chosen actions were extracted from the whole handball dataset to get a subset of 2,991 short videos that were then labeled with one of the 10 action classes, or the Background class where action is not happening. This dataset is referred to as PAR_Handball.
Typical models used today for image classification and object detections tasks are based on Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), since they are adapted to solve the problems of high-dimensional inputs and inputs that have many features. The CNN network consists of a number of convolution layers, after which the network has been named, the activation and pooling layers, and one or more fully connected layers at the end of the network [8], (Figure 2).
Simplified CNN architecture.
The convolution layer refers to a mathematical operator defined over two functions with real value arguments that give a modified version of one of the two original functions. The layer takes a map of the features (or, in the first layer, the input image) and convolves it with a set of learned parameters resulting in a new two-dimensional feature map. The sets of learned parameters (weights and thresholds) are called filters or kernels. Each filter is a 2D square matrix, small in size compared to the image to which it is applied (equal depths as well as the input). The filter consists of real values that represent the weights that need to be learned, so that the output feature map contains useful information such as a particular shape, color, edge in order to give the network good results.
The pooling layer is usually inserted between two successive convolution layers to reduce a map resolution and increase spatial invariance or network insensitivity to minor shifts such as rotations, and translations of features in the image. The pooling layer also reduces memory requirements for network implementation. The most commonly used pooling methods are arithmetic mean and maximum, but several other pooling methods are also used in CNN architecture, such as Mixed Pooling, Stochastic Pooling, Spatial Pyramid Pooling and others [8].
The activation function defines the output of a node given an input or set of inputs. In its simplest form, this function is binary and represents the action potential of neurons by propagating the output value of the neuron or by stopping it. There is a broad range of univariate functions of linear combination of the input variables acting as CNN activation functions such as linear activation functions, jump functions, and sigmoidal functions. The jump and sigmoidal functions are a better choice for neural networks that perform classification tasks while linear functions are often used in output layers where unlimited output is required. Newer architectures use activation functions, typically Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU), behind each layer.
A fully connected layer is the last layer in the network. The name comes because of its configuration: all neurons are linked to all the outputs of the neurons in the previous layer. Fully connected layers can be viewed as special types of convolution layers where all feature maps and all filters are 1 x 1.
Network hyperparameters are all parameters needed by the network that have to be set before the network is provided with data for learning. The hyper-parameters in convolutional neural networks are the learning rate, the number of epochs, the number and kind of network layers, the activation function, the initialization weights, input pre-processing and the error function.
Selecting the structure of the CNN network for feature extraction plays a vital role in object detection because the number of parameters and types of layers directly affect the memory requirements, speed, and performance of the detector.
In this paper, two types of CNN-based networks, YOLO and Mask-RCNN, have been used for object detection, while for the task of action recognition, the CNN network is not used on its own, but it forms a part of the more advanced LSTM network as the feature extractor.
The performance of object detectors is usually evaluated in terms of accuracy, recall, precision, and F1 score [9], for a given confidence threshold. The same measures can also be used for evaluation of the action classification task.
The detections are deemed true positive when the intersection over union of (IoU) the detected bounding box and the ground truth box is greater than 0.5. The IoU measure is defined as the ratio of the intersection of the detected bounding box and the ground truth (GT) bounding box and their union, see Figure 3.
Visualization of intersection over union (IoU) criteria equal to or greater than 50%.
Since the confidence threshold controls the tradeoff between recall and precision, Average Precision (AP) measure is frequently used to evaluate the performance of the detectors. The AP is the area below the precision-recall curve which is calculated for every class by varying the confidence threshold. To get the mean Average Precision (mAP) value, mean of AP values of all classes is calculated.
Since there is no single measure that can uniquely describe the complex behavior of trackers, several measures are used to evaluate the tracking performance. These measures are the number of identity switches (ID), identification precision (IDP), identification recall (IDR) and the identification F1 (IDF1) measures [10].
An identity switch occurs when an object that was assigned an ID j in previous frames, gets a new id k, k ≠ j in a subsequent frame. The IDF1 measure focuses on how long a target is correctly identified, regardless of the number of mismatches. It is the ratio of correctly identified detections over the average number of ground-truth and computed detections.
The task of object detection is to find instances of real-world objects in images or videos. A detected object is typically marked with a bounding box and labeled with a corresponding class label and classification confidence value. Thus, object detection includes both the problems of finding the location of the object on the scene and of classification for predicting the class to which the object belongs to.
In case of player detection, the object detector should be able to overcome challenging conditions such as variable number of players, different player positions, varying distance of the player from the camera, the possibility of changing shape and appearance of players in time, presence of the blur of due to the speed of the movement, occlusion, shadows of artificial and external light, as well as cluttered background.
Nowadays, the focus in object detection is on CNNs that have been extended to be able to both detect and localize individual objects on the scene. In the following subsections, two different object detectors YOLO and Mask R-CNN are described with a corresponding experiment of player and ball detection.
YOLO is a detection algorithm based on a single-stage CNN architecture that can detect multiple objects in an image in real-time. The main idea is to predict bounding boxes and confidence values for grid cells into which an image or frame is divided. In the cases when an object is spread across more than one grid cell, the holder of its prediction will be the center cell.
There have been four versions of YOLO since it was first published. In the original version, the network architecture has 24 convolutional layers with two additional fully connected layers. The purpose of the convolutional layers is the feature extraction, while for fully connected layers to calculate the bounding boxes predictions and probabilities. The bounding box predictions and class probabilities are associated with grid cells so that if an object occupies more than one cell, the center cell will be designated to be the holder of prediction for a particular object [11].
In the next version, YOLOv2 [12], five convolution layers were replaced with max-pooling layers, and instead of the fully connected layers, predefined anchor boxes are introduced. In the training phase, to define the anchor boxes, YOLOv2 uses k-means clustering on ground-truth bounding boxes where boxes translations are relative to a grid cell.
YOLOv3 [13] is the third version of the YOLO object detector. It consists of 53 convolutional layers of (3 × 3) and (1 × 1) filters with shortcut connections between layers (residual blocks) used for feature extraction. The last convolutional layer predicts the bounding boxes, the confidence scores, and the prediction class. It predicts possible bounding boxes at three different scales using a structure that is similar to feature pyramid networks. In this way three sets of boxes are predicted at each feature map cell for each scale, to improve the detection of objects of different sizes.
Player and ball detection performance of the YOLOv3 detector was tested on the handball dataset using two different models. The reference model, further marked as Y, is the pre-trained YOLOv3 model with 608 x 608 input image size with weights pre-trained on the COCO dataset and no additional training. The pre-trained model contains the person and sports ball among other classes from the COCO dataset. Transfer learning [14] was used to avoid training the models from the beginning.
The second model (YBP) was trained using transfer learning, on PBD-Handball part of the dataset. The input image resolution was increased to 1024 x 1024 from 608 x 608 of the original model and the model was trained for approximately 80 epochs. Figure 4 shows an example of detection results for the “person” class.
Player detections in handball scene with YOLOv3 (bounding boxes with confidences).
To evaluate the performance of a model, the average precision (AP) metric of both classes and the mean average precision are used and shown on Table 1.
PBD-Handball | |||
---|---|---|---|
Model | Ball AP | Person AP | mAP |
Y | 13.53 | 66.13 | 39.83 |
YPB | 35.44 | 63.77 | 49.61 |
Evaluation of the object detector.
The best results for ball detection in terms of AP were achieved with the YPB model, which was trained on additional examples for both ball and person class and had an increased input image size. A small amount of training data can significantly improve detection results as can be seen in the example of ball detection which improved for 23%. The achieved results are satisfactory given the demanding environment but are not sufficient for commercial application, so the training dataset should be increased.
Mask R-CNN [15] is a two-stage CNN that can not only detect and localize multiple objects simultaneously present in the image, but also provides a segmentation mask of the objects, that is, assigns a membership value to each of the pixels belonging to the object. The first stage of the network is a region proposal network that finds the regions of the image that are likely to contain objects (regions of interest, RoI) and proposes candidate object bounding boxes. A sliding window is applied to the feature map to examine the probability whether there is an object class or a background in the examined region. Then, bounding boxes and masks are generated with the corresponding confidence values for all possible classes.
In the second stage, there are two parallel branches of the network, a fully convolutional branch for predicting the segmentation masks and a fully connected branch used on each RoI for classification and for adjusting the proposed box size.
There are similar networks like R-CNN, Fast R-CNN, Faster R-CNN [16] on which Mask R-CNN is based to look up for object detection purpose.
The performance of the Mask R-CNN for player detection was tested on the PBD-Handball dataset using the standard Resnet-101-FPN network configuration with pre-trained parameters on the COCO dataset. For player detection experiment, only the bounding boxes that refer to the “person” class were considered.
To obtain a good balance of high detection rates and low false positive detections, detections with confidence values below a threshold experimentally set to 0.55 were discarded. The detector performance was evaluated in terms of recall, precision, F1 scores and inference time per frame (using the NVIDIA 1080ti GPU). The results and comparison with the YOLOv3 detector are shown in Table 2. Detection was considered as true positive when the intersection of the detected bounding box and the ground truth box was above 50%.
Object Detector/Measure | Inference time / frame | Recall | Precision | F1 |
---|---|---|---|---|
YOLOv3 | 0.04 s | 68% | 95% | 79% |
Mask R-CNN | 0.3 s | 76% | 98% | 85% |
Results of player detection with mask R-CNN and YOLOv3.
One handball scene with the bounding boxes, class confidence value, and segmentation masks obtained with Mask R-CNN is shown on Figure 5.
Player detections obtained with mask R-CNN in a handball scene (bounding boxes with segmentation mask and confidence value).
It can be concluded that the results of both the YoloV3 and Mask R-CNN detector are good enough to be used for further analysis of player performance. However, the YOLOv3 detector is much faster, so it can be used not only for offline analysis of recordings, but also for real-time detection, at the cost of somewhat reduced recall. The detection results could be improved if more data is used, but the performance depends on the number and size of the players on the scene, the contrast between a player and a background, illumination, etc.
Tracking of handball players in video is an example of a Multi-Object Tracking (MOT) problem, where the goal is to track both the position and the identity of multiple objects present in video, so that the same unique ID is assigned to each object in every frame it appears. In an ideal case, in every video frame, all the present players should be detected in their correct position and a unique ID for each player, that stays the same throughout the video, should be assigned. This is a difficult task as many players can be on the field, from 14 to 25, depending if it is a practice or a match, and every one of them needs to be tracked. Furthermore, players can leave and re-enter the camera field of view, move very quickly, often change directions, occlude each other and wear similar clothes, or clothes with similar color as the background [17].
Thanks to improvements in performance of object detectors, and thanks to the ability to deal with challenges such as cluttered scenes or dynamics of tracked objects, tracking-by-detection has become a leading paradigm for MOT.
When using tracking-by-detection, the tracking algorithm relies on the object detector to detect and locate the objects on the scene in each frame, while the role of the tracking algorithm itself is reduced to the problem of associating the detections across frames that belong to the same object. To do so, the tracker may use the information about bounding boxes obtained by object detection, such as their dimensions, the locations of their centroids, the relative position to the boxes in previous frames, or some visual features extracted from the image.
The Hungarian algorithm [18] solves the problem of finding the globally optimal assignment of IDs to detected player bounding boxes, with respect to some cost function that is defined for an individual assignment. Here the cost function is defined only in terms of the parameters of the bounding boxes detected by the object detector in the current and previous frame, without using any visual features extracted from the video frames. Its value depends on the Euclidean distance of each detected object’s bounding box centroid from the predicted centroid of an object in the track, and on the size difference of the bounding box and the last assigned bounding box to the same track.
Formally, the assignment cost
where
For the prediction of the centroid location
Moreover, a unique track ID is assigned to each detected bounding box whose detector confidence is higher than a set threshold during the initial assignment of bounding boxes to tracks. Afterwards, whenever the number of detected objects exceeds the number of currently active tracks, new tracks are created and initialized using the unassigned object’s bounding box.
An existing track is considered inactive when no detections are assigned to that track for several frames. Once a track is marked inactive, no further detections are added to it, so if an object later reappears or is detected again, it will get a new track ID and will be considered a new object.
Deep SORT [19] is a tracking algorithm that builds upon the Hungarian algorithm, adding the appearance information about the tracked objects into consideration when associating new detections with previously tracked objects. The appearance information is particularly useful for re-identifying players that were occluded or have temporarily left the scene. As in the previous case, a unique track ID is assigned to each bounding box within the first frame, and the Hungarian algorithm is used to assign the new detections to existing tracks so that the assignment cost function reaches the global minimum.
The cost function consists of the spatial distance
where λ is a tunable parameter that determines the relative influence of the spatial distance
The spatial distance
where
The visual distance
where
The
The appearance descriptors are extracted using a wide residual neural network comprising two convolutional layers followed by six residual blocks that output a 128-element vector, and then normalized to fit within a unit hypersphere so that the cosine distance can be used. The network was pre-trained on a person re-identification dataset of more than a million images of 1261 pedestrians. The appearance information helps with re-identification of objects that have not been tracked for some time because of missed detections, because they were under occlusion or because they have briefly left the scene.
New tracks are formed whenever there are more detections in a frame than there are existing tracks or when a detection cannot be assigned to any track, because its spatial or visual distance is too far from any existing track. The maximum allowed
The tracking of players previously detected with the YOLOv3 detector using pre-trained tiny-yolo weights and confidence threshold set to 0.5 was performed on the PT-Handball dataset with the Hungarian algorithm and Deep SORT [20].
An example of a tracking situation in sequential frames when occlusions occurred is shown in Figure 6. The numbers above the bounding boxes represent the tracking ID of each player. The shown situation is quite demanding, resulting in rather unstable and inconsistent tracking in the selected frame. The Hungarian algorithm successfully tracked one of four players, and two of the players got new IDs after occlusion, while one player has switched ID with another, so that 807 got previously existing ID 812 (Figure 6, top row). Deep SORT managed to track correctly all four players (Figure 6, bottom row).
An example of tracking situation with occlusion. Top: Hungarian algorithm, bottom: Deep SORT. The left and right frames are 1 second apart.
Since the best results were obtained with the Deep SORT algorithm, its ability to assign the correct IDs to detections is analyzed in more detail using the common MOT evaluation measures. The results are shown in Table 3.
Measure | Value |
---|---|
#tracks in the ground truth | 279 |
#tracks | 1554 |
Identity switches | 1483 |
IDF1 | 24.7% |
Performance evaluation of deep SORT.
For each player that should be tracked, the identity switches caused, 5 to 6 additional tracks on average, so there are 5 times more tracks than in ground-truth annotated data. Furthermore, a large number, precisely 1483, of identity switches are present, due to a relatively large number of players in the video that move fast, exit the camera field view, frequently change positions, and occlude each other.
The number of players that are simultaneously present in the frame obviously affects the tracking performance, and according to the IDF1 measure, the players can be correctly identified for 24,7% of the time.
Tracking mistakes can be attributed to several factors. As in all tracking-by-detection algorithms, the accuracy of tracking is greatly influenced by the accuracy of the object detector. If a player is inaccurately detected, the tracking will be inaccurate as well. Furthermore, the scale of an object, occlusion, and the similar color of the players’ clothes with the background often cause tracking problems. To overcome these problems, in further work, multiple camera systems will be investigated [21], which can also allow for a more robust generation of a top-view trajectory [22].
In Figure 7, the top row shows the problem of re-identification after occlusion, and the bottom row the problem of identity switch due to small scale and similar colors.
Problem of re-identification after occlusion.
The goal of action recognition is to infer which action takes place in a set of image or video observations. Some simple actions, like eating or cutting, could be recognized using just a single frame, but actions are mostly much more complex and take place over a period of time, so they need to be analyzed across consecutive video frames.
Here, for recognition of handball actions, a simple long short-term memory (LSTM)-based artificial recurrent neural network is used.
During the handball game, every player is moving around the field performing different actions with a ball, such as shot, jump-shot or dribbling, or without the ball, such as running or defending. Some actions are performed by more players such as passing the ball or crossing.
Unlike CNNs and other so-called feedforward neural (FFNN) networks, recurrent neural networks (RNNs) [23] have connections that feed the activations of an input in a previous time step back into the network, to influence the output for the current input. These activations from the previous time step are held potentially indefinitely in the internal state of the network, so the temporal context is not limited to a fixed window that could be used as an input to a FFNN. This property makes RNNs especially appropriate for modeling sequences, such as text or a sequence of video frames in action recognition.
Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) [24] is a type of recurrent neural network (RNN) designed to model temporal sequences and their long-range dependencies more accurately than conventional RNNs. In the recurrent hidden layers, the LSTM contains special units called memory blocks. Those units contain memory cells, that have self-connections storing the temporal state of the network, and gates, which are special multiplicative units that control the flow of information. The flow of input activations into the memory cell is being controlled by the input gate, while the output gate controls the output flow of cell activations into the rest of the network. The forget gate scales the internal state of the cell before adding it as input to the cell through the self-recurrent connection of the cell, thus causing the adaptive forgetting or resetting the cell’s memory.
In the experiment handball actions from the PAR-Handball dataset are considered: Throw, Catch, Shot, Jump-shot, Running, Dribbling, Defense, Passing, Double-pass, and Crossing. An example of jump-shot action is shown in Figure 8. The action consists of a sequence of different phases of jump-shot action from running, take-off, flight, throw, and landing that are captured on different video frames.
Active player collage for jump-shoot action.
Different actions can take different amounts of time to perform, so the average number of frames in a video depends on the action class it belongs to, as shown in Figure 9.
Average number of frames per action from the handball dataset.
Only Throw and Catch actions are significantly shorter (two or three times) than the other action classes that have a duration of around 60 frames on average.
Because these two actions are also parts of the more complex ones, like Passing, the model is trained once with all 11 classes and once with 9 classes, excluding Throw and Catch.
The model selected for action recognition is a LSTM-based network with one LSTM layer with 1,024 units, followed by a dropout layer with 0.5 dropout, one fully connected layer with 512 neurons, also followed by a dropout layer with 0.5 dropout rate. and the output layer with 11 neurons.
The input to the LSTM consists of a sequence of features extracted from video frames using the InceptionV3 [25] network with the ImageNet [26] re-trained weights as the starting point. The model is trained with the Adam optimize with a learning rate of 0.00001 and decay of 10–6 for up to 100 epochs, stopping early if the validation loss does not improve for more than 20 epochs.
Different frame selection strategies and different input size of sequences from 20 to 80 were used to train the model, because actions might have most distinctive characteristics in different parts of the sequence.
In videos containing more frames than expected, the chosen number of frames were selected consecutively from either beginning, middle or the end of the video, or from the whole video by decimation, i.e., by skipping some frames at regular intervals. Conversely, copies of existing frames were inserted between frames to extend the number of frames.
The action recognition results obtained by the described LSTM model, considering the frame selection strategies and different class numbers are shown in Figure 10 in terms of validation accuracy.
Validation accuracy for different lengths of input sequences and 9 or 11 action classes.
Having to classify a smaller number of classes can generally be considered a simpler task, so, as expected, the models trained on 9 classes have better results on average than the models trained on 11 classes. However, the best result overall of 70.94% is obtained for the model with 11 classes and 45 frames taken from the middle of the sequences. This is possibly due to the overlap of some actions that make them more difficult to recognize, as the actions Throw, and Catch that are parts of other actions such as Passing, Double-pass, Crossing, Shot and Jump-shot. Closely behind with 70.55% is the model trained on 9 classes with 20 frames in the middle, and in the third place is the model trained on 9 classes with last 45 frames with 70.47% validation accuracy.
Taking into consideration only the number of input frames and ignoring the number of classes or frame selection, the best results are obtained with 45 frames followed by 20 frames. In most cases the additional frames in the sequence do not improve the result much over the models trained with 20 frames. Considering only the way the sequence is selected, the highest average accuracy of 67.69% is achieved by the model while trained on 9 classes and the last frames selection, followed by 67,05% by skipping frames.
It can be noted that regardless the strategy of selecting frames, increasing the number of input frames does not contribute to a better result. The number of frames and frame selection strategies appear to be highly dependent on the type of action being performed.
Low-level features extracted from video frames, combined with specific knowledge about the problem domain can sometimes be used for solving specific tasks and generate conclusions about the objects in the image or for scene analyzes. For example, optical flow can be used as a measure of motion in video, and for rough temporal segmentation of the input video in order to automatically cut periods of inactivity or detect intervals of repetition of a certain exercise in handball training.
If the low-level features such as optical flow or spatio-temporal interest points are used with additional information such as the detected player bounding boxes, conclusions can be drowned about the most active player on the scene and automatic detection of players that are at a certain time likely to be performing the action that is of most interest for the interpreting the scene [27].
A low-level feature that captures motion information is optical flow, which is estimated from the time-varying image intensity. A moving point on the image plane produces a 2D path
The movement of points can be estimated from consecutive video frames, using some optical flow estimation algorithm, e.g., the Lucas-Kanade method [28]. This method assumes that small sections, i.e., groups of pixels of the initial images move with the same velocity, so the result is a vector field V of velocities of each image section. At each point
A visualization of an optical flow field calculated between two video frames from the dataset is shown in Figure 11. The direction and magnitude of optical flow at each point is represented by the direction and length of each arrow.
Two consecutive frames in video and the corresponding optical flow field.
In an uninterrupted recording of a handball training, there are usually periods of repletion of a certain exercise, where all players repeat the exercise either simultaneously or taking turns, followed by short pauses where the coach explains the next exercise to be performed. The periods of higher activity, when players perform the exercises are characterized with the higher magnitude of extracted motion features from video, while the periods when players queue or wait for instruction (Figure 12) are characterized with lower magnitude of motion features [29].
A typical training situation. Two players on the right are performing the current task, while the rest are queuing.
To mark the periods of inactivity and segment the videos into sections where a single exercise is repeatedly practiced, an optical flow threshold is used. First, the optical flow field is calculated between two consecutive frames sampled each N frames (here, N = 50). Then, mean optical flow magnitude is calculated for each field, resulting in a single value for each sampled time point in video. The video is cut at time points when the mean magnitude of optical flow is lower than an experimentally determined threshold value. An example of the mean optical flow magnitude calculated for a video sequence where there were short pauses of 10–20 seconds between active repetition of an exercise was is shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that the normalized flow threshold of about 0.07 clearly separates the periods of inactivity from parts of video showing exercise.
An example of segmentation of a video sequence using optical flow magnitude.
In a typical footage of a handball game or training session, at a given time only one player or a small proportion of players present on the scene participate in the action that is currently in focus, e.g., jump-shot, passing, while others may perform actions that are not currently relevant for interpreting the situation, e.g., moving into their positions. To train the action recognition models, the actions of those players that perform the action of interest should be annotated. The annotation process is at least partly manual, so it is time-consuming and tedious given the large amounts of video data to process. To assist with annotation, a method is proposed to select among the detected and tracked players, the ones that are currently the most likely to be performing the action of interest, here called active players. Thus, instead of reviewing every single players’ activity at all times, the manual annotation is reduced to verification of only the proposed active players’ tracks.
First, the players are detected and tracked as described in previous chapters. Then, the information about player positions, i.e., the detected bounding boxes, is combined with the low-level movement features, such as optical flow or spatiotemporal interest points, to obtain a measure of each player’s activity in the considered time interval.
The optical flow-based measure of player’s activity (
An alternative feature to optical flow for defining the activity measure are spatiotemporal interest points, or STIPs. STIPs are an extension from the spatial domain into both spatial and temporal domain of the notion of interest points in images, which are points with a significant local variation of image intensities. STIPs are thus points in the image with large variation of values in both spatial and temporal directions around these points.
As for calculating the optical flow, there are several algorithms that can be used to detect the STIPs, e.g. the method presented in [30] is based on the Harris corner operator (Harris3D) that is extended into the spatiotemporal domain, [31] uses a Gaussian filter in the spatial domain and a Gabor band-pass filter in the temporal domain, the algorithm presented in [32] is based on Hessian3D derived from SURF, and the selective STIPs detector [33] is designed to specifically detect the STIPs that likely belong to persons and not to the background.
Given that movement during the performance of various sports actions causes significant variation of appearance in that part of image, it is expected that there will be more detected STIPs in image regions with more intense player’s activity [34].
An activity measure based on density of STIPs in the area near the detected player,
In the experiment here, the Harris3D detector with the default parameters was used to extract the STIPs. Figure 14 shows an example of the detected player bounding boxes and STIPs in a video frame.
Detected players and spatiotemporal interest points.
A threshold of activity measure can be used to filter active from inactive players, since the players that perform sports actions should make more sudden movements corresponding to higher activity measures than other players.
Looking at activity measures in a sequence of frames, the ranking of players’ activity can change between frames. So, to choose the players that are active throughout the sequence, the Active player score is calculated as the average activity measure of the player along the trajectory of the player’s bounding boxes. The result is a set of player trajectories with corresponding player activity scores (Figure 15).
Detected leading player (white box) and his trajectory through the whole sequence (yellow line).
In this chapter, the applications of deep learning methods on typical CV tasks such as object detection, object tracking and action recognition are presented on videos from the handball domain, recorded during training and matches.
Handball is a team sport, played with a ball, with well-defined player’s roles, goals and rules. During the game, the athletes move quickly throughout the field, change positions and roles from defensive to offensive and vice versa, use different techniques and actions, and doing so often get partially or completely occluded by another athlete, making player detection, tracking and action recognition challenging problems of ongoing research interest.
For detection, the algorithm must be able to locate an object in relation to its environment and, define that object. It is important for the detector to be as accurate and fast as possible especially if the real time detection is needed. State of the art deep learning-based detectors such as YOLOv3 and Mask R-CNN, prove to be successful for player detection, while the performance on ball detection still lags due to the combination of its small size, great speed and occlusion by the players.
Once objects such as players are detected, they can be tracked. Here, the Hungarian assignment algorithm and SORT with a deep association metric (Deep SORT) are considered for tracking. The goal of a tracker is to assign the same unique track ID to the same player in consecutive frames, which is complicated by the changes of appearance and sudden motions of players. Thus, the trackers can model this motion or the changing appearance to help the association process. The Deep SORT adds an appearance model based on deep neural network features. This appearance model allows the Deep SORT method to re-identify players that have been temporarily occluded or left the scene much more successfully than the other tested methods, making it more appropriate for use in the handball domain.
For the action recognition task, LSTM network is used, as it is suited to deal with both image information contained in a single video frame and its temporal evolution during the performance of actions. The obtained action recognition results are promising, however due to dependence of the action recognition model on the performance of previous stages, i.e. object detection and tracking, the challenge remains to improve all three tasks. As in all deep learning tasks, an important factor is gathering enough training data, which can be facilitated by methods that reduce the manual effort of labeling ground truth data. To that end, the experiments for automatic temporal segmentation of the raw footage and a method for detecting the active player in a sequence using low level visual features were presented.
Advances in deep learning methods promise continued improvement in the analysis of dynamic sports scenes, in order to recognize more complex activities, plan competitive tactics and monitor player progress.
This research was fully supported by the Croatian Science Foundation under the project IP-2016-2106-8345 “Automatic recognition of actions and activities in multimedia content from the sports domain” (RAASS) and by the University of Rijeka under the project number uniri-drustv-18-222.
Conventional media covers all the means of communication that occurred before the Internet and technology of media, containing printed materials such as (newspapers, books, magazines), broadcast (T.V. and radio). On the other hand, new media, includes electronic video games and entertainment, and the Internet and social media, according to Andzulis [1].
Though various forms of mass media rise and fall in recognition, it is worthwhile to note that despite sizeable cultural and technological changes, none of the media discussed during this text has dropped out of use completely.
Mass media stuff connects to the most intimate aspects of our life. Within our private situations, they still bind us to the universe. Mass media companies are therefore a major force within culture. They must dig deeper to discover how people use the media and what they understand cited in Duncan [2].
It is nearly incomprehensible to overstate the impact the Internet has had on media across the previous two decades. At first conceived as an attack-proof military arrange within the 1960s, the Internet has since gotten to be an integral portion of everyday life. With the advancement of the World Wide Web within the 1980s and the presentation of commercial browsers within the 1990s, clients picked up the capacity to transmit pictures, sound, and video over the Internet. Companies rapidly started to capitalize on the modern innovation, propelling web browsers, advertising free web-based mail accounts, and giving web catalogs and look motors. Internet utilization developed quickly, from 50% of American grown-ups in 2000 to 75% of American grown-ups in 2008 [3]. Presently that most of the industrialized world is online, the way we get our news, do trade, conduct inquire about, contact companions and relatives, apply for employments, and indeed observe T.V. has changed totally [4]. For example, several jobs can presently be performed completely from home without the ought to travel to a central office. Meetings can be conducted through videoconference, written communication can happen through mail, and workers can access company information through a server or file transfer protocol (FTP) location [5].
Besides, to extending the speed with which we can get to information and the volume of information readily available, the Internet has incorporated a whole current evenhanded estimation to correspondence. Finding a workable pacemaker of a printed book may take various long periods of confused effort, however finding a good pace distributor of online material requires minimal more than the press of a catch. Much refreshing to Web based life, for example, web journals, long-range informal communication locales, and anyone can contribute considerations on the Internet. Web-based social networking has numerous focal points, including the immediate circulation of news, a wide range of viewpoints on a solitary occasion, and the capacity to speak with individuals everywhere throughout the globe. Albeit some industry investigators have since a long time ago anticipated that the Internet will render print media out of date, broad communications administrators accept papers will develop with the occasions. Similarly, as the radio business needed to reexamine its business technique during the ascent of T.V., paper experts should reconsider their strategies for content conveyance during the age of the Internet.
Nowadays Internet is used for watching news and getting the most up to date update and around the globe [6, 7]. A great deal of people goes to the Internet while grinding away or out home and it is being gotten to all around the globe. This is the explanation you would all news stations and papers have kept up segments and their own sites. These web journals likewise support openings for work for reporters and writers to put their articles and convey data to the great many individuals around the globe.
Vocation in news coverage is comprehensively at request and a huge number of understudies apply for different courses in mass correspondence every year. Because of the rising scramble for systems administration among understudies, a progression of establishments and reporting authority’s schools have opened in the significant towns.
Likewise, with all the satellite stations, a dash of Radio stations (F.M.) additionally have come up. Every metropolitan city of India has its diverse F.M. radio broadcasts where many radio racers are working. Print press has likewise gained amazing ground and loads of magazines and English, Hindi and local papers have come-up available.
Mass correspondence industry is not just confined to the limit of its nation yet has accomplished all inclusive. Furthermore, it covers the entirety of the latest updates and happenings around the globe [8, 9]. The other improvement in mass correspondence area is publicizing administrations. Many little and enormous publicizing offices have come up from the area and there are vocation prospects out there for mass correspondence graduates.
Innovations have evolved swiftly that administrators in conventional media organizations frequently cannot hold command over their substance. For instance, when music-sharing site Napster started empowering clients to trade free music documents over the Web, distributed record sharing cost the music business a fortune in lost Disc deals. Instead of gain by the innovation, music industry officials sued Napster, at last closing it down, yet never entirely figuring out how to get rid of online music robbery. Indeed, even with legitimate computerized music deals through online merchants, for example, Macintosh’s iTunes Store, the music business is as yet attempting to decide how to make an enormous enough benefit to remain in business.
The distributing business has additionally experienced the impacts of innovation (even though paper readership has been in deterioration since the appearance of T.V. furthermore, radio). At the point when papers started creating on the web forms because of rivalry from link T.V., they ended up facing another type of newscasting: novice blogging. At first expelled as inconsistent and one-sided, web journals, for example, day by day Kos and The Huffington Post have picked up validity and huge readerships over the previous decade, constraining conventional columnists to blog and tweet to keep pace (which permits less time to watch that sources are solid or include profundity examination to a story). Customary papers are likewise missing out to news aggregators, for example, Google News, which benefits from giving connects to writers’ accounts at significant papers without offering money related remuneration to either the columnists or the news associations. Numerous papers have adjusted to the Web out of need, battling falling course figures and drooping publicizing deals by offering sites, writes, and webcasts and creating reports in video structure. Those that had the foreknowledge to adjust to the innovation are breathing a murmur of help; a 2000–2015 Pew Research Center report found that more Americans get their news using the Web than from papers or radio sources, and that the Web is the third most famous news source behind national and nearby T.V. news.
New media has three significant focal points over conventional media. In the first place, it is quick, empowering customers to discover the most recent news, climate forecast, or stock costs at the dash of a catch. Computerized music can be downloaded in a split second, motion pictures can be requested through a link or satellite-on-request administrations, and books can be perused on tablets. In an undeniably quick-paced world, there is little need to hang tight for anything. The subsequent favorable position is cost. Most online substance is free, from web journals and person to person communication destinations to news and diversion sources. Regardless of whether peruses are eager to pay for content once they are accustomed to getting it for nothing is something that the New York Times set to discover in 2011, when it presents a metered expense model for its online paper. At long last, new media can arrive at the most remote pieces of the globe. For instance, if an understudy is searching for data about everyday life in Iran, there is a high likelihood that an individual site page about living in that nation exists some place on the Web. Around half of Europeans, three-fourths of Americans, and a little more than one-fourth of the total populace generally have Web access (Web World Stats). This far-reaching arrive to make the Web a perfect objective for publicists, who can speak with their ideal specialty crowds through GPS beacons, for example, profile data on long-range informal communication destinations [10].
At the point when the iPad went at a bargain in the US in April 2010, 36-year-old visual planner Josh Klenert depicted the gadget as “incredibly costly [and] way overrated [4].” The expense of the innovation, in any case, did not deflect Klenert from buying an iPad; he preordered the tablet P.C. when it was accessible and wandered down to Macintosh’s SoHo store in New York on opening end of the week to be one of the first to get it. Klenert, and every other person who remained in line at the Mac store during the underlying dispatch of the iPad, is depicted by sociologists as an early adopter: a tech-cherishing pioneer who is among the first to hold onto innovation when it shows up available. What makes an individual be an early adopter or a late adopter? What are the advantages of each? Right now, will find out about the pattern of innovation and how it is diffused in a general public. The procedure and variables impacting the dissemination of innovation is regularly talked about with regards to a dispersion model known as the innovation selection life cycle.
As innovation comes to the racks and the quantity of early greater part buyers racing to buy it expands, broad communications outlets are compelled to adjust to the new medium. At the point when the iPad’s prominence kept on developing all through 2010 (selling 3,000,000 units inside 3 months of its dispatch date), customary papers, magazines, and T.V. systems raced to frame associations with Apple, propelling applications for the tablet so customers could legitimately get to their substance. Unconstrained by the constrained measure of room accessible in a physical paper or magazine, productions, for example, The New York Times and USA Today can incorporate more itemized detailing than they can fit in their customary paper, just as intelligent highlights, for example, crossword puzzles and the utilization of video and sound. “Our iPad Application is intended to exploit the developing capacities offered by the Internet” said Arthur Sulzberger Jr., distributer of The New York Times. “We consider our to be on the iPad as being like our customary print job—to go about as an astute, unprejudiced channel and to furnish our clients with data they require and can trust [11].”
Due to Apple’s choice to boycott streak (the prevailing programming for online video seeing) from the iPad, some conventional T.V. systems have been changing over their video documents to HTML5 to empower full T.V. scenes to be screened on the gadget. CBS and Disney were among the primary systems to offer free T.V. content on the iPad in 2010 through the iPad’s worked in internet browser, while ABC gushed its shows through an iPad application. The iPad has even figured out how to resuscitate types of customary media that had been stopped; in June 2010, Condé Nast declared the rebuilding of Gourmet magazine as an iPad application called Gourmet Live. As more media content opens on innovation, for example, the iPad, the iPod, and the different tablets accessible available, it advances to a more extensive scope of purchasers, turning into a self-propagating model.
There are consistently special cases to deciding news line-ups. A nearby solid story will supersede national one, and a solid national one will override a universal one and so forth. For instance, the appointment of the President in the US, or an Executive in Australia, would ordinarily be so common over a catastrophic event in some underdeveloped nation. Albeit critical to the individuals and the nation managing the issue, it will be without significance to different countries somewhat, particularly when illuminating.
On the likelihood that you are not on a zone T.V., you scarcely start to expose what is underneath. Not to a huge segment of individuals, at any rate. What is more, if you are not on radio news, you are careless concerning an alternate crowd that turns on news radio when their chance on the start and drive to work. However, in advertising, there has constantly been an inclination toward papers.
Most experts who work right now, often begin as print journalists. Papers are likewise unmistakable. You can grasp the unmistakable story. You can even remove it with scissors and make photocopies or hit reorder and forward a story to your chief and collaborators [1].
It’s substantially harder to catch a sound clasp from a radio story, or a video clasp of a T.V. piece. Stations—particularly radio broadcasts—communicate throughout the day. They do not have the room or the free work to spare and chronicle each second and video [7].
Furthermore, it is valid, that papers ordinarily break stories that T.V. what is more, radio broadcasts at that point spread. It is not an incognito that radio and T.V. makers read the morning paper when they are searching for things to fill the day by day communicates and kill at some point.
Today, individuals can get their report from a huge number of various outlets. There are many outlets on paid T.V. also web radio. You can get to pretty much any paper you need online by the snap of your fingertips. Nowadays, when the whole country returns home from work, perusing the paper and turning on the T.V.
If one needs to arrive at in excess of a cut of the segment that you looked for, they need to get into papers, however radio, T.V., and the web, and so on. To have a bigger effect [12].
The new Pew Research Center examination on where individuals go to for news shows productive reliance on the Web, with a major spike in individuals announcing that they turn on their PDA to investigate news, climate, and sports.
Additionally, Detrani [12] revealed that they checked various sources, with 99% of Americans saying that on a run of the mill day, they check the report from at any rate one of the accompanying: on T.V., radio, in print, or Online.
T.V. is conspicuous, with 78% of Americans saying they watch nearby T.V. news and 73% getting their report from systems or link-news channels.
The Web is developing productively; 61% of individuals said they checked news on the Web. Radio 54% scarcely beat nearby papers 50% and national papers came in at 17% [12].
There is additionally a major switch toward online networking, which is presently a typical quality. Individuals are Twittering and Facebooking about stories. The general purpose of mass correspondence is arriving at the majority and attracting them. You could overwhelm the wireless radio transmissions yet miss practically a large portion of the populace—the equivalent with papers.
Nearby T.V. an incredible alternative, arriving at very nearly eight out of ten individuals. Be that as it may, it is multiple times harder to get inclusion on the T.V. news all things considered getting into papers, radio, or the web as cited in McQuail [5].
Today’s crowd being so divided methods any arrangement to get press inclusion needs to consider every contingency. You cannot send a similar public statement to each medium outlet and call it great. A discharge that’s the correct size for the paper is very long to peruse on the radio.
T.V. cannot run with plain words. There must be pictures, something appealing to the eyes.
To arrive at all of these various socioeconomics and types of media, need all the more concentrating on what is friendly to them all.
Newspapers need content and photographs.
Radio require live individuals in the studio or on the telephone, discussing an issue.
Television stations need more grounded images.
As indicated by the Endless Dial study directed by Arbitron and Edison Exploration the Web has become the most significant vehicle just because by outperforming television. Being approached to need to choose Web and T.V. 49% of individuals offered an explanation to forsake television contradicted to 48% to desert the web. As well, most fascinating is the wide adaption of advanced media in autos by 24% of individuals utilizing mp3 regarding vehicle media according to Vivian and Maurin [13].
In a sign that T.V. what’s more, the Web are beginning to combine in viewers’ cognizance, more people invested more time seeing the Web and T.V. in December 2017 than in June 2017 or December 2016, as indicated by the Three Screens Report from The Nielsen Corporation according to Wilkins and Christians [14].
In December 2017, 59% of Americans utilized T.V. furthermore, the Web all the while, contrasted with 56.9% in June 2017 and 57.5% in December 2016. On a year-over-year premise, support right now 2.7% as cited in Wilkins and Christians [14].
Tallying singular clients, 134,056 Americans utilized T.V. what’s more, the Web all the while in December 2017. This looks at to 128,047 in June 2017 and 128,167 in December 2016. On a year-over-year premise, the quantity of individuals utilizing T.V. furthermore, the web at the same time expanded 4.6%.
Nobody can question the mass arrive at that T.V. empowers, however the fact of the matter is the online channel is presently starting to offer that equivalent degree of crowd reach—yet with ostensibly better commitment and offers. Also, quite often at a progressively reasonable cost.
Clients are likewise investing more time online than any time in recent memory. It depends who’s discharging the report (e.g., Nielsen or an online distributer like Netflix and Hulu), however a few assessments show that online media consumption has now outperformed T.V. seeing. As revealed by MSNBC, this is unquestionably valid for adolescents and youthful grown-ups, with time invested online presently outperforming energy spent viewing T.V. or on the other hand chatting on the telephone referring to Wilkins and Christians [14].
Also, the promoters follow the eyeballs. Web based publicizing has been quickly infringing on conventional media’s part of the media blend pie throughout the previous quite a long while. What’s more, as per Forrester, spending on web-based publicizing is in truth set to overshadow T.V. spends by 2016 as cited in Duncan [2].
Furthermore, as indicated by a few examinations, these online watchers might be more connected with and have higher promotion review than those viewing T.V. advertisements. A similar report by Nielsen found that premium online video advertisements would do well to mark sway measurements than customary T.V. promotions, including brand review, message review, and affability.
Furthermore, a 2018 review by BrightRoll found that 70% of sponsors overviewed said that online video publicizing is similarly or more compelling than promotions on T.V. Besides, 87% said that video was more powerful than show publicizing. NewMediaRockstars.com gives this information and furthermore calls attention to the accomplishment of the viral YouTube crusade for Old Flavor. Also, clearly it worked—deals supposedly expanded by more than 100%.
Given the quick take-up of this medium, it’s evident that sponsors are seeing incredible incentive in publicizing with online video and grasping the period of associated T.V.
In October 2013, 17-year-old child-care girl Ashleigh Hall maybe a friendship with a handsome 19-year-man on Facebook. Ashleigh, from Darlington, England, and her new companion started chatting on the web. She exchanged phone numbers so they could message one another. The energized young girl to her new friend that she was going out with her new boyfriend, Pete, and that his dad would get her in his car. Sadly, Pete and his father were very much the same individual-convicted rapist Peter Chapman. The 33-year-old homeless sex offender utilized his Facebook alter ego (which included photos of an obscure high school kid) to draw Ashleigh to a confined area, where he assaulted and killed her. Chapman was captured by chance not long after the occasion, and in court he confessed to hijack, assault, and murder.
Ashleigh’s awful story shows a few weaknesses of present-day media conveyance: obscurity and untrustworthiness. Albeit person to person communication locales, for example, Facebook are an advantageous method to make new connections and reconnect with old companions, it is implausible of knowing whether clients are who they guarantee to be, leaving individuals (especially receptive adolescents) powerless against online predators. Since a great part of the substance on the web is unregulated, this absence of dependability traverses the whole online range, from reports and Wikipedia articles to bogus publicizing claims and deceitful cheats on sites, for example, Craigslist.
Be that as it may, current media can likewise work to prepare endeavors to stop wrongdoing. The famous NBC television arrangement Dateline: To Catch a Predator followed police specialists who utilized Web talk rooms to distinguish potential kid molesters. Acting like youthful adolescents, cops went into visit rooms and took an interest in discussions with different clients. On the off chance that a grown-up client started a sexual discourse and communicated enthusiasm for meeting the teenager for sexual purposes, the police set up a sting activity, getting the eventual pedophile in the demonstration. In cases, for example, these, the fast transmission of data and the worldwide idea of the web made it feasible for crooks to be caught [15].
On the off chance that Ashleigh’s story features the absolute most harmful parts of current media, the brisk scattering of news and data are the absolute most helpful parts of the Internet. As we noted before in the part, speed can be a colossal preferred position of online media conveyance. At the point when a report breaks, it very well may be conveyed quickly through RSS channels and by means of many significant outlets, empowering individuals everywhere throughout the world to find out about a breaking report insignificant minutes after it occurs.
When a Web client has paid for a month to month specialist organization, the greater part of the substance Online is free, permitting individuals access to a boundless abundance of data by means of news sites, web indexes, catalogs, and home pages for various subjects extending from cooking tips to sports random data. At the point when this data turned out to be promptly accessible at the pinch of a catch, numerous writers and innovation specialists composed articles asserting the data over-burden was terrible for people’s wellbeing. Fears that the innovation would cause a lack of ability to concentrate consistently clutter, stunt people’s thinking, and harm their capacity to sympathize raised by some exceptionally regarded productions, including The Hours of London and The New York Times. In any case, there is no steady proof that the web causes mental issues; actually, measurements show that individuals who utilize long range interpersonal communication destinations have better disconnected public activities, and individuals who play PC games are better at engrossing and responding to data than the individuals who do not, and they experience no loss of exactness or expanded indiscretion [11]. As Vaughan Chime calls attention to in his article about the historical backdrop of media alarms, “Worries about data over-burden are as old as data itself, with every age rethinking the perilous effects of innovation on psyche and mind [16].”
Notwithstanding velocity, reach, and cost, online media conveyance empowers a more extensive scope of voices and points of view regarding any matter. Through nontraditional media, for example, web journals and Twitter, individuals can put their very own inclination on recent developments, mainstream society, and issues that are essential to them without feeling obliged to stay unbiased. An investigation by the Pew Research Center found that nontraditional media sources report on a more extensive assortment of stories than conventional media, empowering singular destinations to build up their own character and voice. The examination additionally found that these online sources center around a profoundly passionate topic that can be customized by the journalists and partook in the social discussion [3, 17]. By opening web journals and web-based social networking destinations to online conversation or discussion, bloggers empower peruses to produce their own substance, diverting crowds from uninvolved customers into dynamic makers. Right now, turns into a common procedure instead of a single direction—the blogger posts an opinion, a reader remarks on the blogger’s opinion, the blogger at that point assesses the reader’s opinion and updates their viewpoint in like manner, and the procedure rehashes itself until an issue has been thoroughly investigated. Numerous bloggers additionally give connects to different online journals they bolster or appreciate perusing, empowering thoughts with legitimacy to channel through different channels on the web.
Alongside a developing number of online predators distorting themselves on long range informal communication locales, the web is answerable for a lot of different kinds of falsehood flowing the Internet. Except if clients can recognize dependable, fair-minded sources and accurate data, they may end up devouring off base news reports or bogus reference book passages. Indeed, even purported solid news sources are dependent upon incidental mistakes with their source material. At the point when French writer Maurice Jarre kicked the bucket in 2009 at 84 years old, Irish human science and financial aspects understudy Shane Fitzgerald chose to attempt an investigation with Wikipedia. He added anecdotal statements to Jarre’s Wikipedia passage and afterward looked as papers around the world (counting respectable sources, for example, The Gatekeeper) replicated his statements in the same words and ascribed them to the writer. Humiliated columnists were later compelled to address their blunders by withdrawing the statements. Composing a subsequent report for The Irish Occasions, Fitzgerald remarked, “If I could so effectively adulterate the news over the globe, even to this little degree, at that point it is startling to consider what other bogus data might be accounted for in the press [18].”
Albeit most customary media take a stab at nonpartisanship, numerous more up to date online sources are intensely conservative or left-wing. With sites, for example, the Huffington Post on the left of the political range and the Day laborer Report on the right, buyers should know when they are perusing news with an ideological inclination. Pundits dread the pattern toward Internet-based life sources may prompt the limitation of the development of thoughts. If purchasers pick their media circle only predictable with their own political inclinations, they will be constrained to a restricted political perspective.
Alongside practical drawbacks, the web likewise has a few financial hindrances. An expanding hole between individuals who can manage the cost of PCs and access to the Internet and individuals who cannot, known as the advanced gap, isolates those who are well off and the poor. Albeit around 75% of US family units are associated with the web, there are holes in access as far as age, salary, and instruction. For instance, an ongoing report found that 93% of individuals matured 18–29 have Web get to, contrasted and 70% of individuals matured 50–64 and only 38% of individuals more than 65 [3]. Comparative variations happen with salary and training.
These aberrations imply that individuals with lower wages and instructive levels are off guard with regards to getting to online employment postings, data, news, and PC related aptitudes that may help them in the work environment. The computerized partition is considerably progressively conspicuous among created and creating nations. In countries, for example, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Syria, the administration allows almost no entrance to the web. In different nations, for example, Mexico, Brazil, and Columbia, inadequate media communications framework powers clients to stand by amazingly awkward time spans to get on the web. Furthermore, in many creating nations that have poor open utilities and discontinuous electrical help, the web is practically incredible. In spite of its enormous populace, the whole landmass of Africa represents under 5% of Web utilization worldwide.
This chapter pinpoints the issue of contextualizing of social media and describes its implication of the individuals. With the instant satisfaction and expediency offered by the raising fields of social media, social reporting, blogging, YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter, increasing demand for new technology and new forms of mass communication will have a decisive impact upon both the consumers and producers of mass media.
It is today’s mass communication substance that must adapt and function with each of the new technological changes that emerge from such a dynamic field of study. While we may now just be getting a look of what the future of mass communication might be, the fundamental concept of mass communication—the ability to convey something to a large number of people in the most expedient and efficient way possible; to understand and be understood—always has been, and always will be the core of the process.
Networks and social orders are consistently needing usable and productive intends to pass on data [15]. Mass correspondence is the development of this need. We characterize the mass correspondence as the mutual exchange of messages through the media or innovation-driven channels to an enormous number of beneficiaries, you can without much of a stretch to recognize the various types of mass correspondence you depend on in your own, scholarly, and proficient lives as cited in Wilkins and Christians [14].
These incorporate print, sound-related, visual, intuitive media, and online life structures. A moderately late mass correspondence marvel known as mass-individual correspondence joins mass correspondence channels with relational correspondence and connections, where people are presently accessing innovation that permits them to contact enormous crowds. Online networking accomplishes work, It is difficult for a business as it very well may be costly [19, 20]. The expense of not utilizing it is an excessive amount to pay. Business chiefs that “do social media” will pick up turnover, companions, faithful clients, benefits, resource worth, and regard.
Post connects to the posts, data, and substance on a business four online life outlets’ that individuals (potential and genuine purchasers) can skim between them flawlessly. There is a streaming site to internet-based life and back and advances. It is a data flow that gets clients in transit like an enrolling digital drive. It is all allowed to utilize—cash in vain from new Internet-based life companions (clients). Web-based life is not private. Google lists everything. Ensure that the business posts solitary uplifting news. Designate somebody in the association to screen web-based life consistently. Plan B is to designate a P.R. Firm to do it expertly.
Utilizing Internet-based life in advertising is something that numerous individuals do not realize they have to know, until they find out about it! Investigate. Start today by discovering progressively about utilizing Online networking to create cash.
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This relationship was found to be affected by many environmental factors, including biotic and abiotic. From the point of view of crop nutrition, sustainability in the supply of essential nutrients particularly phosphorus is vital. Due to the energy crisis, the fluctuation in the prices of chemical fertilizers, environmental concerns, and cessation in the supply of high quality rock phosphate (RP) are hindering the use of chemical phosphatic fertilizers for sustainable crop production. Therefore, there is great need for a sustainable solution to this problem. It could be solved by employing a strategy to use native low quality RP. It is only possible by composting of organic material in the presence of RP and phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. During composting, most of organic P is mineralized. Due to release of organic acids, P availability to crop plants increases. In this chapter, the importance of economical and sustainable sources of P and comparative efficacy of the use of organic fertilizer containing RP for legumes is critically reviewed.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Allah Ditta and Azeem Khalid",authors:[{id:"149636",title:"Dr.",name:"Allah",middleName:null,surname:"Ditta",slug:"allah-ditta",fullName:"Allah Ditta"}]},{id:"50720",doi:"10.5772/62529",title:"Use of Organic Fertilizers to Enhance Soil Fertility, Plant Growth, and Yield in a Tropical Environment",slug:"use-of-organic-fertilizers-to-enhance-soil-fertility-plant-growth-and-yield-in-a-tropical-environmen",totalDownloads:4943,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Soils rarely have sufficient nutrient for crops to reach their potential yield. Applying organic fertilizers without prior knowledge of their properties may cause yield decline under low application or pollute the environment with excessive application. Understanding the nutrient variability and release pattern of organic fertilizers is crucial to supply plants with sufficient nutrients to achieve optimum productivity, while also rebuilding soil fertility and ensuring protection of environmental and natural resources. This chapter presents the authors’ experiences with different organic amendments under Hawaii's tropical conditions, rather than an intensive literature review. For meat and bone meal by‐products (tankage), batch‐to‐batch variability, nutrient content/release pattern and quality, and plant growth response to the liquid fertilizer produced from tankage were evaluated. For animal livestock, dairy manure (DM) and chicken manure (CM) quality, changes in soil properties, and crop biomass production and root distributions were evaluated. For seaweed, an established bio‐security protocol, nutrient, especially potassium (K) variability, and plant growth and yield response were evaluated in different tropical soils.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Amjad A. Ahmad, Theodore J.K. Radovich, Hue V. Nguyen, Jensen\nUyeda, Alton Arakaki, Jeana Cadby, Robert Paull, Jari Sugano and\nGlenn Teves",authors:[{id:"178933",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"A.",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"amjad-ahmad",fullName:"Amjad Ahmad"},{id:"184973",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore",middleName:null,surname:"Radovich",slug:"theodore-radovich",fullName:"Theodore Radovich"},{id:"184974",title:"Prof.",name:"Hue",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hue-nguyen",fullName:"Hue Nguyen"},{id:"184975",title:"MSc.",name:"Jensen",middleName:null,surname:"Uyeda",slug:"jensen-uyeda",fullName:"Jensen Uyeda"},{id:"184976",title:"MSc.",name:"Alton",middleName:null,surname:"Arakaki",slug:"alton-arakaki",fullName:"Alton Arakaki"},{id:"184977",title:"Mr.",name:"Glenn",middleName:null,surname:"Teves",slug:"glenn-teves",fullName:"Glenn Teves"},{id:"184978",title:"MSc.",name:"Jeana",middleName:null,surname:"Cadby",slug:"jeana-cadby",fullName:"Jeana Cadby"},{id:"184979",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Paull",slug:"robert-paull",fullName:"Robert Paull"},{id:"184980",title:"MSc.",name:"Jari",middleName:null,surname:"Sugano",slug:"jari-sugano",fullName:"Jari Sugano"}]},{id:"51059",doi:"10.5772/64195",title:"Organic Fertilizers: Public Health Intricacies",slug:"organic-fertilizers-public-health-intricacies",totalDownloads:2690,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Organic fertilizers are an essential source for plant nutrients and a soil conditioner in agriculture. Due to its sources and the composition of the organic inputs as well as the type, functionality and failures of the applied treatment process, the organic fertilizer may contain various amounts of infectious agents and toxic chemicals, especially the antibiotics that can be introduced to the subsequent food chain. A range of human and animal pathogens of bacterial, viral and parasitic origin have been the cause of food-borne epidemics due to unintended contamination from organic fertilizers. The use of antibiotics by humans and in animal feeds will also end up in the organic fertilizers. These antibiotics and other chemicals, depending on the sources of the organics, will enhance the likelihood of occurrence of resistant and multi-resistant strains of microorganisms in society and have been reported to cause ecotoxicological environmental effects and disruption of the ecological balance. Exposure of microorganisms to sublethal concentration of antibiotics in the organic products induces antibiotic resistance. WHO guidelines for the reuse of excreta and other organic matters identify the risk for the exposed groups to the reuse of the excreta and are applicable in the use of organic fertilizers in agriculture.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Anthony A. Adegoke, Oluyemi O. Awolusi and Thor A. Stenström",authors:[{id:"175730",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Adegoke",slug:"anthony-ayodeji-adegoke",fullName:"Anthony Ayodeji Adegoke"},{id:"180623",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluyemi Olatunji",middleName:null,surname:"Awolusi",slug:"oluyemi-olatunji-awolusi",fullName:"Oluyemi Olatunji Awolusi"},{id:"186321",title:"Prof.",name:"Thor Axel",middleName:null,surname:"Stenstrom",slug:"thor-axel-stenstrom",fullName:"Thor Axel Stenstrom"}]},{id:"50233",doi:"10.5772/62388",title:"Integrated Use of Phosphorus, Animal Manures and Biofertilizers Improve Maize Productivity under Semiarid Condition",slug:"integrated-use-of-phosphorus-animal-manures-and-biofertilizers-improve-maize-productivity-under-semi",totalDownloads:2433,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Phosphorus unavailability and lack of organic matter in the soils under semiarid condition are the major reasons for low crop productivity. Field trial was conducted to investigate the impact of different animal manures (poultry, cattle, and sheep manures) and phosphorus levels (40, 80, 120, and 160 kg P2O5 ha−1) on yield and yield components of hybrid maize (CS-200) with (+) and without (−) phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) seed treatment at the Agronomy Research Farm of The University of Agriculture Peshawar, during summer 2014. Our results confirmed that the application of poultry manure significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased yield and yield components of maize. Phosphorus applied at the rate of 120 kg P2O5 ha−1 increased ear length, grains ear−1, and shelling percentage, while the highest rate of 160 kg P ha−1 increased grains weight, grain yield, and harvest index. Maize seeds treated with PSB (+) before sowing had produced higher yield and yield components than untreated seeds (−). We concluded from this study that combined application of 160 kg P2O5 ha−1 + poultry manure and seed treatment with PSB (+) could improve crop productivity and profitability under semiarid condition.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Dr. Amanullah and Shah Khalid",authors:[{id:"178825",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",middleName:null,surname:"Amanullah",slug:"dr.-amanullah",fullName:"Dr. Amanullah"}]},{id:"50516",doi:"10.5772/63047",title:"Soil Amendments for Agricultural Production",slug:"soil-amendments-for-agricultural-production",totalDownloads:2315,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The word organic, applied to fertilizers, indicates that the nutrients are derived from the remains or by‐products of a once‐living organism. Farmers are continually searching for alternatives to synthetic inorganic fertilizers to alleviate the escalating production costs associated with the increasing costs of energy and fertilizers and the problems of soil and surface water deterioration associated with intensive use and release of inorganic fertilizers such as N and P fertilizers. One of the advantages of organic fertilizers is that they provide their nutrients especially the principal nutrients (NPK) to growing plants over a long period of time in a slow release process. The soil has to be moist and warm enough to allow soil microorganisms to decompose and breakdown the complex forms of organic fertilizers. Generally, the application of organic amendments to agricultural soils makes good use of natural resources and reduces the need of synthetic inorganic fertilizers. Soil structure, nutrient composition, and microbiological activity of soil are usually increased following the application of organic amendments. This is because of the presence of sugars and amino acids as simple molecules in organic amendments that contribute to microbiological activity and fertility and elevated levels of enzymes secreted by soil microbes. To investigate the soil microbiological activity after the addition of soil amendments, three enzymes that control the C, N, and P cycles should be monitored in the plant rhizosphere zone, which is defined as the zone of increased microbial and enzyme activity where soil and root make contact. An increase of organic waste originated from different humans and productive activities is a continuous concern. Waste application (i.e., municipal sewage sludge, chicken manure, horse manure, and cow manure) to soil is proposed as a solution to disposal problem. This practice is popular in the agricultural fields because of the value of this waste as organic fertilizer. At KSU, numerous studies have been conducted on organic soil amendments and their impact on crop yield and quality, soil erosion and nutrient availability, soil enzymes activity, and bioremediation of heavy metals in organic amendments.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"George F. Antonious",authors:[{id:"174916",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:"Fouad",surname:"Antonious",slug:"george-antonious",fullName:"George Antonious"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50720",title:"Use of Organic Fertilizers to Enhance Soil Fertility, Plant Growth, and Yield in a Tropical Environment",slug:"use-of-organic-fertilizers-to-enhance-soil-fertility-plant-growth-and-yield-in-a-tropical-environmen",totalDownloads:4943,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Soils rarely have sufficient nutrient for crops to reach their potential yield. Applying organic fertilizers without prior knowledge of their properties may cause yield decline under low application or pollute the environment with excessive application. Understanding the nutrient variability and release pattern of organic fertilizers is crucial to supply plants with sufficient nutrients to achieve optimum productivity, while also rebuilding soil fertility and ensuring protection of environmental and natural resources. This chapter presents the authors’ experiences with different organic amendments under Hawaii's tropical conditions, rather than an intensive literature review. For meat and bone meal by‐products (tankage), batch‐to‐batch variability, nutrient content/release pattern and quality, and plant growth response to the liquid fertilizer produced from tankage were evaluated. For animal livestock, dairy manure (DM) and chicken manure (CM) quality, changes in soil properties, and crop biomass production and root distributions were evaluated. For seaweed, an established bio‐security protocol, nutrient, especially potassium (K) variability, and plant growth and yield response were evaluated in different tropical soils.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Amjad A. Ahmad, Theodore J.K. Radovich, Hue V. Nguyen, Jensen\nUyeda, Alton Arakaki, Jeana Cadby, Robert Paull, Jari Sugano and\nGlenn Teves",authors:[{id:"178933",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"A.",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"amjad-ahmad",fullName:"Amjad Ahmad"},{id:"184973",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore",middleName:null,surname:"Radovich",slug:"theodore-radovich",fullName:"Theodore Radovich"},{id:"184974",title:"Prof.",name:"Hue",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hue-nguyen",fullName:"Hue Nguyen"},{id:"184975",title:"MSc.",name:"Jensen",middleName:null,surname:"Uyeda",slug:"jensen-uyeda",fullName:"Jensen Uyeda"},{id:"184976",title:"MSc.",name:"Alton",middleName:null,surname:"Arakaki",slug:"alton-arakaki",fullName:"Alton Arakaki"},{id:"184977",title:"Mr.",name:"Glenn",middleName:null,surname:"Teves",slug:"glenn-teves",fullName:"Glenn Teves"},{id:"184978",title:"MSc.",name:"Jeana",middleName:null,surname:"Cadby",slug:"jeana-cadby",fullName:"Jeana Cadby"},{id:"184979",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Paull",slug:"robert-paull",fullName:"Robert Paull"},{id:"184980",title:"MSc.",name:"Jari",middleName:null,surname:"Sugano",slug:"jari-sugano",fullName:"Jari Sugano"}]},{id:"51059",title:"Organic Fertilizers: Public Health Intricacies",slug:"organic-fertilizers-public-health-intricacies",totalDownloads:2690,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Organic fertilizers are an essential source for plant nutrients and a soil conditioner in agriculture. Due to its sources and the composition of the organic inputs as well as the type, functionality and failures of the applied treatment process, the organic fertilizer may contain various amounts of infectious agents and toxic chemicals, especially the antibiotics that can be introduced to the subsequent food chain. A range of human and animal pathogens of bacterial, viral and parasitic origin have been the cause of food-borne epidemics due to unintended contamination from organic fertilizers. The use of antibiotics by humans and in animal feeds will also end up in the organic fertilizers. These antibiotics and other chemicals, depending on the sources of the organics, will enhance the likelihood of occurrence of resistant and multi-resistant strains of microorganisms in society and have been reported to cause ecotoxicological environmental effects and disruption of the ecological balance. Exposure of microorganisms to sublethal concentration of antibiotics in the organic products induces antibiotic resistance. WHO guidelines for the reuse of excreta and other organic matters identify the risk for the exposed groups to the reuse of the excreta and are applicable in the use of organic fertilizers in agriculture.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Anthony A. Adegoke, Oluyemi O. Awolusi and Thor A. Stenström",authors:[{id:"175730",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Adegoke",slug:"anthony-ayodeji-adegoke",fullName:"Anthony Ayodeji Adegoke"},{id:"180623",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluyemi Olatunji",middleName:null,surname:"Awolusi",slug:"oluyemi-olatunji-awolusi",fullName:"Oluyemi Olatunji Awolusi"},{id:"186321",title:"Prof.",name:"Thor Axel",middleName:null,surname:"Stenstrom",slug:"thor-axel-stenstrom",fullName:"Thor Axel Stenstrom"}]},{id:"50612",title:"Green Manures and Crop Residues as Source of Nutrients in Tropical Environment",slug:"green-manures-and-crop-residues-as-source-of-nutrients-in-tropical-environment",totalDownloads:2535,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Tropical areas have prevalence of soils with low fertility, which makes the management of soil fertility a necessary practice to maintain a farming system economically and environmentally sustainable. The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate the importance of green manure and the use of crop residues as management for soil fertility. We highlight the potential of these practices to increase/sustain productivity by providing nutrients. First, we made a short review on the main factors influencing the decomposition and mineralization processes. Subsequently, we discuss green manure techniques, presenting the main green manures, criteria for choosing, managements, potential for nutrient accumulation, and advantages and disadvantages of this practice. Finally, we use some examples to demonstrate the potential nutrient supply of crop residues from the main crops grown in the tropics. The difficulties and limitations involved are also discussed.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Rafael Vasconcelos Valadares, Lucas de Ávila‐Silva, Rafael da Silva Teixeira, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Leonardus Vergütz",authors:[{id:"179932",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Vasconcelos Valadares",slug:"rafael-vasconcelos-valadares",fullName:"Rafael Vasconcelos Valadares"},{id:"183947",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucas",middleName:null,surname:"De Avila-Silva",slug:"lucas-de-avila-silva",fullName:"Lucas De Avila-Silva"},{id:"183948",title:"MSc.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva Teixeira",slug:"rafael-da-silva-teixeira",fullName:"Rafael Da Silva Teixeira"},{id:"183949",title:"Mr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Nogueira De Sousa",slug:"rodrigo-nogueira-de-sousa",fullName:"Rodrigo Nogueira De Sousa"},{id:"184785",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonardus",middleName:null,surname:"Vergutz",slug:"leonardus-vergutz",fullName:"Leonardus Vergutz"}]},{id:"50167",title:"On-Farm-Produced Organic Amendments on Maintaining and Enhancing Soil Fertility and Nitrogen Availability in Organic or Low Input Agriculture",slug:"on-farm-produced-organic-amendments-on-maintaining-and-enhancing-soil-fertility-and-nitrogen-availab",totalDownloads:1602,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Maintaining and enhancing soil fertility are key issues for sustainability in an agricultural system with organic or low input methods. On-farm–produced green manure as a source of soil organic matter (SOM) plays a critical role in long-term productivity. But producing green manure requires land and water; thus, increasing biodiversity, such as by intercropping with green manure crops, could be an approach to enhance the efficiency of renewable resources especially in developing countries. This article discusses soil fertility and its maintenance and enhancement with leguminous intercropping from four points of view: soil fertility and organic matter function, leguminous green manure, intercropping principles, and soil conservation. Important contributions of leguminous intercropping include SOM enhancement and fertility building, biological nitrogen (N) and other plant nutrition availability. Under a well-designed and managed system, competition between the target and intercropping crops can be reduced. The plant uptake efficiency of biologically fixed N is estimated to be double that of industrial N fertilizers. After N-rich plant residues are incorporated into soil, the carbon (C):nitrogen ratio of added straw decreases. Another high mitigation potential of legume intercropping lies in soil conservation by preventing soil and water erosion. Many opportunities exist to introduce legumes in short-term rotation, intercropping, living mulch, and cover crops in an organically managed farm system. Worldwide, long-term soil fertility enhancement remains a challenge due to the current world population and agricultural practices. Cropping system including legumes is a step in the right direction to meeting the needs of food security and sustainability.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Yani Nin, Pinchun Diao, Qian Wang, Qingzhong Zhang, Ziliang\nZhao and Zhifang Li",authors:[{id:"178869",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhifang",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"zhifang-li",fullName:"Zhifang Li"},{id:"180022",title:"BSc.",name:"Yani",middleName:null,surname:"Ning",slug:"yani-ning",fullName:"Yani Ning"},{id:"184348",title:"MSc.",name:"Pinchun",middleName:null,surname:"Diao",slug:"pinchun-diao",fullName:"Pinchun Diao"},{id:"184349",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"qian-wang",fullName:"Qian Wang"},{id:"184350",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"qingzhong-zhang",fullName:"Qingzhong Zhang"},{id:"184351",title:"MSc.",name:"Ziliang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"ziliang-zhao",fullName:"Ziliang Zhao"}]},{id:"50244",title:"An Overview of the Studies on Biochar Fertilizer Carried Out at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century in Japan",slug:"an-overview-of-the-studies-on-biochar-fertilizer-carried-out-at-the-beginning-of-the-twentieth-centu",totalDownloads:2031,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Biochar is a recently coined term for charred organic matter used as a soil amendment. Although the term is relatively new, the substance has been used for a long time throughout the world, including Japan. After we read a Japanese book entitled Nibai Shukaku Tenri Nouhou (How to Double Crop Yield by Almighty Farming System) originally published in 1912, we found that there were conflicting opinions between the author (Mr. Katsugoro Oyaizu) and soil scientists of the time (Dr. Gintaro Daikuhara and others) on the benefits of the use of biochar fertilizer. Previous publications on this topic have been written in Japanese from a sociological viewpoint. By referring to the literature published at the beginning of the twentieth century in Japan, we attempt to shed light on the conflict between traditional knowledge of biochar fertilizer and new concepts of soil science imported from the Western countries. We also describe briefly the socioeconomic impacts on the use of biochar fertilizer in the later generations.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Naoki Moritsuka and Kaori Matsuoka",authors:[{id:"179714",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoki",middleName:null,surname:"Moritsuka",slug:"naoki-moritsuka",fullName:"Naoki Moritsuka"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"338",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81669",title:"Recent Techniques and Developments on Cherry Growing in Turkey",slug:"recent-techniques-and-developments-on-cherry-growing-in-turkey",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104081",abstract:"The wild cherries are mostly seen in the North Anatolian and the Taurus mountains of Turkey. Cherry cultivation is concentrated on the slopes of 1000–1500 m where wild cherries are grown, also at the river valleys or in Izmir and Manisa provinces at the western parts of the country over 100 m elevation with very high quality. Turkey is the leading country in the world on cherry production. Cherry production in Turkey has been performed mostly with ‘0900 Ziraat’ cherry cultivar, which was known as Turkish cherry in Europe. As a result of the studies carried out for fruit cracking and self fertility, Regina, Kordia, Sweet Heart and Lapins cherry cultivars were selected as alternative cherry cultivars to ‘0900 Ziraat’. In 1997, “Turkish National Cherry Working Group” was founded and organized 20 working group meetings until today to solve all the problems of cherries. In these meetings, all the research results were shared and discussed among cherry scientists. Recently, studies on prolonging the cherry season with early and late cherry cultivars to increase the amount of cherry exportation was achieved. For this aim, Sweet Heart at high elevations, Royal Lynn® and Royal Tioga® at subtropical climatic conditions were found to be suitable.",book:{id:"10900",title:"Prunus - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg"},signatures:"Ali Kuden, Ayzin B. Kuden, Songul Comlekcioglu, Burhanettin Imrak and Muhsin Bag"},{id:"77912",title:"Stock Influence on Growth, Morphological and Biochemical Leaf Parameters Prunus domestica L.",slug:"stock-influence-on-growth-morphological-and-biochemical-leaf-parameters-prunus-domestica-l",totalDownloads:90,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99522",abstract:"Vegetation growth peculiarities and morphological and physical-biochemical features of Prunus domestica L. Utro and Yaichnaya Sinyaya varieties leaves grafted on different growing strength rootstocks were studied. Low-growing clonal rootstocks 140–1 and Novinka decreased the trees growing strength on 15–20% in comparison with strong-growing stocks; medium-growing rootstocks OPA-15-2 and OP-23-23 reduced it on 10%. The longest growing activity and the largest sprouts length was stated on these rootstocks as well, i.e. 1.3–1.4 times more than on other ones. Stable sprouts average length decrease was registered on grafted stocks 140–1 and Novinka. Leaf surface index value on the trees grafted on clonal rootstocks OPA-15-2 and OP-23-23 was on 40% higher than on control, i.e. 4.3 leaves m2/crown projection area m2. Optimal values of total increment, sprouts average length, leaves area and the largest part of physiological-biochemical parameters were stated at medium-growing clonal rootstocks OPA-15-2 and OP-23-23 use. Plum leaves blades were hypostomatic; numerous stomata were located on the abaxial (bottom) side of leaves. Stomata were located in interveinal space irregularly. Stomata length size varied from 14.6 μm (Utro/seedlings) to 22.1 μm (Yaichnaya Sinyaya/OP-23-23). The rootstock has influence on the process of photosynthesis, antioxidant activity, accumulation of minerals and metabolic answerin the leaves.",book:{id:"10900",title:"Prunus - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg"},signatures:"Svetlana Motyleva, Galina Upadysheva, Tatyana Tumaeva and Ivan Kulikov"},{id:"79448",title:"Logistics Chain and Cost Assessment of Pruning-to-Energy Value Chains: Application of Life Cycle Cost Analysis Approach",slug:"logistics-chain-and-cost-assessment-of-pruning-to-energy-value-chains-application-of-life-cycle-cost",totalDownloads:73,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101428",abstract:"Biomass from agricultural residue has significant potential as renewable energy resource. Therefore, cost-efficient processing and supply of agricultural residues are important to strategically plan and utilize this energy resource. This chapter describes the agricultural pruning to energy (PtE) value chains and presents the life cycle cost analysis (LCCA)-based cost assessment results, focusing on almond and peach tree pruning data obtained from Spain during 2015–2016. Along the main life cycle stages of PtE system, costs of harvesting, off-farm storage, transport, biomass loss, and management of biomass supply chain were considered. In terms of functional unit cost, the life cycle cost (LCC) was calculated to be about 126 €/t for almond PtE and 115 €/t for peach PtE value chain. In both cases, the harvesting stage was found to be cost at hot stage followed by the storage stage. The cost at harvesting stage was about 83% (of 126 €/t) and 82% (of 115 €/t) in the case of almond and peach cases, respectively. Similarly, the share of operational cost was about 74% and 76% for almond and peach cases, respectively. Therefore, more efforts should be made to improve the performance of logistics operations and management of such PtE initiatives.",book:{id:"10900",title:"Prunus - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg"},signatures:"Techane Bosona and Girma Gebresenbet"},{id:"79048",title:"Advances in Breeding of Peach, Plum and Apricot",slug:"advances-in-breeding-of-peach-plum-and-apricot",totalDownloads:120,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100284",abstract:"Research on the expression of fruit specific genes may allow breeders in the future to selectively manipulate through gene transfer in certain aspects of fruit development/quality in their advanced breeding lines thus reducing the time necessary for cultivar development. This would be particularly useful in breeding programmes, hybridizing standard cultivars with exotic germplasm of low fruit quality. The use of exotic germplasm will be important for the expansion of the peach germplasm base and the development of stress resistant cultivars. More immediate results of research on fruit specific gene expression will provide a better understanding of fruit development and quality. It is required to learn how the differences at the gene level correlate with quality characteristics. With the continued cooperation of fruit biochemists it is expected to obtain a better definition of fruit quality and a better understanding of fruit biochemistry. The potential will exit to generate a range of “anti-sense mutants” i.e. transgenic plants expressing anti-sense gene contstructs that reduce or nullify the effects of the normal gene. The phenotypes of these mutants could help to define the biochemistry, genetics and quality of peach fruit. The development of efficient regeneration and transformation system in peach will be useful not only for the modification of fruit characteristics, but also for the transfer and manipulation of genes affecting stress resistance and other economically important characters.",book:{id:"10900",title:"Prunus - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg"},signatures:"Rimpika and DP Sharma"},{id:"77733",title:"Genetic Diversity in Almond (Prunus dulcis)",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-almond-prunus-dulcis",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99249",abstract:"Almond (Prunus dulcis), a stone fruit belonging to a family Rosaceae (rose) is broadly cultivated for ornament and fruit. Within this genus, the almond is very much associated with the peach, and these two fruits share the same subgenus the Amygdalus. About 430 species are spread all through the northern temperate regions of the world. The Mediterranean climate region of the Middle East like Turkey and Pakistan eastward to Syria is native to the almond and its related species. Almond is one of the ancient fruit trees known to the Asian as well as European regions with the most primitive proof of cultivation dating about 2000 B.C. Prunus dulcis (Almond) is a nutrient-loaded nut crop. Almond possesses a great genetic diversity due to the genetically controlled self-incompatibility system which can be estimated by a morphological characteristic including molecular markers and isoenzymes with a wide range of marker techniques. Simple sequence repeats (SSR) involving RFLP or SNP are the most commonly used molecular techniques among the DNA-based molecular symbols. Particular agronomic characters, e.g. kernel bitterness or self-compatibility can also be traced by these molecular markers. The direct association between the level of diversity and the basis of the germplasm cannot be understood by the studies of genetic diversity. Genetic diversity cannot be seriously lost by self-compatibility in almonds. The breeding, conservation, and cultivation of wild-growing almonds may similarly advantageous after the genetic diversity research studies (especially those applying molecular markers).",book:{id:"10900",title:"Prunus - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg"},signatures:"Sadia Sana, Naheed Akhter, Fozia Amjum, Samreen Gul Khan and Muhammad Akram"},{id:"78516",title:"Varietal Wealth of Prunus Species",slug:"varietal-wealth-of-prunus-species",totalDownloads:82,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99048",abstract:"Genus Prunus includes all the stone fruits (peach, nectarine, plum, apricot, almond and cherry) comprise around 98 species and classified under three subgenera namely: Amygdalus (peaches, nectraine and almonds), Prunophora (plums and apricots) and Cerasus (cherries). Genus Prunus have attained a prime position among all the temperate fruit crops as delicious edible drupe, and many species have ornamental values as well. Major species of importance are Prunus persica (peach), Prunus armeniaca (apricot), Prunus salicina (Japanese plum), Prunus domestica (European plum), Prunus americana (American plum), Prunus avium (Sweet cherry), Prunus cerasus (Sour cherry), Prunus dulcis (almond), Prunus ceracifera (Cherry plum), Prunus mira (Behmi), Prunus cerasoides (Wild Himalayan cherry), Prunus mahaleb (Mahaleb cherry) etc. Interspecific hybrids namely: plumcots, pluots and apriums also produce very delicious edible fruits. Commercial cultivars of different stone fruits are J H Hale, Cresthaven, Flordasun, Florda Prince, Elberta, Glohaven, July Elberta, Redhaven, Kanto 5, Sun Haven etc. of peaches, Fantasia, Mayfire, Red Gold, Snow Queen etc. belongs to nectarine, Turkey, Charmagz, Perfection, St. Ambroise, Royal, New Castle etc. are apricots, Santa Rosa, Black Beauty, Kelsey, Green Gage, Methley, Satsuma, Frontier, Burbank etc. are plums, Regina, Burlat, Lapins, Kordia, Stella, Bing, Van, Black Heart, Compact Lambert, Compact Stella etc. are cherries, and California Paper Shell, IXL, Mission, Nonpareil, Drake, Ne Plus Ultra, Pranyaj, Merced etc. are almonds.",book:{id:"10900",title:"Prunus - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg"},signatures:"Amit Kumar, Mahendra Kumar Sharma, Tajamul Farooq Wani, Anil Sharma and Gepu Nyorak"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:9},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
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