These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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1. Introduction
One of the central component of terrestrial ecosystem is soil. Loss in ecosystem is a representation of the degradation of soil. The soil plays a key role in the health of ecosystem, however, over-exploitation of these ecosystem by humans causes considerable degradation and migration of contaminants. The use of land for agriculture occupies 36.5% of the earth’s land mass [1]. Though this human activities may be justified to provide greater benefit in other services termed development, but consistent degradation of this ecosystem and exposure of it to various contaminants is not in the best interest of the society and it is detrimental to the environment that sustains all life forms.
Soil conservation are various practices of farming operations and management strategies which are conducted with the purpose of controlling soil erosion by avoiding or minimizing soil particle detachment and movement of water or/and air. It also helps in preventing the loss of the top-most layer of the soil and fertility which could also be caused by soil contamination. Understanding the processes and factors that govern soil erosion is very important to implementing its control practice and will help to manage soil erosion thus leading to soil conservation. The mechanics involve fluid (wind/water) detachment or entrainment which is being accompanied by the transportation of soil particles and its subsequent deposition as soil sediments. Conservation approaches and management strategies that ensures these include crop rotation, cover cropping, planting windbreaks and conservation tillage, which have been harnessed for millennia. Soil conservation practices are said to be farming operations and soil management strategies carried out with the aim of achieving a goal which is to control soil erosion by preventing or reducing soil particle detachment and transport in air or water [2]. Soil conservation started with the aim to protect an ecology from agricultural production by making use of largely unproven technology that failed to adapt with the natural requirements of the land. The evolving land degradation trend could only be understood by determining if the causes were as a result of natural occurrences or by unwise use [3].
In Europe, Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is put in place in a bid to target the application of best management practices such as winter cover crops, reduced tillage, plant residues and grass margins in order to address conservation [4]. This traditional approaches which enhanced the productivity, environmental benefits and profits are based on procedures of no-tillage, and the broader concepts of agricultural conservation and land management sustainability. These concepts are one and not divided, but part of a continuous land management practices which range from detailed soil management practices such as zero-tillage, to the enhnaced concepts, principles and objectives of agricultural conservation and land management for sustainability.
2. Soil conservation methods
2.1 Cover cropping and mulching
This method is effective in reducing migration of top soil by leaving a cover over the soil in a bid to reduce soil displacement which is associated with the impacts from raindrops on the soil particles. Cover crops and mulching also reduces the amount of runoff and its velocity over the soil. Mulching, which is the application of organic materials over exposed soil to confer a form of covering to it over a period before decomposing. Straw can be used as mulch but hay is proven to be the best and it is important to ensure that it is harvested before the weeds mature. These crops are necessary to control erosion especially when the main crops planted do not give sufficient residue for more conventional residue management-based erosion control [5]. Where precipitation is adequate, cover crops like peas can help protect against wind erosion and also add nitrogen to the soil. The nitrogen released from the roots of these legumes are energy source for microbial metabolic activities hence such live mulch or cover crop give rise to an active microbial community in the rhizosphere soil.
2.2 Crop rotation
Crop rotation is an indigenous and practical way for managing agro-ecosystem biodiversity by enhancing soil health, minimizing pests and disease outbreaks [6]. This method enables farmers to improve the structure of the soil, increase the soil organic matter and rooting depth. This happens when secondary crops are grown in order to enhance soil health. As a result of the extensive shattering of soil aggregrates during seedbed preparation and harvesting, root crops are particularly destructive to the soil structure. Therefore, it is advised that root crops should be grown once in every three years. Corn can be grown in the following year with two years of silage followed in succession by three or more years of forage. Leguminous crops (such as pea and chickpea) during crop rotation helps in modifying soil functional microbial communities. In the rotation, cover cropping or mulching, and zero tillage should be incorporated too. Crop rotations can provide better opportunities for the growth of some soil functional microorganisms. This brings about rich biodiversity within the soil ecosystem as both the shallow feeding crops and deep rooted crops activates varying species of microorganismsper time thus creating a build up of microbes exhibiting varying characteristics to colonize the soil. Thus, different crops can produce various residues and root exudates to boost soil microbial diversity and activity, and increase soil microbial biomass as well as enhance C and N cycling [7, 8].
2.3 Conservation tillage
This method is aimed atpreserving soil aggregates, organic matter and crop residues [9, 10]. Conservation tillage include changes in making use of less destructive tillage implements (for instance, instead of using mouldboard plow, use chisel plow), minimum tillage (that is, one turn instead of two), leaving crop residue on the soil surface to prevent erosion. Plowing and tilling land for the preparation of the seed bed are basis of the traditional agricultural practices. However, these practices have been proven to be highly destructive to the soil with 24% of global agricultural land degraded as a result of this [11]. New approach which is centered on conserving and improving soil is gradually replacing soil tillage. The soil is typically inverted to a depth of less than 20 cm using mouldboard plow during conventional tillage system, however, in conservation tillage system, the soil is not disturbed or disturbed to a lesser degree [12]. This conservation method has shown to improve soil structure, reduce soil erosion, improve drainage and water holding capacity of the soil, increase soil organic matter and also increase microbial and earthworm activity [13].
2.4 Ridges, terraces and contours
The ridges are made across wind and they consist of tall listed seed beds that are being formed over the entire field or as trap strips which is in a position perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. The formation of an earthen embankment along a common elevation contour gives an elevated terrace structure that can directly reduce wind erosion by potential reduction in wind speed and interception of soil particles. Indirect wind erosion control benefits of terraces and the related contour tillage and cropping practices expand overall crop grain and residue productivity by controlling runoff for increased water storage in the soil [14]. The underlying layer of soil becomes relatively less disturbed by the action of erosion hence making room for an increased microbial population within the micro-climate.
2.5 Strip cropping/planting windbreaks
This is another method of conserving the soil and for controlling wind erosion. A windbreak serves as a barrier with the purpose of deflecting the flow of air and reducing leeward wind speed [15]. However, the availability of irrigation makes this conservation method useful in a difficult environment. The crops may be cultured in strips perpendicular to the prevailing wind where field orientation is not restricted as a means to reduce the near surface wind speed [16]. This practice is broadly accommodating of various width of crop strips depending on the crop tolerance to eroding soil or potential to trap soil grains. The interplay between erosivity and erodibility potential of soil determines the gradient of detachment experienced within varying soil types. This confers significance on the efficacy of windbreaks/strip crops to band soil particles together thereby curtailing dislodgement.
2.6 Residue management
This is the most preferred method for controlling wind erosion for most crops and climates [17]. It is made up of several tillage practices that maintain residue from a previously harvested crop as a surface cover to prevent soil erosion. Residue management also maintains mulches which may be standing or flat to intercept soil grains by trapping their movement [18]. Leaving the residue of the previous crop on the surface of the soil is beneficial in that it improves soil water storage regardless of the runoff controlling contours, it helps to increase rain infiltration and reduce evaporation from the soil. The micro-climate here is well adapted for microbial activities as there exists a steady retrieval of energy from the decomposing biomass of residues thereby giving rise to mineralization of organic compounds and disintegration of complex molecules.
3. Effects of agriculture on environmental health
Soil health is the innate potential of a soil to function within ecosystem boundaries (either natural or managed), sustain plant productivity, maintain water and air quality, support human well-being, and provide habitats for biodiversity [19, 20, 21]. Agricultural intensification is placing huge pressure on the soil’s potential to maintain its functions which is progressively leading to large-scale ecosystem degradation and loss of productivity in the long term [22, 23, 24]. Over a few decades, significant efforts have been made to enhance agricultural productivity through increased fertilization and pesticide application, improved irrigation, soil management regimes and crops, and massive land conversions [25]. However, there is a growing concern that the use of natural ecosystems for agricultural purposes has incurred substantial environmental costs, including desertification, increased emissions of greenhouse gasses, decreased organic matter in soils, loss of biodiversity, and alterations to biogeochemical and hydrological cycles [26, 27].
The quality of the soil, conversely, is an extrinsic feature of soils and changes with the desired usage of that soil by humans. This may be related to agricultural production and its capacity to support wildlife, watershed production, or recreation outputs provision. Some of the environmental challenges that are related to agriculture are expressed as pollutants, climate change, soil degradation, and deforestation [28].
3.1 Climate change
Climate is described as general or average weather conditions of a certain region, including temperature, rainfall and wind, over a long period. Climate change has direct and indirect effect in speeding up or slowing down terrestrial microbial community composition and their functional activities. Climatic change alters the relative population of microorganisms and their functions within soil communities since soil community members differ in their physiology, temperature sensitivity, and growth rates [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. The direct effects of climatic change on microbial population, composition and function have been reviewed extensively [35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. Temperature and water are essential environmental factors for microbial growth. Increased temperature alters microbial community structures and processes such as respiration, fermentation and methanogenesis are also accelerated. This directly affects enzyme activity and microbial physiological property. Both agriculture and climate change are interrelated processes, of which they both take place on a global scale. Climate change impacts microbial community structure and activities both directly, through alteration of the soil chemical and physical environment, and indirectly through changes in land use. Environmental changes such as global warming are directly altering microbial soil respiration rates because soil microorganisms, and the processes they mediate, are temperature sensitive. The role of the prevailing changing climate, visibly expressed with elevated temperature, in microbial metabolism has been accorded considerable attention of recent [40, 41, 42, 43]. This stresses the effects of climatic changes on soil microorganisms which are essential components in the ecosystem since they play a key role in maintaining soil health through ecological intensification.
3.2 Deforestation
Deforestation is a major driver of climate change and cause of the loss of habitat for millions of species. The soil is the basis for agriculture, natural plant communities and natural climate regulation, with 75% organic carbon stored in terrestrial habitat [44, 45, 46]. Vegetation has extensive contribution in sustaining ecosystem services of both surface and subsurface soil. Deforestation exacerbates climate change in that trees are completely or selectively removed to create farmland. Land use changes have several undesirable consequences, with significant effect on radical losses in soil fertility, soil carbon and nitrogen stocks have been recorded in the first 20–25 years after deforestation [47, 48].
3.3 Pollutants
Synthetic pesticides are the most common and widely use method of controlling pests in agriculture. A large number of agricultural chemicals (such as fertilizer, pesticides, etc.) are used and some become pollutants through their use, misuse or ignorance hence leaching through the soil to pollute the groundwater. Soil erosion has been instrumental in the horizontal and vertical movement of these pollutants (earlier bonded with soil particles but displaced) from agricultural fields to other places, especially water bodies (both surface and underground). Consequently, pollutants from agricultural fields do have large effect on the quality of water. Poorly managed animal feeding operations, overgrazing, heavy use of fertilizers, plowing, and improper, heavy use, or wrongly timed use of pesticides, causes pollution. These pollutants find their ways through the soil profile and across the gradient of slope hence affecting rivers, groundwater, wetlands, lakes, and estuaries [28] through continued deposition over a long period. In the same vein, untreated industrial pollutants discharged from the industries and factories have prevalent toxic concentration. Oftentimes, these wastes are discharged into the water body and affect aquatic cultures as well as flora and fauna life cycles. Usage of unsuitable contaminated water and the discharge of untreated industrial wastewater into water bodies form a main source of water pollution. Soil pollution occurs due to untreated disposal of industrial wastes (laden with high toxic contaminants) into soil. Wastes from industries have varying amount of toxic chemicals such that when deposited in soil, they cause the soil layer strength in the top soil to deteriorate, thus reducing fertility and microbial activity of the soil. In addition, the hazardous effect of these pollutants leads to ecological imbalances within the soil ecosystem.
3.4 Soil degradation
Soil degradation is the decrease in the quality of soil that can be as a result of many factors, most especially from agriculture. Soils hold the majority of the world’s biodiversity, and healthy soils are essential for food production and adequate water supply [49]. Soil degradation shows expression in salting, waterlogging, compaction, pesticide contamination, decline in soil structure, loss of fertility, increase in soil acidity, alkalinity, salinity, and prevalence of erosion. Soil erosion is the wearing away of topsoil by water, wind, or farming activities [50]. At the same time, agriculture has been shown to contribute significantly to degradation, mainly through the continued dependence and improper use of inorganic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, etc., which culminates in production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Moreover, agriculture that practices conventional practices such as tillage, fertilization, and pesticide application also release ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus, and many other gases that pollute the air, water, and soil quality, as well as biodiversity. Agriculture also changes the land cover of the Earth, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, hence contributing to radiative forcing. Soil degradation also has a large impact on biological degradation, which influence the microbial community of the soil negatively and alters nutrient cycling, pest and disease control, and chemical transformation properties of the soil.
4. Effects of microbial activities on soil contaminants
By 2050, it is projected that the world population will increase to 8.9 billion people and this will lead to higher demand for agricultural produce [51]. In the future, the high demand of food and shortage of new agricultural land development will require increasing crop yields making use of sustainable means. Improvement of soil conservation increases soil organic matter and reduces erosion in other to have a sustainable agricultural land management and improved soil health [52]. Assessment of soil is based on the quality of soil variables that guarantee crop production sustainability in agricultural lands [19, 53]. Soil biota components such as microbial community, activity, abundance, stability and diversity which are improved by soil conservation have been discussed in several studies to be important indicators of soil quality [19, 54]. The rhizosphere of the plant is the narrow zone of the soil that is closed to the root system and sustains the production of crops with agrochemical inputs level that is balance or minimized [55]. Rhizoremediation of organic pollutants [8] and organic compounds creates nutrient-rich environment that influence microbial communities and the degradation of organic contaminants [56]. Soil biota plays a great role in residues of plant mineralization to form plants nutrients which can be easily absorbed by the plants for their growth and development [57]. Also, soil biota increases the rate of decomposition by excreting different enzymes that support plants’s nutrients kinetics in the soil [58]. Microorganisms in the soil especially bacteria and fungi, transforms N between organic and inorganic forms which improves plant minerals uptake [59]. Microbial communities support the fundamental processes that provide productivity and stability of agroecosystems [60].
Soil conservation activities such as cover crops and minimum tillage as earlier mentioned can favorably improve soil health by increasing the number of soil organisms that break down organic matter, and in the process, release nutrients for the plant uptake. This soil organism breaks organic soil contaminants and several factors can interfere with the soil–microbe–plant complex hence influencing its functionality. Soil type [61], organic carbon level [60], temperature and moisture [62], oxygen level [63], electrical conductivity, calcium level and pH [64] are all factors that can change the composition and functionality of soil microbial communities. Of the soil macrofauna, earthworms are a major component and are very important in the soil fertility dynamics as their burrowing activities helps in improving the soil aeration and infiltration of water into the soil. The population of earthworm is influenced by soil conservation. [65, 66] discussed how minimum tillage which is part of soil conservation affects the population of earthworm. The increase of earthworms could encourage biological-remediation of contaminated soil known as vermiremediation [67]; soils contaminated with metallic contaminants [68] and organic pollutants and some chlorinated compounds inclusive [69]. The earthworms makes holes through the soil, mix the soil, affects its structure, and alters its nutritional profile and fungal and bacterial communities [70].
Fungi are chemoorganotrophic organism that are present everywhere and plays fundamental roles in geological and ecological processes [71, 72]. They can transform a large varieties of organic substrates, in addition with natural polymers not only lignin, cellulose, starch and chitin, but also other anthropogenic products such as explosives, pesticides and other xenobiotics [73, 74]. Mycoremediation, that is, the use of fungi to remove soil contaminant, has emerged as one of the most promising and cost-effective soil remediation techniques [75, 76, 77, 78, 79]. Bacterial genera, namely, Gordonia, Brevibacterium, Aeromicrobium, Dietzia, Burkholderia, and Mycobacterium, Fungal genera, namely, Amorphoteca, Neosartorya, Talaromyces, and Graphium as well as terrestrial fungi, namely, Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, and Penicillium and yeast genera, namely, Candida, Yarrowia, and Pichia which were isolated from soil that has been contaminated by petroleum proved to be organisms that has the potential for degrading hydrocarbon while yeast species, namely, Candida lipolytica, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Geotrichum spp., and Trichosporon mucoides isolated from water that has been contaminated were discovered to degrade petroleum compounds [80, 81, 82]. When soil microorganism is improved by soil conservation, mycoremediation will be facilitated in order to remove soil contaminant. For instance, fungi is a potential approach for specific site Arsenic bioremediation [78, 79]. This adaptation of fungi towards soil that has been contaminated could be the high surface area to volume ratio and their various detoxification of metal mechanisms [83].
The physical and chemical properties of the soil significantly influence the soil fungal community structure and this is determined by agricultural practices [84, 85]. Increase in fungal biomass and bacterial is termed as changes in soil microbial communities and it has been observed in zero tillage than in conventional tillage practices [86]. Various land management practices has been examined to increase fungal biomass in the soil. Total fungal hyphal biomass and fungal propagules were discovered to be more in soil collected from organically managed agricultural systems [87, 88, 89]. The density of fungi in soil were found to be affected by crop rotation, animal grazing and soil tillage [90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98].
5. Conclusion
The type of land management practices in agroecosystems as an impacts on the structure of microbial community and function through a variety of different mechanisms. Land-use changes also impact on soil microbial community structure through alterations in carbon availability and quality, pH and nutrient availability. Since the ratio of fungal population to bacterial population are commonly measured as indicators of microbial community structure, and the relative proportions of fungi are increased by no-till practices, crop rotations, and use of cover crops, thus biological mechanisms are regulating carbon and nitrogen exchanges between the land, water and atmosphere. This reveals the importance of soil management and conservation approach in enhancing microbial activity for soil ecological intensification as well as buffering the soil to neutralize contaminants. Albeit, microbial ecology to assess terrestrial carbon cycle plays a crucial role in maintaining balance within the ecosystem.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"degradation, land-use, ecology, biodiversity, soil conservation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74269.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74269.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74269",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74269",totalDownloads:670,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 12th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 1st 2020",datePublished:"June 23rd 2021",dateFinished:"December 1st 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter mainstreamed Soil Management and Conservation approach as a potent remedy for Soil Contamination. Largely, microbial activities play significant role in maintaining balance within the ecosystem however changes in Land-use has a direct influence on soil biota, including the floral and fauna components. The introduction of contaminants, from varying sources such as agrochemicals, petrochemicals, landfills, sludge, effluents, etc., into the soil builds up the amount of heavy metals present in the deposits hence degrading the soil and polluting groundwater. Integrating soil management options to enhance biodiversity and strengthen microbial activities improve the soil ecology thus creating a buffer for neutralizing potential contaminants.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74269",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74269",signatures:"Oluwatosin Ayobami Ogunsola, Odunayo David Adeniyi and Victoria Abimbola Adedokun",book:{id:"9843",type:"book",title:"Soil Contamination",subtitle:"Threats and Sustainable Solutions",fullTitle:"Soil Contamination - Threats and Sustainable Solutions",slug:"soil-contamination-threats-and-sustainable-solutions",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2021",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9843.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-754-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-753-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-758-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"327067",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Oluwatosin",middleName:null,surname:"Ogunsola",fullName:"Oluwatosin Ogunsola",slug:"oluwatosin-ogunsola",email:"oluwatosinogunsola8@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"333455",title:"MSc.",name:"Odunayo",middleName:null,surname:"Adeniyi",fullName:"Odunayo Adeniyi",slug:"odunayo-adeniyi",email:"odunayodavid.adeniyi01@universitadipavia.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"333467",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Victoria",middleName:"Abimbola",surname:"Adedokun",fullName:"Victoria Adedokun",slug:"victoria-adedokun",email:"victoriaabimbola28@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Ibadan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Soil conservation methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Cover cropping and mulching",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Crop rotation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Conservation tillage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Ridges, terraces and contours",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Strip cropping/planting windbreaks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Residue management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Effects of agriculture on environmental health",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1 Climate change",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2 Deforestation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3 Pollutants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4 Soil degradation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Effects of microbial activities on soil contaminants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'FAOSTAT. (2008). Fact sheet. 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Generally, harvested fruits are used for fresh consumption or are processed (mainly to produce juices). In this chapter, the authors discuss the state of art on citrus postharvest with a scientific approach, evaluating the current knowledge about the physiology and pathology of citrus fruits and the main causes of deterioration. In addition, the authors explain the main facilities for the cold storage of citrus fruit with particular reference to the rapid-cooling techniques and treatments needed prior to shipment of citrus fruits (refer shipment). In the last part of the chapter, the non-destructive methods for the quality evaluation are presented.",book:{id:"5606",slug:"citrus-pathology",title:"Citrus Pathology",fullTitle:"Citrus Pathology"},signatures:"Maria C. Strano, Giuseppe Altieri, Naouel Admane, Francesco\nGenovese and Giovanni C. 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The tobamoviruses are highly stable plant viruses that could cause severe disease symptoms. The well-known tobamovirus Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV) has recently caused severe damages in the cucumber, melon, and watermelon cucurbitaceous crops, worldwide. Similarly, a recent widespread of the newly identified tobamoviruses, Tomato mottle mosaic virus (ToMMV) and Tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV), has reduced the solanaceous crop production. The primary route of tobamoviral infection is through mechanical means. These viruses adhere to agricultural facilities, contaminate the soil, infect seeds, and spread via beneficial pollinators and irrigation water. Mechanical plant injury suffices to initiate viral infection. Practicing hygiene by plant growers and in nurseries is currently the main strategy for mitigation of tobamoviral infection. Promoting the production of solanaceous vegetable crops genetically resistant to ToMMV and ToBRFV infection is a promising approach. However, CGMMV-resistant sources of cucurbitaceous vegetable crops are scarce. Conferring resistance to rootstocks and cross-protection strategies are newly implemented approaches that could alleviate tobamovirus disease spread in both solanaceous and cucurbitaceous crops.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Elisheva Smith and Aviv Dombrovsky",authors:null},{id:"68107",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87958",title:"Plant Metabolites in Plant Defense Against Pathogens",slug:"plant-metabolites-in-plant-defense-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:1314,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Medicinal plants are widely used worldwide to treat various diseases. Its widespread use is due in part to the cultural acceptance of traditional medicine in different regions of the world, as well as its effectiveness in treating various diseases. Many of its active substances or secondary metabolites are formed to a response of various situations that generate stress in their habitat, such as sudden changes in environmental temperature, humidity, rain, drought, and infections by phytopathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, protozoa). The production of these secondary metabolites is a mechanism of defense of plants. In this context, the objective of this chapter is to study the secondary metabolites of medicinal plants that could have a promising application in the control of different phytopathogens in crops of agricultural and economic interest.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Xóchitl S. 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Currently, it is the most important peanut disease in Argentina, not only for its destructive power on crop but also for its quick spread throughout the growing region of Córdoba and the lack of effective tools for its management. It is important for additional research to find effective agronomical practice that reaches high control efficiencies. The collaboration of all those involved in Argentinian peanut production systems is necessary for the management of peanut smut to be successful.",book:{id:"6642",slug:"advances-in-plant-pathology",title:"Advances in Plant Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Plant Pathology"},signatures:"Luis Ignacio Cazón, Juan Andrés Paredes and Alejandro Mario Rago",authors:[{id:"232647",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Luis Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Cazón",slug:"luis-ignacio-cazon",fullName:"Luis Ignacio Cazón"},{id:"240515",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Andrés",middleName:null,surname:"Paredes",slug:"juan-andres-paredes",fullName:"Juan Andrés Paredes"},{id:"240517",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Rago",slug:"alejandro-mario-rago",fullName:"Alejandro Mario Rago"}]},{id:"67930",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87055",title:"Impact of Climate Change on Plant Diseases and IPM Strategies",slug:"impact-of-climate-change-on-plant-diseases-and-ipm-strategies",totalDownloads:1866,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"There has been a remarkable scientific output on the topic of how climate change is likely to affect plant diseases. Climate change influences the occurrence, prevalence, and severity of plant diseases. Projected atmospheric and climate change will thus affect the interaction between crops and pathogens in multiple ways. This will also affect disease management with regard to timing, preference, and efficacy of chemical, physical, and biological measures of control and their utilization within integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. Prediction of future requirements in disease management is of great interest for agro-industries, extension services, and practical farmers. A comprehensive analysis of potential climate change effects on disease control is difficult because current knowledge is limited and fragmented and due to the complexity of future risks for plant disease management, particularly if new crops are introduced in an area. Uncertainty in models of plant disease development under climate change calls for a diversity of management strategies, from more participatory approaches to interdisciplinary science. Involvement of stakeholders and scientists from outside plant pathology shows the importance of trade-offs. All these efforts and integrations will produce effective crop protection strategies using novel technologies as appropriate tools to adapt to altered climatic conditions.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Sahar Abdou Zayan",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53686",title:"Major and Emerging Fungal Diseases of Citrus in the Mediterranean Region",slug:"major-and-emerging-fungal-diseases-of-citrus-in-the-mediterranean-region",totalDownloads:3118,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"This chapter deals with major endemic and emerging fungal diseases of citrus as well as with exotic fungal pathogens potentially harmful for citrus industry in the Mediterranean region, with particular emphasis on diseases reported in Italy and Maghreb countries. The aim is to provide an update of both the taxonomy of the causal agents and their ecology based on a molecular approach, as a preliminary step towards developing or upgrading integrated and sustainable disease management strategies. Potential or actual problems related to the intensification of new plantings, introduction of new citrus cultivars and substitution of sour orange with other rootstocks, globalization of commerce and climate changes are discussed. Fungal pathogens causing vascular, foliar, fruit, trunk and root diseases in commercial citrus orchards are reported, including Plenodomus tracheiphilus, Colletotrichum spp., Alternaria spp., Mycosphaerellaceae, Botryosphaeriaceae, Guignardia citricarpa and lignicolous basidiomycetes. Diseases caused by Phytophthora spp. (oomycetes) are also included as these pathogens have many biological, ecological and epidemiological features in common with the true fungi (eumycetes).",book:{id:"5606",slug:"citrus-pathology",title:"Citrus Pathology",fullTitle:"Citrus Pathology"},signatures:"Khaled Khanchouch, Antonella Pane, Ali Chriki and Santa Olga\nCacciola",authors:[{id:"193916",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"Khanchouch",slug:"khaled-khanchouch",fullName:"Khaled Khanchouch"},{id:"193918",title:"Dr.",name:"Santa Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Cacciola",slug:"santa-olga-cacciola",fullName:"Santa Olga Cacciola"},{id:"196942",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Pane",slug:"antonella-pane",fullName:"Antonella Pane"},{id:"196943",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Chriki",slug:"ali-chriki",fullName:"Ali Chriki"}]},{id:"67930",title:"Impact of Climate Change on Plant Diseases and IPM Strategies",slug:"impact-of-climate-change-on-plant-diseases-and-ipm-strategies",totalDownloads:1852,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"There has been a remarkable scientific output on the topic of how climate change is likely to affect plant diseases. Climate change influences the occurrence, prevalence, and severity of plant diseases. Projected atmospheric and climate change will thus affect the interaction between crops and pathogens in multiple ways. This will also affect disease management with regard to timing, preference, and efficacy of chemical, physical, and biological measures of control and their utilization within integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. Prediction of future requirements in disease management is of great interest for agro-industries, extension services, and practical farmers. A comprehensive analysis of potential climate change effects on disease control is difficult because current knowledge is limited and fragmented and due to the complexity of future risks for plant disease management, particularly if new crops are introduced in an area. Uncertainty in models of plant disease development under climate change calls for a diversity of management strategies, from more participatory approaches to interdisciplinary science. Involvement of stakeholders and scientists from outside plant pathology shows the importance of trade-offs. All these efforts and integrations will produce effective crop protection strategies using novel technologies as appropriate tools to adapt to altered climatic conditions.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Sahar Abdou Zayan",authors:null},{id:"74757",title:"The Trends in the Evaluation of Fusarium Wilt of Chickpea",slug:"the-trends-in-the-evaluation-of-fusarium-wilt-of-chickpea",totalDownloads:678,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the important annual legume crops, cultivated throughout the India since ancient time. It is also grown in many countries of the world. The crop has been facing numerous biotic and abiotic constraints. Among biotic constraint crop affected adversely by diseases, caused by many pathogens. Ever since 1918 when for the first time wilt disease of chickpea was reported and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri was the causal organism many strategies have been adopted to control the wilt disease. The controlling methods included conventional as well as modern one. However, more and more emphasis was given on biological control agents such as AM fungi and Trichoderma. The role of AM fungi have been evaluated for controlling the wilt disease similarly role of Trichoderma is thoroughly established biological control agent against Fusarium wilt. With the advent of modern tools and techniques developing markers, resistant varieties, all such sources enable us to reduce the effect of pathogens. Here an attempted has been made to acknowledge the trend of disease management and evaluation strategies of Fusarium wilt of chickpea for getting better yields of the crop.",book:{id:"10113",slug:"diagnostics-of-plant-diseases",title:"Diagnostics of Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Diagnostics of Plant Diseases"},signatures:"Chandan Singh and Deepak Vyas",authors:[{id:"315463",title:"Mr.",name:"Chandan",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"chandan-singh",fullName:"Chandan Singh"},{id:"338974",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak",middleName:null,surname:"Vyas",slug:"deepak-vyas",fullName:"Deepak Vyas"}]},{id:"60615",title:"Leaf Curl Disease: A Significant Constraint in the Production of Tomato in India",slug:"leaf-curl-disease-a-significant-constraint-in-the-production-of-tomato-in-india",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is one of the most economically important vegetable crops in the world. Among the major biotic constraints, virus-associated Tomato leaf curl disease (ToLCD) is a major limiting factor affecting its cultivation and yield. Different symptoms associated with disease are reported such as leaf curling, puckering of leaves, vein yellowing, stunting, excessive branching, from pale yellowing to deep yellowing, and small leaves. The genus Begomovirus is a circular single-stranded DNA virus which is exclusively being transmitted by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) in a persistent circulative manner. Most of the begomovirus species are monopartite (having DNA-A molecule only), except few species, which are bipartite (having DNA-A and DNA-B as the genomic component). No absolute effective control measures of the disease could be developed so far, except resistance, management of insect vectors, and altering the dates of sowing to avoid peaks of insect vector population. This chapter reports an account of history, symptoms, transmission, genome organization, distribution, and management of Tomato leaf curl disease.",book:{id:"6642",slug:"advances-in-plant-pathology",title:"Advances in Plant Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Plant Pathology"},signatures:"Pradeep Kumar and Manish Kumar",authors:[{id:"234558",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"manish-kumar",fullName:"Manish Kumar"},{id:"239750",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pradeep",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"pradeep-kumar",fullName:"Pradeep Kumar"}]},{id:"68015",title:"Sisal Bole Rot: An Important but Neglected Disease",slug:"sisal-bole-rot-an-important-but-neglected-disease",totalDownloads:909,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Sisal (Agave sisalana) is one of the main sources of hard natural fibre and raw materials for the industry, medicine and handicrafts. Sisal yields a coarse and strong fibre that is increasingly being used in composite materials for automobiles, furniture, construction and plastic and paper products. Extracts of sisal contain substances with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anthelmintic activities. Sisal is adapted to warm environments with low rainfall and is an excellent option for cultivation in semiarid conditions, where other crops cannot be grown. The world’s largest sisal producers are Brazil, Tanzania, China, Kenya and Madagascar. Sisal is a labour-intensive crop with great socio-economical importance as it is cultivated in poor areas employing familiar labour. Sisal bole rot is the main disease of sisal, responsible for substantial losses in producing countries. The disease is caused by certain species of the genus Aspergillus, especially the ones belonging in the section Nigri. The main symptoms are yellowing of the aerial parts and the red-coloured rot of the bole, which causes the plant to die. In this review we are going to address the taxonomy of the causal agents, disease diagnosis and epidemiology and disease management, with emphasis on biological control.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Valter Cruz-Magalhães, Jackeline Pereira Andrade, Yasmim Freitas Figueiredo, Phellippe Arthur Santos Marbach and Jorge Teodoro de Souza",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"367",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"81920",title:"Rethinking an Approach for Sustainable Globalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105141",signatures:"Parakram Pyakurel",slug:"rethinking-an-approach-for-sustainable-globalization",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81297",title:"Legumes Cropping and Nitrogen Fixation under Mediterranean Climate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104473",signatures:"Fernando Teixeira",slug:"legumes-cropping-and-nitrogen-fixation-under-mediterranean-climate",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:40,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104641",signatures:"Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Marcela Solis-Quinteros, Maria Esther Ibarra-Estrada and Angel Ernesto Jimenez-Bernardino",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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