Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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The topics in this book include fasciolosis, avian coccidiosis, bovine anaplasmosis, tick-borne diseases, and babesiosis, among others. This book presents the recent advances in the omic field with an emphasis on how these analyses have led researchers to know the mechanisms that pathogens use to invade and colonize the host cell of farm animals. In this way, new treatments of control and prevention can be employed.",isbn:"978-953-51-3912-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3911-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3965-2",doi:"10.5772/63390",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"farm-animals-diseases-recent-omic-trends-and-new-strategies-of-treatment",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3d2bf9a6dccb151b4c68b986ec4e59d6",bookSignature:"Rosa Estela Quiroz-Castañeda",publishedDate:"March 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5543.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16495,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:40,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 31st 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 16th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"187735",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Estela",middleName:null,surname:"Quiroz Castañeda",slug:"rosa-estela-quiroz-castaneda",fullName:"Rosa Estela Quiroz Castañeda",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187735/images/7090_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rosa Estela Quiroz-Castañeda graduated from the Sciences Faculty of Autonomous University of Morelos in 2003. She received her MS degree in Biochemical Sciences from the National Autonomous University of México (UNAM) in 2005 and PhD degree from the same University in 2011. Currently, she is a full researcher at the National Center for Disciplinary Research in Veterinary Parasitology (CENID-PAVET)-INIFAP in Morelos, México. She has experience in microbial biotechnology, molecular biology, and recently, diagnosis and characterization of pathogens and bacterial genomics, especially those of pathogens of veterinary interest such as Anaplasma marginale and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos. Her research is focused on livestock genomics as a useful tool to identify potential molecules of Rickettsial pathogens and hemoplasmas that have potential as immunogens.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1385",title:"Veterinary Pathology",slug:"veterinary-pathology"}],chapters:[{id:"59436",title:"Pathogenomics and Molecular Advances in Pathogen Identification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73695",slug:"pathogenomics-and-molecular-advances-in-pathogen-identification",totalDownloads:1657,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Today exists a spread spectrum of tools to be used in pathogen identification. Traditional staining and microscopic methods as well as modern molecular methods are presented in this chapter. Pathogen identification is only the beginning to obtain information related to pathogenicity of the microorganism in the near future. Once the pathogen is identified, genome-sequencing methods will provide a significant amount of information that can be elucidated only through bioinformatics methods. In this point, pathogenomics is a powerful tool to identify potential virulence factors, pathogenicity islands, and many other genes that could be used as therapeutic targets or in vaccine development. In this chapter, we present an update of the molecular advances used to identify pathogens and to obtain information of their diversity. We also review the most recent studies on pathogenomics with a special attention on pathogens of veterinary importance.",signatures:"Rosa Estela Quiroz-Castañeda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59436",authors:[{id:"187735",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Estela",surname:"Quiroz Castañeda",slug:"rosa-estela-quiroz-castaneda",fullName:"Rosa Estela Quiroz Castañeda"}],corrections:null},{id:"59271",title:"Immune System and Its Relationships with Pathogens: Structure, Physiology, and Molecular Biology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72635",slug:"immune-system-and-its-relationships-with-pathogens-structure-physiology-and-molecular-biology",totalDownloads:1180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ticks are of vast medical and veterinary public health importance due to direct damage in livestock by its hematophagous feeding habits and its potential as a vector capable to transmit infectious agents such as Tick-borne diseases. Currently, the knowledge of vertebrates’ immune system contributes to the advance in vaccine and drug development, resulting in new drugs that help to control human and livestock pathogens. Unfortunately, very small advances have been achieved in tick’s immune system that could help to develop new strategies designated to control tick-borne diseases and other arthropod vectors. On this subject, the study of the mechanisms involved is transcendental as is also the study on molecules, cells, and regulation of immune response involved in signaling pathways in ticks. The progress on the understanding of ticks’ physiology represents a necessary advance in molecular approaches related with a tick’s immune response, involved in host-vector-pathogen interaction, and, in turn, evolutionary relationships. Current knowledge on tick’s immune response to different kinds of pathogens is described in this chapter and the use of modern molecular tools to fill the gaps on different aspects in tick immunobiology that still is unclear or under study.",signatures:"Hugo Aguilar-Díaz and Raquel Cossío-Bayúgar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59271",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59271",authors:[{id:"201360",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Aguilar-Diaz",slug:"hugo-aguilar-diaz",fullName:"Hugo Aguilar-Diaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"59148",title:"Genome-Based Vaccinology Applied to Bovine Anaplasmosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72637",slug:"genome-based-vaccinology-applied-to-bovine-anaplasmosis",totalDownloads:1063,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bovine anaplasmosis is an infectious non-contagious disease transmitted mainly by ticks or fomites contaminated with Anaplasma marginale. Once cattle have developed the disease it can be treated with antibiotics or chemotherapy, although with partial success. Still, there is no effective and global prophylactic method available, mainly because of variability and diversity showed by different A. marginale strains distributed worldwide. In this regard, several proteins have been proposed as immunogens, MSPs, OMPs, Type IV Secretion System Proteins and some other hypothetical proteins, which have been chosen either by experimental evidence or more recently by genome-based analysis. So far, the results suggest that a single molecule will not be enough to trigger a protective immune response in the host, so it is necessary to identify other proteins or epitopes with adequate immunological properties, a process in which omics tools have potential. In order to develop a vaccine against bovine anaplasmosis, it has been proposed by the use of combinations of molecules, exposure formats and application protocols to provide an effective control of the disease.",signatures:"Itzel Amaro-Estrada and Sergio D. Rodríguez-Camarillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59148",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59148",authors:[{id:"222930",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio D.",surname:"Rodríguez- Camarillo",slug:"sergio-d.-rodriguez-camarillo",fullName:"Sergio D. Rodríguez- Camarillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"58679",title:"Genome-Based Vaccinology Applied to Bovine Babesiosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72636",slug:"genome-based-vaccinology-applied-to-bovine-babesiosis",totalDownloads:1184,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Genomics approaches in veterinary research have been a very useful tool to identify candidates with potential to be used in prevention of animal diseases. In Babesia, genome information analysis has elucidated a wide variety of protein families and some members are described in this chapter. Here, we present some of the most recent studies about B. bovis and B. bigemina genomes where some proteins have been identified with potential to prevent infections by these parasites.",signatures:"Juan Mosqueda, Diego Josimar Hernández-Silva and Mario\nHidalgo-Ruiz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58679",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58679",authors:[{id:"220191",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Mosqueda",slug:"juan-mosqueda",fullName:"Juan Mosqueda"}],corrections:null},{id:"59610",title:"Genomics of Rickettsiaceae: An Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74563",slug:"genomics-of-rickettsiaceae-an-update",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recent advancements in genomes sequencing of members of Rickettsiaceae family have led to set a new landmark in the study of these microorganisms. Genomic analyses of Rickettsia and Orientia reveal a history of genome reduction because of the interaction with intermediate and final hosts; the evidence shows that this is an ongoing process. The gene loss, the gain, and loss of plasmids in such an easy way, among other significant processes are the evidence of the evolutionary history of this bacterial group involving reductive processes. In particular, the integrative conjugative element called REIS, was necessary in the process of adaption to an intracellular lifestyle in eukaryotes. We present a genomic focusing on Rickettsia and Orientia species, due to the animal and human importance. In this analysis, the genomic evidence shows that genomes have been extensively shuffled; however, the existence of core genes has also been conserved.",signatures:"Bernardo Sachman-Ruiz and Rosa Estela Quiroz-Castañeda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59610",authors:[{id:"195820",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernardo",surname:"Sachman-Ruiz",slug:"bernardo-sachman-ruiz",fullName:"Bernardo Sachman-Ruiz"}],corrections:null},{id:"58604",title:"Genomics of Apicomplexa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72633",slug:"genomics-of-apicomplexa",totalDownloads:1193,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Apicomplexa is a eukaryotic phylum of intracellular parasites with more than 6000 species. Some of these single-celled parasites are important pathogens of livestock. At present, 128 genomes of phylum Apicomplexa have been reported in the GenBank database, of which 17 genomes belong to five genera that are pathogens of farm animals: Babesia, Theileria, Eimeria, Neospora and Sarcocystis. These 17 genomes are Babesia bigemina (five chromosomes), Babesia divergens (514 contigs) and Babesia bovis (four chromosomes and one apicoplast); Theileria parva (four chromosomes and one apicoplast), Theileria annulata (four chromosomes), Theileria orientalis (four chromosomes and one apicoplast) and Theileria equi (four chromosomes and one apicoplast); Eimeria brunetti (24,647 contigs), Eimeria necatrix (4667 contigs), Eimeria tenella (12,727 contigs), Eimeria acervulina (4947 contigs), Eimeria maxima (4570 contigs), Eimeria mitis (65,610 contigs) and Eimeria praecox (53,359 contigs); Neospora caninum (14 chromosomes); and Sarcocystis neurona strains SN1 (2862 contigs) and SN3 (3191 contigs). The study of these genomes allows us to understand their mechanisms of pathogenicity and identify genes that encode proteins as a possible vaccine antigen.",signatures:"Fernando Martínez-Ocampo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58604",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58604",authors:[{id:"195818",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Martinez",slug:"fernando-martinez",fullName:"Fernando Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"59305",title:"Avian Coccidiosis, New Strategies of Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74008",slug:"avian-coccidiosis-new-strategies-of-treatment",totalDownloads:3732,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The control of avian coccidiosis since the 1940s has been associated with the use of ionophores and chemical drugs. Recently, a significant interest in natural sources has developed due to the pressure to poultry industry to produce drug-free birds. Consequently, the search of products derived from plants and other natural sources has increased in the last years. Today, many commercial products containing essential oils, extracts, and other compounds are available. The use of these compounds of natural origin is related to an increased immune response, a body weight gain, destruction of oocyst, among other benefits. The main inconvenience of these products is the act on some species of Eimeria, but not all. This genetic variability found in the parasite makes the use of products difficult to control and treat coccidiosis. In this chapter, several proposals of treatment are presented based on the use of natural products, considering the new strategies of treatment with minimal consequences to birds.",signatures:"Rosa Estela Quiroz-Castañeda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59305",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59305",authors:[{id:"187735",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Estela",surname:"Quiroz Castañeda",slug:"rosa-estela-quiroz-castaneda",fullName:"Rosa Estela Quiroz Castañeda"}],corrections:null},{id:"58461",title:"Natural Compounds as an Alternative to Control Farm Diseases: Avian Coccidiosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72638",slug:"natural-compounds-as-an-alternative-to-control-farm-diseases-avian-coccidiosis",totalDownloads:2093,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coccidiosis is one of the most aggressive and expensive parasite diseases in poultry industry worldwide. Currently, the most used control techniques are chemoprophylaxis and anticoccidial feed additives. Although there is a great variety of commercial anticoccidial drugs and vaccines in the market, there is also a significant resistance to use them in animals with human as final consumer. To date, none available product offers effective protection toward coccidiosis; however, the search for novel strategies to control this disease continues, and natural products have arisen as a potential way to cope with avian coccidiosis. In this chapter, we highlight recent advances in natural compounds, their anticoccidial properties, and mechanisms.",signatures:"Mayra E. Cobaxin-Cárdenas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58461",authors:[{id:"223051",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayra E.",surname:"Cobaxin-Cárdenas",slug:"mayra-e.-cobaxin-cardenas",fullName:"Mayra E. Cobaxin-Cárdenas"}],corrections:null},{id:"58389",title:"Zoonotic Trematodiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72632",slug:"zoonotic-trematodiasis",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Parasitic zoonoses are diseases caused by parasites shared between animal hosts and humans. Most of parasitic zoonoses are considered as neglected because of the absence of campaigns destined to prevention control and treatment of these diseases in most developed and undeveloped nations, ignoring that parasitic zoonoses affect almost half of the world human population and the vast majority of livestock worldwide is at risk of acquiring or sick because of a zoonotic disease. Zoonotic trematodiasis are numerous in almost every nation and responsible for serious and debilitating helminthic diseases in about 75 million people as well as the billions of dollars in production losses to the livestock industry. The perspective of global warming, habitat loss and new host range adaptation indicates that unless a new approach based in genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics assessment of new biomarkers and anthelmintic targets is achieved, the incidence of zoonotic trematodiasis will increase for both human and animal hosts.",signatures:"Estefan Miranda Miranda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58389",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58389",authors:[{id:"195819",title:"Dr.",name:"Estefan",surname:"Miranda Miranda",slug:"estefan-miranda-miranda",fullName:"Estefan Miranda Miranda"}],corrections:null},{id:"58730",title:"Metagenomics and Diagnosis of Zoonotic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72634",slug:"metagenomics-and-diagnosis-of-zoonotic-diseases",totalDownloads:1826,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Zoonotic diseases represent a public health problem worldwide, since approximately 60% of human pathogens have a zoonotic origin. A variety of methodologies have been developed to diagnose zoonosis, including culture-dependent and immunological-based methods, which allow the identification of a huge range of pathogens. However, some of them are not detected easily with these approaches. Additionally, molecular tests have been developed, and they are designed to identify a single pathogen or mixtures of them. In this context, metagenomics comes as an alternative to get genome sequences of different microorganisms, which comprise a microbial community. Metagenomics have been used to characterize microbiomes and viromes, which are not cultivable under laboratory conditions. 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1. Introduction
The preparation of monodisperse nanoparticles with uniform size, shape and composition has been intensively pursed because of their scientific and technological interests [1-4]. The major advantage of monodisperse particles may be attributed to the uniform properties of individual particles, which makes the property of whole particles strictly controllable. They have been widely used in industries such as pharmacy, catalysts, sensors, film precursors, and information storage. The property of nanoparticles is much more sensitive to their size than that of micro-particles. For example, the florescence of monodisperse CdSe/ZnS core/shell nanoparticles depends strongly on their size [5]. The superparamagnetism also depends strongly on the size of nanoparticles [6]. The properties of these particular size nanoparticles show great potentials in the field of bio-medicals and electronics.
In general, to prepare the monodisperse nanoparticles in solution, the size had to be selected after somewhat polydisperse nanoparticles were produced. The separation procedures are very laborious and expensive because the size of nanoparticles is too small to be sorted. Moreover, the production yield of monodisperse nanoparticles decreases markedly due to the loss of nanoparticles during the separation procedures. Therefore, many efforts have been made to synthesize directly monodisperse nanoparticles without size selection procedures.
Recently, several methods have been developed successfully to synthesize gram quantity monodisperse nanoparticles directly without size selection procedures. One of them is a slow heating method developed by Hyeon et al. [6,7], which utilizes the burst nucleation followed by sustained growth of particles. Although nanoparticles have some size distribution in the nucleation stage, they became gradually monodisperse during growth. In this case, the principle for the direct synthesis of monodisperse nanoparticles could be approached by sustained growth of nuclei formed by burst nucleation with some initial size distribution [8].
The digestive ripening developed by Klabunde et al. [9-12] is another fascinating method for the direct synthesis of monodisperse nanoparticles. During digestive ripening, nanoparticles initially ranging from 2 to 40 nm were spontaneously transformed into particles with nearly uniform sizes of 4~5 nm. Lee et al. [13,14] could explain the digestive ripening process by considering the charge effect in the Gibbs-Thomson equation.
The purpose of this article is to provide the thermodynamic and kinetic basis to ‘slow heating’ method and digestive ripening, which are two successful processes to synthesize the monodisperse nanoparticles.
2. Evolution mechanism of monodisperse particles
To understand intuitively the underlying principle for the evolution of monodispersed particles, let’s compare the growth of two spherical particles of different diamters of 1 nm and 5 nm as shown in Fig. 1(a). The problem could be simple under the assumption that all the particles grow at the same rate regardless of the size, which is valid for interface-controlled growth.The size ratio of two particles is 5, which is far from the monodisperse state. If the two particles grow by 1 nm after some time, their diameters become 2 nm and 6 nm, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1(b). Now the size ratio of the two particles is 3. If the two initial particles grow by 99 nm after an appreciable amount of time, their diameters become 100 nm and 104 nm, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1(c). Now their size ratio is 1.04, which is in the monodisperse state with the size being within 5% difference. The time evolution of the two particles in Fig. 1(a)-(c) shows that just the growth induces the monodispersity. It should be noted that the initial size difference between the two particles, which is 4 nm, is maintained throughout the growth but the size ratio continues to decrease with growth, approaching unity. This tendency to approach the monodisperse distribution by growth is often called ‘focusing effect’ [15].
Figure 1.
Initially, two spherical particles have the diameters of (a) 1 nm and 5 nm with the size ratio of 5. After growth by 1 nm, the respective particle becomes (b) 2 nm and 6 nm with the size ratio of 3. After growth by 99 nm, the respective particle becomes (c) 100 nm and 104 nm with the size ratio of 1.04, which has the monodispersity with size difference less than 5%.
If a colloidal particle grows in supersaturated solution, the solute may diffuse from the bulk liquid phase containing a uniform concentration of solute Cb to the particle surface through a diffusion layer with some concentration gradient where Cr is the solubility of the particle. In this condition the growth rate is described by
drdt=Dr(1+rδ)Vm(Cb-Cr)1+Dkr(1+rδ)E1
where D is the diffusion coefficient of the solute, r is the particle radius, δ is the diffusion radius around a particle and k is the rate constant of the interface reaction of a solute at the particle interface.
If D is much larger than kr (D >> kr), the interface reaction process becomes a rate-determining step and Eq. (1) is reduced to
drdt=kVm(Cb-Cr)E2
In this case of the interface-controlled growth, the growth rate does not depend on the particle size. If D is much smaller than kr (D << kr), however, the diffusion process of a solute becomes a rate-determining step and thus Eq. (1) is reduced to
drdt=DVmr(Cb-Cr)E3
In this case of the diffusion-controlled growth, the growth rate is inversely proportional to the radius of each particle. This means that large particles grow more slowly than small ones, which is in contrast with the interface-controlled growth, where the growth rate was the same regardless of the size. Therefore, the diffusion-controlled growth has a stronger tendency to approach the monodisperse distribution than the interface-controlled growth.
The narrowing of the size distribution was first theoretically studied in the diffusion-controlled process by Reiss [16]. The variation of the radius distribution σ2during growth changes with time as follows.
d(σ2)dt=2DVm(Cb-Cr)[1-r¯(1r)¯]E4
In Eq. (4), r¯and (1/r)¯ are the mean values of r and 1/r, respectively. Since the arithmetic mean is larger than the harmonic mean, (1/r)¯ is greater than 1/r¯. Therefore, in the supersaturated state, where Cb>Cr, Eq. (4) is negative. This means that the variation of the radius distribution σ2 decreases with time as the growth continues.
3. Interface-controlled growth
The tendency to approach the monodisperse distribution by growth can be examined by computer simulation. Consider the case of interface-controlled growth. As a starting condition of simulation, it could be assumed that the number of particles is 1000 with the average size of 0.5 nm and particles have a spherical shape. It can also be assumed that the size distribution follows the Gaussian function. Since the Gaussian distribution spreads infinitely, the size distribution is cut off when its probability is less than 0.01. The width of the Gaussian distribution, which is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum size with the probability of 0.01, was 2 nm. The center of the distribution was 0.5 nm. The radius ratio of the largest to the average-size particle was used as a criterion for the monodispersity. If this ratio is less than 1.05, the size distribution is regarded as being monodisperse. In the simulation, the growth rate, which is the same for all particles, was arbitrarily chosen to be 0.025 nm/s. It can further be assumed that there is no additional nucleation during growth, no coagulation between particles and no Ostwald ripening among particles.
Figs. 2 (a)-(c) show the particle size distribution, respectively, after 0 sec, 100 sec and 800 sec of growth. For visual representation of the result, the three-dimensional particles are projected on the two-dimensional plane. The location of the particles was randomly chosen within the square of the designated area but overlapping between particles was avoided. The broad size distribution in the initial state becomes narrower with particle growth, finally being monodisperse after 800 sec. The initial size ratio of 2.70 was decreased to 1.05 after the particle grew from the initial average radius of 0.5 nm to 21.49 nm. It should be noted that the broad size distribution in the initial state would be changed to the monodisperse state as far as the average size of particles grows from 0.5 nm to 21.49 nm regardless of the growth rate. Additional simulation was performed with the initial average radii of 1 nm and 2 nm. The final average particle radii reaching the monodisperse state were 41.18 nm and 81.02 nm, respectively.
These results can explain the natural evolution of monodisperse distribution of particles with growth. However, the results indicate that the minimum average radius for the monodisperse distribution should be about 20 nm when starting from the average radius of 0.5 nm, which is implicitly assumed to be the critical nucleus size. In the direct synthesis of monodisperse nanoparticles such as iron oxide reported by Hyeon et al. [6], however, the average radius is often as small as 4 nm. The average particle size to reach the monodisperse state shown in Fig. 2 is much larger than that observed experimentally in the direct synthesis of monodisperse nanoparticles.
Therefore, although the interface-controlled growth can explain the monodisperse evolution for particles larger than at least a few tens of nanometers, it cannot explain the evolution of monodisperse nanoparticles less than 10 nm, which requires that the monodisperse state should be reached at a much smaller particle size than that predicted by the interface-controlled growth. On the other hand, in the diffusion-controlled growth, the growth rate is inversely proportional to the particle radius as described by Eq. (3). Therefore, smaller particles would grow faster than larger ones, whose condition is more favorable in reaching the monodisperse state at smaller particle size. For this reason, the diffusion-controlled growth might be more suitable in explaining the evolution of the monodisperse nanoparticles less than 10 nm.
Figure 2.
The numerical analysis of the particle growth under the condition of interface-controlled growth. (a) The initial size distribution: the average radius of the initial particles was set to 0.5 nm with 1 nm width between the maximum and average size. (b) The size distribution of particles in the intermediate stage after 100 s. (c) The monodisperse state evolved after 800 s with the average particle radius of 21.49 nm.
Figure 3.
The numerical analysis of the particle growth under the condition of diffusion-controlled growth. (a) The initial size distribution: the average raidius of particles was set to 0.5 nm with 1 nm width between maximum and average size. (b) The size distribution of particles in the intermediate stage after 100 s. (c) The monodisperse state evolved after 1200 s with the average particle radius of 4.5 nm.
4. Diffusion-controlled growth
The diffusion-controlled growth could also be investigated using the computer simulation. The initial particle size distribution was identical to the previous case: the average radius of 0.5 nm and the width of 2 nm for Gauss distribution. The time step for calculation was 1 sec. The concentration gradient was given a constant value of 0.75 mol/cm3 without the Gibbs-Thompson effect being considered, which results in removing the Ostwald ripening effect.
Figs. 3(a)-(c) show the two-dimensional display of particles, respectively, after 0 sec, 100 sec and 1200 sec by diffusion-controlled growth. The initial ratio of 2.70 was decreased to 1.05 after the particle grew from the initial average radius of 0.5 nm to 4.50 nm. It should be noted that the initial particle size distribution would become monodisperse with the size ratio of 1.05 as far as the average radius of the particles increases from 0.5 nm to 4.5 nm regardless of the growth rate if the growth is controlled by diffusion.
Comparison between Figs. 2 and 3 indicates that the monodisperse state is reached much faster and in a much smaller particle size by the diffusion-controlled growth than by the interface-controlled growth. Therefore, the direct synthesis of monodisperse nanoparticles by Hyeon et al. [6] can be explained by the diffusion-controlled growth. The present analysis indicates that even if there is a broad size distribution in the nucleation stage, it becomes narrower with growth, eventually leading to a monodisperse state. Because of this ‘focusing effect’, the evolution of the monodisperse nanoparticles seems to be a rule rather than an exception. Then, a question arises as to why people have difficulty in producing the monodisperse nanoparticles. Which factor would be critical in the successful synthesis of highly monodisperse nanoparticles?
5. Factors unfavorable for monodisperse distribution
There are factors which are unfavorable for monodispersity. These are additional nucleation, random coagulation and Ostwald ripening. It is well established that coagulation among particles can be inhibited by a suitable choice of surfactants. Therefore, coagulation is not a critical factor. The effect of Ostwald ripening becomes significant when the supersaturation is small. More precisely, if the supersaturation made by the capillarity or the Gibbs-Thompson effect of particles is higher than the supersaturation for growth in the bulk, Ostward ripening would occur extensively. Then, the size distribution would deviate from monodispersity and approach the well-established distribution predicted by the Lifshitz, Slyozov and Wagner (LSW) theory. [17, 18] Therefore, to inhibit Ostwald ripening, the supersaturation for growth should be maintained much higher than that by the Gibbs-Thompson effect. This aspect was studied in detail by Kwon et al. [8].
The most critical factor unfavorable for monodisperse distribution is the additional nucleation during growth. Therefore, growth should be separated from nucleation. The thermodynamics and kinetics of nucleation are relatively well established. The rate of nucleation is negligibly low at low supersaturation and becomes very high above certain supersaturation, varying like a step function. The supersaturation for the onset of nucleation has a special meaning and is called ‘the critical supersaturation for nucleation’, which is defined as the supersaturation to produce the nucleation rate of 1/cm3 sec.
Consequently, to inhibit the additional nucleation during growth, the supersaturation should be maintained below the critical supersaturation for nucleation. Normally, the critical supersaturation for homogeneous nucleation is high enough but that for heterogeneous nucleation is relatively low and can be easily achieved. Therefore, a special care must be taken to prepare the reactor for the synthesis of monodisperse nanoparticles free from the site for heterogeneous nucleation.
One attempt to separate growth from nucleation is the seed-mediated growth, where the preformed nanoparticles are used as seed nuclei [7, 19]. Another attempt to separate growth from nucleation is the initial burst of nucleation, where an appreciable amount of supersaturation is consumed during the burst of nucleation and the relatively low supersaturation is maintained during growth. The ‘hot-injection’ method [20-22] is an example of this attempt.
Rapid injection of reagents into a hot surfactant solution raises the precursor concentration above the nucleation threshold. A burst of nucleation during a short period of time partially relieves the supersaturation. If the rate of the precursor consumption by the growing colloidal nanoparticles is not exceeded by the rate of precursor addition to solution, no new nuclei would form. This process typically produces the nanoparticles with the size distribution of 10 < σ < 15% in diameter, which are then narrowed to < 5% through additional size-selective processing.
The ‘heating-up’ method [6, 23-25] is a new attempt to separate growth from nucleation. This process is a batch process and very simple. Metal-oleate precursors are prepared from metal chloride and sodium oleate. If the metal-oleate precursors are heated in a high-boiling point solvent, they are thermally decomposed and produce monodisperse nanocrystals. This method proved to be advantageous for large-scale production. Park et al. [6] showed that as large as 40g of monodispese magnetite nanocrystals with a yield of >95% could be produced in a batch. The size uniformity of the nanoparticles is usually better than that by the ‘hot-injection’ method. Since this is a batch process, the precursors are not added during growth to supplement the supersaturation.
The supersaturation that has been consumed during growth can be indirectly estimated from the final size of the nanoparticles. The highly monodisperse nanoparticles were reported to grow as large as 22 nm in the ‘heating up’ process. Considering that the critical nucleus size is ~ 0.5 nm, the diameter increases by more than 20 nm, which implies that a considerable supersaturation must have been consumed. Since an appreciable amount of supersaturation is consumed in the initial nucleation process, the remaining supersaturation is usually not so high. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that the nuclei should grow as large as 10 nm by remaining supersaturation without precursors being supplied additionally. It should be reminded that in the ‘hot-injection’ method the additional precursors should be supplied to produce nanoparticles larger than 10 nm.
Then, a question arises as to why additional nucleation does not occur during such extensive growth. It appears that all the supersaturation, which should be consumed to produce the final size of nanoparticles, is not built up simultaneously but only a very small fraction of supersaturation, which is too small to trigger the nucleation, is maintained throughout the growth. This is an ideal situation where growth is separated from nucleation. One possibility to realize such an ideal situation is that the decomposition of the metal orleate complex into metal does not occur in the solution but occurs only at the surface of nanoparticles. In other words, the surface of nanoparticles acts as the catalytic site for decomposition of the metal orleate. This type of reaction is called ‘self-catalytic’. Therefore, if a system is self catalytic, growth can be separated ideally from nucleation and monodisperse nanoparticles can be easily synthesized.
6. Digestive ripening
As mentioned earlier, the coarsening kinetics of Ostwald ripening has been well established by LSW theory [17, 18]. During Ostwald ripening, large particles with a low chemical potential grow at the expense of small particles with a high chemical potential and, as a consequence, the average size increases and the total number of particles decreases during coarsening. Eventually, only one large particle remains, which corresponds to a final equilibrium state.
However, Klabunde and co-workers reported a series of articles on the synthesis of monodisperse gold or silver nanocrystals by a digestive-ripening process of polydisperse nanocrystals. [9-12, 26, 27] Gram quantities of monodisperse gold or silver nanoparticles could be produced through digestive ripening, where colloidal particles from 2 to 40 nm are transformed to nearly monodisperse particles of 4–5 nm diameters.
Digestive ripening is the reverse process of Ostwald ripening. It is interesting and also puzzling in that small particles grow at the expense of large ones. Clearly, digestive ripening cannot be understood with the usual Gibbs–Thomson equation solely based on a curvature effect. According to the theory of diffusion-controlled coarsening [28], the growth rate of a particle with radius, r, is given by
drdt=DfVgCorRT[μ(r)*-μ(r)]E5
where R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature, and Df and Co are the diffusivity and solubility of atoms in the solution, respectively. Eq. (5) is valid when the diffusion field does not overlap. µ(r)* is the chemical potential of a particle of critical size, which neither grows nor shrinks at the given instant.
Since the phenomenon of digestive ripening runs counter to the decrease of interfacial free energy, a different type of free energy must be involved. The driving force for digestive ripening must compete against the reduction of the interface free energy. There are two such free energies. One is strain energy and the other is electrostatic energy. Since solid particles dispersed in liquid do not have any appreciable strain energy, the electrostatic energy is a possible candidate. In fact, Klabunde et al, who have developed the digestive ripening process, reported that their nanoparticles were negatively charged [9, 10]. If nanoparticles are electrically charged, they have an electrostatic energy inversely proportional to the radius of the particles. Since electrostatic energy increases with decreasing particle size, charged particles cannot shrink away completely. Therefore, the presence of charge can drastically change the Ostwald ripening behavior. The chemical potential change arising from the presence of charge can be treated by modifying the Gibbs-Thomson equation in consideration of the electrostatic energy.
To analyze the effect of charge on the coarsening behavior of nanoparticles, it is assumed that each particle is singly charged, electrically-conducting, and spherical with isotropic interface free energy, dispersed in a matrix phase with a dielectric constant of 1. According to this assumption, ions are regarded as the primary embryos of charged nanoparticles. It is further assumed that the charged nanoparticles do not coagulate with each other and that the atomic transfer between particles is diffusion-controlled. The Gibbs free energy of a spherical conducting particle with radius r and charge e (corresponding to the unit charge of an electron) is expressed as
ΔG=4πr2σ+ke22r,E6
where\n\t\t\t\t is the interface free energy of the particle and k is defined by 1/(4), where is the vacuum permittivity[29]. ke2 is 2.306810-28 Nm2. It should be noted that with decreasing r, the interface free energy term decreases but the electrostatic energy term increases.
From Eq. (6), the modified Gibbs-Thomson equation is derived as
Δμ=μr-μo=RTlnCrCo=Vm(2σr-kq28πr4),E7
where Co is the solute concentration in the matrix without capillary effect. If the difference between Cr and Co is small, the equation can be approximated as
ln(CrCo)≈Cr-CoCo=VmRT(2σr-kq28πr4).E8
The coarsening behavior can be analyzed quantitatively by solving Eqs. (5) and (8) simultaneously under the constraint of mass conservation for a total number of particles Np, and is expressed as
If the growth rate of each particle is determined by Eq. (11), the new radius after dt is given by
rn(t+dt)=rn(t)+(drndt)dt.E12
Once the initial size distribution of particles is given, the time-dependent size distribution can be obtained by solving equations (11) and (12) simultaneously by iteration.
To demonstrate that this approach reproduces simple digestive ripening, one large charged nanoparticle of 15 nm radius and 600 ions of 0.2 nm radius were chosen as an initial state. A diffusivity, Df, of 10-9 m-1sec-1 and a temperature of 393 K were chosen for calculation.[11] Besides, the interface energy of = 1 mJm-2, C0 =0.01 molm-3, and Vm =1.0210-5 m3 mol-1, which is the molar volume of gold, were chosen. Here, the interface free energy of 1mJm-2 is chosen, simply because it produces monodisperse nanoparticles of the 1.5 ~ 2 nm size after digestive ripening. Experimentally, the surfactant, dodecanethiol, which is expected to diminish the interface free energy between gold and solution, appears to play a critical role in inducing digestive ripening. [30, 31] As the interface free energy decreases and the electric charge density increases, the size of finally-evolved monodisperse nanoparticles increases.
Fig. 4 shows the size evolution of charged nanoparticles with time. a1 and a2 in Fig. 4(a) represent the radius of charged embryos at 200 s and 600 s, respectively. Likewise, b1 and b2 in Fig. 4(a) represent the radius of the 15 nm particle at 200 sec and 600 sec, respectively. The size of the small charged embryos increases, whereas the size of the large charged particles decreases. Figs 4(b)-(d) show a display of the size distribution of nanoparticles at 200 s, 600 s and 900 s, respectively. Finally, the radius of every nanoparticle becomes 1.78 nm at 900 s, as shown in Fig. 4(d), which corresponds to ‘F’ in Fig. 4(a), producing perfect monodisperse nanoparticles. This calculation reproduces the experimentally observed digestive ripening behavior.
Figure 4.
Coarsening behavior of one big particle of 30 nm and 300 embryos of 0.4 nm. (a) a1 and a2 indicate the size of embryos at 200 s and 500 s, respectively. Likewise b1 and b2 indicate the size of the large nanoparticle at 200 s and 500 s, respectively. Finally, the size of every nanoparticle becomes the same on F at 900s. The size distribution of nanoparticles at (b) 200 s, (c) 500 s and (d) 900 s, respectively. In (b), the size of small nanoparticles is 4 nm and that of a large nanoparticle is 19.9 nm. In (c), the size of small nanoparticles is 4.3 nm and that of a large nanoparticle is 14.9 nm. In (d), the size of every nanoparticle becomes 4.5 nm.Reprinted with permission from [13]. Copyright 2007 Elsevier.
7. Digestive ripening in a binary system
Smetana et al. [26] reported digestive ripening in a binary system, where separately prepared monodisperse Au and Ag nanoparticles with a radius of ~3.3 nm, mixed in a colloid solution, were transformed into monodisperse Au/Ag alloy nanoparticles with a radius of ~2.8 nm. The final monodisperse nanoparticles did not have a core–shell structure but had uniform composition distribution. The size of the final monodisperse nanoparticles was reduced in comparison to that of the initial unalloyed monodisperse nanoparticles, which implied that additional nucleation had occurred during digestive ripening.
To analyze the coarsening behavior of a binary system of Au and Ag nanoparticles, the chemical potential of a binary system needs to be derived. According to the phase diagram of an Au/Ag binary system [31], Au and Ag, which have the same face-centered cubic (FCC) structure and a small difference in atomic size, have a complete solid solution. Therefore, it is assumed that Au and Ag nanoparticles behave like an ideal binary solid solution, and then, the Gibbs-free energy is expressed in the whole composition range as follows [32]:
G=XAuGAu+XAgGAg+RT(XAulnXAu+XAglnXAg)E13
From Eq. (13), the chemical potentials of Au and Ag for the alloy are given, respectively, by
μAu=GAu+RTlnXAuμAg=GAg+RTlnXAgE14
where GAu and GAg are the molar free energies of pure Au and Ag, respectively; and XAu and XAg are the mole fractions of Au and Ag, respectively. From Eqs. (7) and (14), the chemical potentials of spherically charged nanoparticles of Au and Ag with radius r can be derived as
where σSS and VSS are the interface free energy and the molar volume of the Au/Ag solid solution, respectively. To investigate the time evolution of the coarsening behavior of the mixed Au and Ag nanoparticles, the growth rate of particles should be calculated.
Substituting Eq. (5) for dr/dt in Eq. (9) and rearranging the result yield
μ(r)*=[∑n=1Nprnμ(rn)]/∑n=1NprnE16
Expressing µ(r)* in terms of dri/dt and using Eq. (15) for µ(r) in Eq. (16), the growth rate of the ith particle by diffusion of Au and Ag atoms is obtained as
With Eq. (17), the radius of the ith particle can be calculated at a time, t +Δt, by
ri(t+Δt)=ri(t)+dridtΔt,i=1,2,...E18
The analytic expression for the composition change of nanoparticles cannot be derived. Therefore, the composition change of nanoparticles should be computed from the mass change of each element, which is determined from the size change by Eq. (18) for each iteration.
To check whether these schemes reproduce the experimental result of alloy digestive ripening, a simple system of 500 Au charged nanoparticles of RAu = 3.3 nm, 500 Ag charged nanoparticles of RAg = 3.3 nm and 500 charged nuclei of Rnuclei = 0.5 nm was considered. This system is chosen to represent the experimental condition of as-prepared Au and Ag nanoparticles mixed for digestive ripening [14]. The 500 nuclei were added because the experimental fact that the number of final nanoparticles increases after digestive ripening indicates that additional nucleation occurs. The capital letter Ri indicates an initial radius with the suffix i implying the ith group of particles with identical radius. The initial mole fraction of Au nanoparticles, XAu, is set at 0.99 instead of 1 to avoid the infinity in calculation. In the same manner, XAu of Ag nanoparticles and the size of nuclei are set at 0.01 and 0.5, respectively. The parameters used are Df = 0.5 × 10–14 m2/s, VSS = 1.02 × 10–5 m3/mol, Co = 0.01 mol/m3, kq2 = 2.3068 × 10–28 J m, T = 393 K, σSS = 0.3 J/m2, and z = 30. It should be noted that if the particles are assumed to be singly charged with z = 1, the interface energy σSS should have a much smaller value than 0.3 J/m2 to reproduce the experimentally-observed digestive ripening.
For the simplification, the diffusivities of Au or Ag atoms in the nanoparticles are assumed to be high enough to be homogenized immediately because the final structure of Au/Ag alloy nanoparticles was reported not to have a core-shell structure but to have a homogeneous solid solution.
In Fig. 5, the coarsening behavior of nanoparticles with time is schematically displayed. The time evolution of the microstructure is shown in Figs. 5(a), (b), (c) and (d) at t1 = 0, t2 = 1, t3 = 2 and t4 = 16 h, respectively. Fig. 5(a) shows the initial size distribution and the composition of nanoparticles, which is represented by the gray scale from black for Au to white for Ag as shown by the gray scale bar in Fig. 5. Therefore, black, white and gray nanoparticles represent Au-rich, Ag-rich and Au/Ag alloy nanoparticles, respectively. After 1 h, the radii of both Au and Ag nanoparticles decrease to 3.07 nm and the mole fractions, XAu, of Au and Ag nanoparticles become 0.64 and 0.36, respectively, as shown in Fig. 5(b). The radii of the nuclei increase to 2.4 nm with their mole fraction, XAu, maintained as 0.5. After 2 h, the size distribution becomes much narrower approaching a monodisperse state and the composition becomes more homogenized as shown in Fig. 5(c). The radii of initial Au and Ag nanoparticles decrease to 3 nm, and the radii of the nuclei increase to 2.6 nm. The mole fractions of Au and Ag nanoparticles become 0.54 and 0.46, respectively. After 16 h, all the nanoparticles eventually have the same radius of 2.88 nm and the same composition of XAu = 0.5, as shown in Fig. 5(d). By considering both the electrostatic energy and ideal solid solution, the coarsening behavior of the digestive ripening process, where the separated Au and Ag nanoparticles were transformed into monodisperse Au/Ag alloy nanoparticles, was successfully reproduced.
Figure 5.
Display of the nanoparticles evolved through coarsening at four different times in the system of 500 Au nanoparticles, 500 Ag nanoparticles and 500 nuclei. Composition is represented by the gray scale from Au as black to Ag as white. (a) At t1 = 0 h, RAu = 3.3 nm with XAu = 0.99, RAg = 3.3 nm with XAu = 0.01 and Rnuclei = 0.5 nm with XAu = 0.5. (b) At t2 = 1 h, rAu = 3.07 nm with XAu = 0.64, rAg = 3.07 nm with XAu = 0.36 and rnuclei = 2.4 nm with XAu = 0.5. (c) At t3 = 2 h, rAu = 3 nm with XAu = 0.54, rAg = 3 nm with XAu = 0.46 and rnuclei = 2.6 nm with XAu = 0.5. (d) At t4 = 16 h, all the particles become monodisperse at 2.88 nm with the same composition of XAu = 0.5.Reprinted with permission from [14]. Copyright 2009 Elsevier.
8. Conclusions
The evolution mechanism of monodisperse nanoparticles is approached thermodynamically and kinetically. Both interface-controlled and diffusion-controlled growth of particles can induce monodisperse distribution of particles if coagulation, additional nucleation and Ostwald ripening are inhibited. The diffusion-controlled growth reaches the monodisperse state at much smaller size than the interface-controlled growth. The evolution mechanism of monodisperse nanoparticles by digestive ripening is approached using the modified Gibbs-Thompson equation considering electrostatic energy. The digestive ripening behavior of both pure metal and alloy which is contrary to conventional Ostwald ripening, is well explained assuming that nanoparticles are electrically charged.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MEST) (No. M10600000159-06J0000-15910).
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1. Introduction
Fluoride (F) occurs in rocks, soil, air, water, plants, and animals as well as in human body. Fluoride content in subsurface water is controlled by temperature, pH and solubility of F-bearing minerals. The subsurface water, most of which originates from rainfall or surface water bodies, gains minerals during its transport and residency period of earth crust [1, 2]. Continuous intake of F contaminated groundwater (>1.5 mg/L) without proper treatment cause chronic endemic fluorosis. There is a close relationship between environmental F and general health. Fluoride deficiency increases incidences of dental caries among the population, while the excess F intake causes dental, skeletal fluorosis, and other forms of non-skeletal tissue fluorosis. Hydrofluorosis is a major toxicological and public health problem in water-stressed regions.
Fluorosis continues to be an endemic problem around the world. Moderate levels of F ingestion reduce incidences of dental caries and also promote healthy development of bones and teeth [3, 4]. Hydroxylapatite is main mineral phase of the human teeth enamel. Dental fluorosis, which is characterized by mottling of tooth surface, is the most adverse effect of overexposure to dietary F. Fluoride accumulates in dentin, which is the mineralized tissue underlying the enamel, and its chronic overexposure could cause dentin to crack more easily [4]. Children within the age group of 0–12 years are most prone to fluorosis as their body tissues are in formative stage.
Fluorosis, which was initially considered to be a problem of teeth only, has now turned to be a serious health hazard affecting many other body systems manifesting through joint pains, muscular pain; skeletal deformations, and malformations characterized by increased in bone mass and density, pain and stiffness in backbone, hip region, and other joints. This is because continuous intake of high F causes ligaments of spine become calcified and ossified [5]. Studies indicate that F intake could increase probability of cancer in the kidney and bladder based on tendency for hydrogen fluoride (HF) to form under the acidic conditions such as urine [6].
Fluoride occurs in natural waters mainly in the form of F, whose concentrations may range up to 2800 mg/L [7]. Fluoride levels are high in groundwater where the source minerals such as amphiboles, micas, fluorapatite, topaz, cryolite, certain clays, and villiaumite [8]. Enrichment of F in Geological substrate is from the fluorite mineral phase in the rocks along with the weathering of rocks.
Hydrochemical techniques are normally employed in the water quality management. In these techniques, the data regarding the origin and behavior of major cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+) and anions CO32−, HCO3−, Cl−, SO42−) in the groundwater permits the elucidation of the hydrogeochemical compositions of the water [9]. This generally varies depending upon the solubility of the chemical components from the dissolution of the mineral component of the rocks that host the aquifer.
The current work was aimed to investigate the relationship between the consumption of water from natural high F terrain and the prevalence of dental fluorosis in the study area.
2. The study area
2.1 Location and climate of the study area
Nuzendla mandal is the present study area, which is located in Narasaraopet Revenue Division of Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, India (Figure 1). It lies in between the latitudes 79°33′28″–79°52′51″ E, and longitudes 15°49′26″ and 16°01′42″ N and extends to an area of about 350 km2 and is distributed in 20 rural villages. The area experiences a semi-arid climate, with minimum and maximum temperatures of 16.8°C and 48.5°C, respectively. Rentachintala of Guntur district (nearest IMD station) records the highest temperatures (48.5°C) during summer (March to May). The daily sunshine hours range from 3.5 to 10.5, with a mean of 7.5. The relative humidity is from 30% to 80% with a mean of 52%. The mean wind velocity ranges from 4.7 to 16.3 km/h, with an average of 10.5 km/h. The wind velocity is higher during the southwest monsoon compared to the rest of the period. The average annual rainfall for a period of 12 years (1991–2013) is 718.38 mm. The semi-arid climate of the study area with average annual rainfall initiates the evaporation process which plays a crucial role in the release of F fluoride from underlying rocks into the groundwater.
Figure 1.
Location map of Nuzendla mandal of Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
3. Geology of the study area
The study area is under laid by the rock formations ranging from Archaean to Permo-carboniferous age (Table 1). The rock formations include quartz-mica-schist, banded-biotite-hornblende-gneiss/granite, and coarse-grained sandstone (Figure 2). Major part of the study area is occupied by quartz-mica-schist. The second dominant rocks in the study area are biotite-hornblende granitic/gneisses with migmatite and pegmatite patches, which are observed from the northern part of the study area. A small portion in the eastern and southern parts is covered by coarse-grained sandstones [11]. A very small area in the eastern part is occupied by gabbro. Mineralogically, quartz-mica-schist is composed principally of quartz and mica, and generally of muscovite and biotite. The modal composition of quartz-mica schist shows 25% of muscovite, 15% biotite, 30% orthoclase, 20% quartz, and 10% plagioclase and chlorite, together with some opaque minerals [12]. The biotite-hornblende granitic/gneisses appear in their light and dark color banded texture. The light color band is composed of quartz and plagioclase feldspar, while the dark color is composed of biotite, hornblende, and opaque’s. The modal composition of biotite-hornblende granitic/gneisses have 34.25% of quartz, >3.75% k-feldspar, 20.35% of plagioclase, 35% of biotite, 5.2% hornblende, 0.5% chlorite,0.15% of sphene, 0.15% of zircon, 0.3% of epidote and 0.10% fluorite and 0.4% opaques [13]. Since the coarse-grained sandstones of Gondwana age are considered to be the weathered product of Eastern Dharwar Craton, it is essentially composed of quartz and little proportion of feldspars, together with accessories of biotite, hornblende, apatite, epidote, fluorite, sphene, zircon, etc. The volume percentage of the different minerals depends on the cementing material and environment of deposition. The muscovite and biotite micas, fluorite minerals contribute to the higher F levels in this study.
Generally, groundwater occurs in all the formations of the study area. But it occurs under phreatic conditions in the weathered and fractured rocks at shallow depths and under semi-confined to confined conditions in the deeper fractured rocks. Development of the aquifer conditions in the quartz-mica schist and banded-biotite-hornblende-gneiss is generally less due to lack of primary porosity. However, the occurrence and movement of groundwater in the rocks depend on the development of extent of weathered rock portions and degree of the fractures in the rocks. The depth of weathering in the rocks is from 2 to 12 m below ground level (bgl) and the fractured rocks from 3 to 32 m bgl. Development of groundwater is through shallow wells (dug wells) and deep wells (bore wells/tube wells) in the study area. The depth of dug wells varies from 5.50 to 18.50 m bgl.
5. Materials and methods
5.1 Methodology
The methodology comprises of field procedures and analytical techniques. The field procedures include mapping techniques, well inventory and collection of groundwater samples and survey on health implications caused by F. The analytical techniques include the determination various physicochemical parameters of collected groundwater samples.
5.2 Field procedures
The mapping techniques covered geological mapping, demarcation of geomorphological features and preparation of slope, soil, drainage and land use/land cover maps. This work was carried out, using the Survey of India toposheets of 56P/12, 56P/16, 57M/9, and 57M/13 on a scale of check 1: 50,000. Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) ID Linear Imaging Self Scanner (LISS) III of geocoded false color composite of December 9, 2012 on 1:50,000 scales are used to get information on soils, geomorphological features, lithology, lineaments, and land use/land cover with a limited ground truth. Geological mapping was carried out by marking the contacts between the geological formations as well as the structural features. Geomorphological features were demarcated based on the field observations and the available literature.
Fifty groundwater samples were collected in pre-monsoon (month of May) and post-monsoon (November) seasons during the year 2012 in the study area. Prior to water sampling, sampling bottles soaked in 1:1 HCl for 24 h were rinsed with distilled water, followed by deionized water. They were washed again prior to each sampling of the filtrates. The bottles were tightly capped to protect the samples from atmospheric CO2, adequately labeled, and preserved in the refrigerator till they were taken to laboratory for measurement. Data on location of wells, geographic coordinates, type of well, depth to groundwater level, and water taste was collected. The variations in the groundwater levels in the wells were recorded, using a water level recorder.
The people living in the study area suffering from different stages of fluorosis by consuming fluoridated water were identified. The dental fluorosis stages were identified by adopting Dean’s classification [10]. The fluoride levels are examined in the human body through the analysis of urine samples of the effected persons.
5.3 Analytical techniques
The collected groundwater samples from the field were analyzed for chemical variables, using the standard water quality methodology of the American Public Health Association [10]. The chemical variables include pH, electric conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), bicarbonate (HCO3−), chloride (Cl−), sulphate (SO42−), nitrate (NO3−) and fluoride (F−). The pH and EC of the groundwater samples were measured in the field, using a portable pH meter (60510-ISE, YSI Pro plus) and EC meters (60530-ISE, YSI Pro plus). The TDS was calculated from EC adhering to the procedure of conversion factor adopted by Hem [14]. The rest of the chemical variables were determined in the laboratory immediately after the groundwater sampling. A summary of the analytical procedures is listed in Table 2. All concentrations of chemical parameters are expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), except pH (units) and EC (μS/cm at 25°C).
Chemical parameters
Methods
Bicarbonate (HCO3−)
Titration with HCl
Calcium (Ca2+)
Titration with EDTA
Carbonate (CO32−)
Titration with HCl
Chloride (Cl−)
Titration with AgNO3
Fluoride (F−)
Spectrophotometer
Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
pH meter (60510-ISE, YSI Pro plus)
Magnesium (Mg2+)
Calculation (TH- Ca2+)
Nitrate (NO3−)
Colorimeter
Potassium (K+)
Flame photometer
Silica (Si)
Spectrophotometer
Sodium (Na+)
Flame photometer
Specific Electrical Conductivity (SEC)*
SEC meter (60530-ISE, YSI Pro plus)
Sulphate (SO42−)
Spectrophotometer
Total dissolved solids (TDS)
SEC X Conversion factor (0.64)
Table 2.
Methods used for chemical analysis of groundwater.
5.4 Hydrogeochemical facies
The concept of hydrogeochemical facies has been used here to provide a model for explaining the distribution and genesis of principal types of groundwater, as it reflects the response of chemical processes in a lithological framework and the pattern of water flow in it [15, 16].
5.5 Piper’s trilinear diagram
A Piper trilinear diagram was used in understanding the hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater in the area [17]. It consists of two triangles, one for plotting cations and the other for plotting anions, and one diamond-shaped field from which hydrochemical facies were identified.
5.6 Dental survey
A questionnaire pre-format prescribed by Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission [18] and earlier described by Dahyia et al. [19] was used to score the incidence and degree of manifestation of dental fluorosis. Clinical dental examination was executed rendering to the requirements defined by the World Health Organization Formational Oral Health Surveys [20] by taking 10 minutes as an orientation period spell for the basic examination of a child. The test area was prepared with the required hygiene and safety measures, using previously sterilized instruments and having easy access to sterilization procedures, and using a plane mirror and a periodontal probe. Community fluorosis index (CFI) was calculated based on equation [1] as
The symptoms of dental fluorosis among the communities were recorded using, randomized sampling method. The results were classified into seven categories based on the Dean’s classification viz., normal, questionable, very mild, mild, moderate, moderately severe, and severe. The classifications were given a numerical weights of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0, respectively, in order of increasing severity [21, 22, 23, 24].
5.7 Urine sample collection and analysis
A total of 50 urine samples (one sample from each location where the groundwater samples were collected) were collected from the children of same age group (10–12 years age group). The samples were further classified into high (>1.5 mg/L), intermediate (0.6–1.5 mg/L), and low F (<0.6 mg/L) based on groundwater F content. Pre-labeled 500-ml plastic-capped disposable bottles (prewashed and dried containing 0.2 g of ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid, EDTA) were distributed to the selected persons in the villages of the study area and brought to the laboratory in an ice box and stored at 4°C in a refrigerator. EDTA (0.2 g) was added to check and minimize the interference from complexation of F by cations such as calcium. The samples were analyzed for F content using the 2-(parasulfophenylazo)-1,8-dihydroxy-3,6-naphthalene-disulfonate SPADNS method. The individuals were also explained the importance of the program and were motivated to cooperate in this study. An informed consent was obtained from the participants. Information on the drinking water sources, dietary practice, period of living in a particular location, and other related data were collected through an open-ended questionnaire.
6. Results and discussion
6.1 Hydrogeochemical evolution
A trilinear diagram is widely used in understanding the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater [17]. The diagram consists of two triangles and one diamond-shaped field. The left side triangle is for plotting of cations (Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ + K+) and the right side triangle for plotting of anions (HCO3− + CO32−, Cl−, and SO42−) expressed in percentage. The diamond-shaped field (consisting of the total cations and anions), which is the upper side of these two triangles is used for representing the overall chemical quality of groundwater. The Zone-5 represents carbonate hardness (Ca2+: HCO3− type), zone 6 non-carbonate hardness (Ca2+: Cl− type), the zone-7 non-carbonate alkali (Na+: Cl− type), the zone-8 carbonate alkali (Na+: HCO3− type), and the zone 9 mixed types. The chemical data of the groundwater samples are plotted in the Piper’s diagram (Figure 3). Most groundwater samples fall in the center as well as in the right lower corner of the cation triangle in both the seasons. It indicates the high concentration of Na+ in the groundwater.
Figure 3.
Hydrogeochemical facies during pre-and post-monsoon periods.
Most of the anions in pre-and post-monsoon groundwater samples fell in center of the triangle representing HCO3− type. Therefore, the groundwater is dominated by Na+-HCO3− facies in general, which is further supported by hydrogechemical facies (Table 3). In the centrally located diamond-shaped field, the groundwater samples fall in zones 5–9. It suggests that the fresh water (zone 5) moves towards saline water (zone 7) through the zones of 6–8, following the flow path. That means the initial water quality is controlled by water-rock interaction and is subsequently modified by anthropogenic sources. Because of this, the concentrations of Na+ and Cl− increase, which enhance the TDS content, are including the F content in the groundwater.
F− Range (mg/L)
Pre-monsoon
MeanCa2+ (mg/L)
MeanNa+ (mg/L)
Mean HCO32− (mg/L)
Mean TDS (mg/L)
% of samples
Post-monsoon
Mean Ca2+ (mg/L)
Mean Na+ (mg/L)
Mean HCO32− (mg/L)
Mean TDS (mg/L)
% of samples
< 0.6
Ca > Mg > Na > K: HCO3 > NO3 > Cl > SO4
156
87
308
981
2
Ca > Mg > Na > K: HCO3 > NO3 > Cl > SO4
168
132
337
1192
6
0.6 – 1.5
Na > Ca > Mg > K: HCO3 > Cl > NO3 > SO4
117
216
346
1,207
38
Ca > Na > Mg > K: HCO3 > Cl > NO3 > SO4
156
182
375
1265
28
>1.5
Na > Ca > Mg > K: HCO3 > Cl > NO3 > SO4
83
338
427
1,445
60
Na > Ca > Mg > K: HCO3 > Cl > NO3 > SO4
66
456
461
1655
66
Table 3.
Hydrogeochemical facies of groundwater during the pre-and post-monsoon periods of study area.
6.2 Mechanisms controlling groundwater chemistry
To understand the groundwater interaction with precipitation (rainfall), rock, and evaporation as mechanisms controlling the water chemistry [25], the ratios for major cations (Na+ + K+: Na+ + K+ + Ca2+) and for major anions (Cl−: Cl− + HCO3−) computed from the ionic concentration of groundwater of the study area are plotted against TDS (Figure 4).
Most groundwater samples fall in the rock domain in both the seasons, where the TDS is between 100 and 1000 mg/L (Figure 4). The remaining groundwater samples are observed from the evaporation domain, where the TDS is more than 1000 mg/L. Falling off the groundwater samples in the rock domain indicates the water-rock interaction. The average values of TDS, Na+, HCO3−, and Cl− vary from 844 to 981, 107.8 to 94.5, 271 to 284.75, and 95.4 to 88.5 mg/L from pre- to post-monsoon, where the TDS is less than 1000 mg/L, while they are from 1402 to 1583, 306.68 to 380.54, 408.2 to 430.17, and 239.2 to 278.85 mg/L in the respective seasons, where the TDS is more than 1000 mg/L (Table 4). The increase of Na+ and Cl− from TDS less than 1000 mg/L to TDS more than 1000 mg/L concentrations are mainly caused by anthropogenic pollution. Because of this reason, the groundwater samples move towards the evaporation domain from the rock domain, as also reported by Wang et al. [26], Mamatha and Rao [27], Li et al. [28], and Narasimha and Sudarshan [29] in other regions (Figure 4).
TDS range (mg/L)
Na+ (mg/L)
Cl− (mg/L)
HCO3− + CO32− (mg/L)
Pre-monsoon
Post-monsoon
Pre-monsoon
Post-monsoon
Pre-monsoon
Post-monsoon
<1000
107.80
101.00
95.4
87.00
328.40
353.00
>1000
306.73
365.30
239.20
269.85
479.46
500.91
Table 4.
Classification of Na+, Cl− and HCO32− + CO32− based on TDS range.
Since the groundwater quality is dominated by Na+ and HCO3− ions due to rock-water interaction, this factor appears as governing process for the release of F from the country rocks. As a result, the groundwater shows the higher F content. Similar conditions have been reported by Li et al. [30] in China. On the other hand, the evaporation and/or anthropogenic activity increases the Na+ and Cl− contents, which make the higher TDS.
6.3 Human health survey
Human health survey has been conducted in the present study area to analyze the fluorosis hazards with respect to F− content in the selected endemic villages of T. Annavaram, Talrapalli, Datlavaripalem, Marellavaripalem, and Upplapadu. Dental health survey collected 659 data samples on people, including the males (213), females (214), and children (232) to understand the severity of fluorosis hazard in this area. The results of dental survey carried out in the selected villages of study area are presented in Table 5.
Name of the village
Population surveyed
Adults
Children
Male
Female
Children
People surveyed
Effected people
People surveyed
Effected people
Surveyed
Effected
%
People
%
People
%
Children
Children
T.Annavaram
76
30
26
86.67
30
18
60
16
10
62.5
Talrapalli
180
54
22
40.74
54
11
20.37
72
41
56.94
Datlavaripalem
155
43
37
86.05
44
33
75
68
58
85.29
Marellavaripalem
113
41
28
68.29
41
32
78.05
31
24
77.42
Upplapadu
135
45
14
35
45
10
25
45
19
42.22
Total
659
213
127
—
214
104
—
232
152
—
Average
63.35
51.68
64.87
Table 5.
Results of dental survey in the selected villages of study area.
The results of dental survey population are compared with the Dean’s Classification Index (1942) of tooth surface (15; Table 6). The results of Dental Fluorosis Index (DCI) and Community Fluorosis Index (CFI) are presented in Table 7. Out of the 76 members surveyed in T. Annavaram, the people who come under questionable, very mild, mild, moderate, moderately severe, and severe categories are 2, 7, 12, 16, 11, and 6 respectively. These contribute 71.05% of the fluorosis (Figure 5a). In Talrapalli, 180 people are surveyed. The mentioned categories are 20, 18, 14, 14, 4, and 4 respectively, which contribute 41.11% of the fluorosis (Figure 5b). Datlavaripalem records the highest dental hazard in the people in the respective categories are 17, 32, 19, 22, 17, and 21 (Figure 5c). These are contributes 88.27% of the fluorosis. In the Marellavaripalem, the total surveyed people are 155. Out of which, the questionable, very mild, mild, moderate, moderately severe, and severe categories are 15, 18, 14, 12, 11, and 14 respectively, contributing 74.33% of the dental fluorosis (Figure 5d). The lowest dental fluorosis (34.29%) is recorded in the Upplapadu village (Figure 5e) where the questionable, very mild, mild, moderate, moderately severe, and severe categories are 5, 8, 10, 6, 3, and 11 respectively. The above data indicate the different degrees of fluorosis according to varying concentrations of F in drinking water. In the present study area, the concentration of F varies from 0.5 to 12.4 mg/L in pre-monsoon groundwater and 0.14 to 16.0 mg/L in post-monsoon groundwater.
Figure 5.
Pie plot showing the different degrees of dental hazard in the study area.
Deans number
Category
Indication of tooth surface
0
Normal
Translucent, smooth enamel with a glossy appearance
0.5
Questionable
Seen in endemic areas, borderline between normal and very mild
1
Very mild
Small opaque, paper-white areas scattered irregularly over the labial and buccal surface of teeth
1.5
mild
White opaque areas are more extensive but do involve many surfaces
2
Moderate
Entire tooth surface involved, minute pitting often present on labial and buccal surfaces, brown surface, brown stains, frequently disfiguring
3
Moderately severe
Entire tooth surface involved marked pitting with intense brown stain
4
Severe
Widespread, deep brown or black areas, corrosion type of mottled enamel
Results of dental fluorosis and community fluorosis index.
Figures shown in the brackets indicates the Calculated DCI values for each individual category.
Village names: 1; T. Annavaram; 2. Talrapalli; 3. Datlavaripalem; 4. Marellavaripalem; 5. Uppalapadu.
Figure 6 indicates that the dental fluorosis in the surveyed villages is high in children (64.87%) compared to men (63.35%) and women (58.38%). This could be due to effect of the drinking water on children, in particular as their body tissues are in their growth stage [31, 32]. The effect of fluorosis is higher in males compared to female. Generally, the males take more drinking water and diets than the females due to their greater physical activity. This is also supported by the significant positive correlation between average F content in groundwater and the percentage of dental fluorosis.
Figure 6.
Histogram showing the dental hazards in the study area.
6.4 Community fluorosis index
Community Fluorosis Index (CFI) was calculated based on the symptoms of dental fluorosis with respect to DCI [14, 23]. Criteria for people with symptoms of dental fluorosis are identified and classified in each category based on CFI. CFI is the ratio of the number of people affected in each category and Dean’s numerical weight to total number of affected people (Eq. (1)). If CFI is greater than 0.6; fluorosis is considered to be a public health problem in that area [14, 23, 24, 25].
Higher prevalence rates of endemic fluorosis are observed in four out of five screened villages. The CFI values of T. Annavaram, Datlavaripalem, Marellavaripalem, and Uppalapadu are 1.51, 1.60, 1.41, and 0.86 respectively which may cause public health problems. Tarlapalli village is the only one showing CFI value (0.58) is less than 0.6, where there is no fluorosis hazard was observed (Table 7).
The above dental survey in the study area indicates that there is different degree of fluorosis hazard due to varying concentration of F in drinking water, quantity of water consumption, intake of nutrients at risk, dietary substance, hot climate condition and long period exposure after digestion of in human body [33].
6.5 Urine sample analysis survey
The urine sample analysis survey is carried out alongside, the dental survey. F is excreted primarily through urine [34], which is an early indicator of fluoride poisoning. The F content in urine depends on the concentration of F in the drinking water. The acceptable concentration of urine F is 1.0 mg/L [35]. The results of the urine samples of current study area showed that minimum and maximum urinary F concentrations are 1.2 and 16.2 mg/l, while the groundwater samples (mean of both seasons) show 0.42–14.2 mg/l, respectively (Table 8). The urine samples were further classified as low (<0.6 mg/L), intermediate (0.6–1.5 mg/L) and high (>1.5 mg/L) based on mean F− content in the groundwater.
F− range in groundwater
Range and mean F− content in groundwater (mg/L)
Range and mean F− content in urine (mg/L)
% of samples
<0.6 mg/L
0.45
1.2
4
(0.14–0.50)
(1.2)
0.6–1.5 mg/L
1.14
2.52
32
(0.76–1.14)
(1.4–4.2)
>1.5 mg/L
2.75
4.93
64
(1.55–14.20)
(2.1–16.2)
Table 8.
Data* on different F− concentrations in groundwater and urine (mg/L).
Mean F– concentration of groundwater for pre- and post- monsoon seasons.
The minimum and maximum of urine F concentrations among the low (<0.6 mg/L), intermediate (0.6–1.5 mg/L) and high (>1.5 mg/L) F areas ranged from 0.45 to 1.2 mg/l, 1.4 to 4.2 mg/L and 2.1 to 16.2 mg/L respectively. The corresponding mean values were 1.2 mg/L, 2.52 mg/L, and 4.93 mg/L respectively (Figure 7). The lowest urine concentration (1.2 mg/L) is observed in low F areas (with F < 0.6 mg/L in water) and the highest urine concentration (16.2 mg/L) was observed among areas of high F concentration (>1.5 mg/L) in water. This was also supported by excellent positive correlation between the urinary and groundwater F (Figure 8). The mean F concentration in urine has enhanced from low to high F groups (Table 8). The urine F content even in the low F areas exceeded the acceptable concentrations of 1.0 mg/L. This shows that the groundwater consumed by the individuals was the main causative factor for fluorosis hazard.
Figure 7.
Results of F− content in urine and groundwater* samples of study area.
Figure 8.
Mean F− content in groundwater vs urine fluoride.
7. Conclusion
The present study reveals that the underground drinking water of the investigated area was contaminated with F. The population of the study area was therefore chronically exposed to higher levels of F from drinking water. There was a significantly positive correlation between the F content of groundwater and urine of the fluorosis-affected children in the study area. This suggested that a high level of endemic fluorosis is prevalent in the study area due to the consequence of a higher concentration of F in underground aquifers. The highest number of fluorosis-affected children (85.29%) was recorded from Datlavaripalem village. It can be concluded that the high F in groundwater leads to increased incidences of dental fluorosis among the surveyed people. Also this study indicates that urinary F is a good indicator of community exposure F. The study revealed that the F level in urine was higher than the accepted levels. It is also evident that other sources of dietary F intake other than drinking water contributed significantly to community overexposure to fluoride in the studied areas. This calls for urgent interventions to mitigate effects of excessive environmental fluoride in these areas
Acknowledgments
The author wants to thank Dr.P.V. Nageswara Rao, Assistant Professor, Department of Geology, Acharya Nagarjuna University for his constant encouragement throughout this work.
\n',keywords:"fluoride, Nuzendla mandal, dean classification index, fluorosis, community fluorosis Index",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82108.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82108.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82108",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82108",totalDownloads:11,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 27th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 4th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 3rd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 3rd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter was aimed to identify the relationship between fluoride (F) enrichment and prevalence of endemic fluorosis in a rural area of Nuzendla mandal in Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, India. The concentration of F varies from 0.5 to 12.4 mg/L in pre-monsoon groundwater and 0.14 to 16.0 mg/L in post-monsoon groundwater in the collected and analyzed fifty water samples. Dental survey conducted in the study area based on Dean Classification Index indicated different degrees of dental fluorosis due to the varying concentrations of F in drinking water. The significant positive correlation is identified between the F content of groundwater and urine fluorosis-affected children. The F level in urine suggests that a high level of endemic fluorosis is prevalent in the Nuzendla mandal due to the consequence of a higher concentration of F in underground aquifers. This study concludes that the high concentration of F in groundwater leads to increased dental deformities among the surveyed people and also urinary F is a good indicator of community exposure F.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82108",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82108",signatures:"Babu Rao Gudipudi",book:{id:"11209",type:"book",title:"Fluoride",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fluoride",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Enos Wamalwa Wambu, Dr. Grace J. Lagat and Dr. Kiplagat Ayabei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11209.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-643-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-642-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-644-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"187655",title:"Dr.",name:"Enos",middleName:"Wamalwa",surname:"Wambu",slug:"enos-wambu",fullName:"Enos Wambu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The study area",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Location and climate of the study area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Geology of the study area",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Hydrogeology of the study area",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.1 Methodology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.2 Field procedures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.3 Analytical techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.4 Hydrogeochemical facies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.5 Piper’s trilinear diagram",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.6 Dental survey",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.7 Urine sample collection and analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.1 Hydrogeochemical evolution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.2 Mechanisms controlling groundwater chemistry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.3 Human health survey",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.4 Community fluorosis index",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"6.5 Urine sample analysis survey",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Raju NJ, Dey S, Gossel W, Wycisk P. Fluoride hazard and assessment of groundwater quality in the semi-arid Upper Panda River basin, Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Hydrological Science Journal. 2012;57(7):1433-1452'},{id:"B2",body:'Varol M, Gokot B, Bekleyen A, Sen B. Geochemistry of Tigris River basin, Turkey; spatial and seasonal variations of major ion compositions and their controlling factors. Quaternary International. 2013;304:22-32'},{id:"B3",body:'Edmunds WM, Smudley PL. Fluoride in natural waters. In: Selius O, editor. Essentials of Medical Geology. London: Elsevier Academic Press; 2005. pp. 301-329'},{id:"B4",body:'Doull J, Boekelheide K, Farishia BG, Issackson RL, Klotz JB, Kumar JV. 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Trial of magnesium compounds in the prevention of skeletal fluorosis – An Experimental Study. Fluoride. 1985;18(3):135-140'},{id:"B34",body:'IPCS. Fluorides. Geneva, World Health Organization, International Programme on Chemical Safety (Environmental Health Criteria 227). 2002'},{id:"B35",body:'Jaganmohan P, Narayana SVL, Sambasiva R. Prevalence of high fluoride concentration in drinking water in Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh, India: A biochemical study to develop the relation to the renal failures. World Journal of Medical Sciences. 2010;5:45-48'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Babu Rao Gudipudi",address:"gudipudi.br@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Civil Engineering, Narasaraopeta Engineering College (Autonomous), Narasaraopet, Guntur, India
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"63707",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80780",title:"Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries",slug:"drinking-water-treatment-and-challenges-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:8044,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Safe drinking water remains inaccessible to many humans in the developing countries. Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"44219",doi:"10.5772/54973",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4117,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. Emdad Haque and M. Salim Uddin",authors:[{id:"163390",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Emdad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"c.-emdad-haque",fullName:"C. Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"59705",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74943",title:"Augmented Reality Trends in Education between 2016 and 2017 Years",slug:"augmented-reality-trends-in-education-between-2016-and-2017-years",totalDownloads:2502,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to review literature regarding using augmented reality (AR) in education articles published in between 2016 and 2017 years. The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. 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Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2308,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8287,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8818,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3365,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82949",title:"Corruption and Deterioration of Democracy: The Brazilian Lesson",slug:"corruption-and-deterioration-of-democracy-the-brazilian-lesson",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106194",abstract:"Although it has emerged, nationally and internationally, as one of the largest investigations against political corruption, Operation Car Wash—at its peak of popular prestige—cleared the path for the political rise of Jair Bolsonaro to the Presidency of the Republic of Brazil. And by doing so, to a certain extent, it paved the way for a set of arbitrary practices that today threaten and weaken the main Brazilian democratic institutions. Brazilian democracy today pays a high price for the Judiciary’s lethargic and condescending response to the unorthodox and illegal practices of Federal Judge Sérgio Moro during the golden years of Operation Car Wash (2014–2018). The lesson that the Brazilian episode brings to the international legal community is that the constant disrespect for the rules of due criminal procedure in large cases of corruption erodes the institutional bases that support the proper confrontation of this type of crime. The pertinent fight against corruption in a democracy can only take place in strict obedience to the law.",book:{id:"11772",title:"Corruption - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg"},signatures:"Fabio Roberto D’Avila and Theodoro Balducci de Oliveira"},{id:"82903",title:"Walking Accessibility to Primary Healthcare Services: An Inequity Factor for Olders in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (Portugal)",slug:"walking-accessibility-to-primary-healthcare-services-an-inequity-factor-for-olders-in-the-lisbon-met",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106265",abstract:"This chapter discusses the walking accessibility to primary healthcare by the olders in Lisbon Metropolitan Area (LMA), Portugal, and its contribution for age-friendly environments as a factor of inequity. Constrains emerged from the collation of the supply approach, represented by service catchment areas based on walking distance time, and the demand approach, through a survey. The location and density of primary health network are a major factor, as it is related to distinct land use patterns within the LMA. The settlement structure influences the potential walkability to primary healthcare. The discrepancy between the potential walking accessibility and the real options is notorious, as olders` choices are diversified in terms of transportation modes and destinations, but mostly keeping relatively short time distances. This phenomenon is also influenced by factors such as personal preference, difficulty to walk, negative perceptions about the surroundings, and insufficient care support. This debate is already an effective concern of local authorities with spatial planning, social and health competences, insofar as solutions in terms of service flexibility and new travel solutions adapted to the specific needs of the olders are a growing reality in the LMA, promoting more age-friendly, health, and inclusive environments, and hence an equitable metropolis.",book:{id:"11479",title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg"},signatures:"Eduarda Marques da Costa, Ana Louro, Nuno Marques da Costa, Mariana Dias and Marcela Barata"},{id:"82834",title:"Perspective Chapter: Social Work Education in University Curricula for Sustainable Development",slug:"perspective-chapter-social-work-education-in-university-curricula-for-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106246",abstract:"Universities of both global North and South have been changing from the traditional teaching-learning centers to cater to sustainability issues of those countries. Yet, there is a remarkable difference between the universities in the developed and the developing world. It has been found out that the different disciplines of university curricula can be integrated to address and minimize the adverse effects of unsustainability issues. The graduates of the universities will be the future leaders who have to cater to the needs and cope with the challenges of the next generation. There is a dearth of professional social workers to provide the necessary services as numerous catastrophes occur. The global society needs individuals who are equally sound in the knowledge of theory and the experience of practice. As the contemporary global issues become complex, the world needs competent social workers who can serve in different fields of practice. Social work could be the pivotal discipline in understanding common tragedies of the people to apply problem-solving model with the practitioners who are equipped with twenty-first century skills. Social work has to take a transition from a unidisciplinary to a multi- and trans-disciplinary perspective in achieving this objective.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Upul Lekamge"},{id:"82190",title:"Effects of the Changes of Curriculum on the Coverage of Environmental Content in Geography",slug:"effects-of-the-changes-of-curriculum-on-the-coverage-of-environmental-content-in-geography",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104988",abstract:"The South African education sector has experienced several shifts in the curriculum since 1994, thus affecting the coverage, teaching and examination of environmental impact topics in the South African Further Education and Training Phase (FET) phase. This chapter evaluates the effects of changes in curriculum on the coverage of education for sustainable development content in Geography. A qualitative research approach using an interpretative paradigm was employed in the documents used by Geography teachers in South Africa. The chapter used Margaret Archers, Realist Social Theory as a theoretical framework that guides data analysis and interpretation. Document analysis was the only method used where policy documents and examination papers were the instruments evaluated. The results show that environmental impact topics are covered in varying degrees in the South African CAPS curriculum. The level of coverage of environmental impact topics in the examination question papers fluctuates, sometimes to levels below those stipulated in the CAPS documents. The conclusion that can be reached is that the variable coverage of environmental impact topics in the examinations may have a negative effect on the way teachers address the topics of Geography. This resulted in an emergence of structural and cultural morphogenesis in the teaching of environmental content in Geography.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Sikhulile Bonginkosi Msezane"},{id:"82093",title:"Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Access to Education Among Early Childhood Education Learners with Disabilities in Africa During the COVID-19 Pandemic - Review of Available Literature",slug:"perspective-chapter-pedagogical-approaches-and-access-to-education-among-early-childhood-education-l",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104921",abstract:"The COVID 19 pandemic suddenly hit the world disrupting access to education especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, threatening the future of millions of learners. This chapter discusses the effects of COVID-19 on early childhood education (ECE) for learners with disabilities in Africa, focusing on three questions: (1) What pedagogical approaches were used to enable access to education among ECE learners with disabilities during the COVID 19 pandemic? (2) How was access to education for ECE learners with disabilities, and what challenges and opportunities were experienced? (3) How can access to quality and equitable learning for ECE learners with disabilities during the crisis be improved? Literature revealed that the pandemic aggravated the hardships in accessing learning programs among learners with disabilities widening the gap between them and their counterparts. Countries resorted to remote and digital pedagogical approaches to enable continuity of learning; however, many did not cater for learners with disabilities. Where disabilities were catered for, the reach and utilization were limited by lack of resources and capacity. Concerted efforts promoting effective inclusive learning are critical for the current and future pandemics. Barriers to provision of equitable education, and long-term effects of COVID 19 on in ECE learners with disabilities should be investigated.",book:{id:"10912",title:"Psychosocial, Educational, and Economic Impacts of COVID-19",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10912.jpg"},signatures:"Margaret Nampijja, Lillian Ayiro and Ruth Nalugya"},{id:"81560",title:"A Decision Support System for the Surgical Care during the Epidemic of Covid-19",slug:"a-decision-support-system-for-the-surgical-care-during-the-epidemic-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102654",abstract:"Faced with the Covid epidemic, the optimization of human resources and materials is necessary to be able to treat as many victims as possible and to save them so as much as possible. Schedules are usually faced with a situation where new measures related to Covid are considered. This leads to higher risks and complications, especially in the preoperative service. Adapt the organization’s surgical department for preserving their capacity and taking care of Covid and not Covid patients. To the best of our knowledge, the existing studies in the literature have treated the Covid scheduling task only on a service of the surgical process, mostly the preoperative service. In this study, we aim to design the keys of a new organization to preserve hospitalization capacities and ensure continuity of care, including all services of the surgery.",book:{id:"11233",title:"Health Promotion",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11233.jpg"},signatures:"Marwa Khalfalli and Jerome Verny"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:143},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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