\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8166",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Receptors P1 and P2 as Targets for Drug Therapy in Humans",title:"Receptors P1 and P2 as Targets for Drug Therapy in Humans",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book aims to provide a brief update on the functions of purinergic receptors in various systems, in addition to the signaling pathway activated to mediate these functions. We address the influence of hypoxia by modulating the activity of these receptors under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Additionally, we describe the mechanisms of induction of pain and inflammation in different systems. Finally, the book discusses some of the main bioinformatics tools currently used to improve or discover new prototypes capable of selectively acting on these receptors with estimated parameters of satisfactory solubility and toxicity for possible commercial implementation.",isbn:"978-1-78984-535-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-534-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-078-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78115",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"receptors-p1-and-p2-as-targets-for-drug-therapy-in-humans",numberOfPages:110,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"546c9abc8145b3a3ecf13557a03f7590",bookSignature:"Robson Faria",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8166.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3829,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 8th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 29th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 28th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",biography:"Robson Faria received his degree in Biological Sciences (2001) from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, and M.Sc. (2003) and D.Sc. (2006) from the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation’s Cellular\nand Molecular Biology program. He has been a Public Health Researcher at the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation since 2007. During the past 15 years, Dr. Robson has been working with the purinergic receptors, especially P2X7R, and the action of synthetic molecules and derivatives of natural products to discover new prototypes capable of treating neglected diseases.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1115",title:"Neuropharmacology",slug:"neuropharmacology"}],chapters:[{id:"70016",title:"Introductory Chapter: Receptors P1 and P2 as Targets for Drug Therapy in Humans",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90040",slug:"introductory-chapter-receptors-p1-and-p2-as-targets-for-drug-therapy-in-humans",totalDownloads:525,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Robson Faria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70016",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70016",authors:[{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria"}],corrections:null},{id:"68764",title:"Functions of Purinergic Receptors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88251",slug:"functions-of-purinergic-receptors",totalDownloads:959,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Purinergic receptors, also known as purinoceptors, are a family of plasma membrane molecules found in many mammalian tissues. Purinergic receptors are transmembrane receptors consisting of two main categories. P1 receptors are stimulated by adenosine. Those that respond to extracellular nucleotides (ATP, ADP, UTP and UDP) are P2 receptors. The P2X receptors are ligand-gated ion channels. The P1 and P2Y receptors are bound to the G protein. Both of these metabotropic receptors are distinguished by taking into account their reactivity to specific activators. P1 and P2Y receptors are widely distributed in the brain, heart, kidneys and adipose tissue.",signatures:"Eren Sarikaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68764",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68764",authors:[{id:"282595",title:"Dr.",name:"Eren",surname:"Sarikaya",slug:"eren-sarikaya",fullName:"Eren Sarikaya"}],corrections:null},{id:"70276",title:"Purinergic Signaling and Dental Orofacial Pain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87181",slug:"purinergic-signaling-and-dental-orofacial-pain",totalDownloads:691,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pain is a common complaint of patients in the dental clinic. Patient with dental orofacial pain usually presents with hyperalgesia and allodynia. Its management has been a challenge, especially in the status of chronic pain or neuropathic pain. Purinergic signaling is dictated by ATP release, purinergic receptors activation, and sequential hydrolysis of ATP. Purinergic signaling participates in nociception processing in the sensory nerves by control of pain signal transduction, modulation, and sensitization. Since purinergic receptors are preferentially expressed in trigeminal nerves, purinergic singling may play a crucial role in the development of dental orofacial pain. In this chapter, we overview the expressions of purinergic receptors as well as the machinery for ATP release, ATP degradations, and adenosine generation in trigeminal nerves. Specifically, the roles of ATP signaling in dental orofacial pain generation and central sensitization via activation of P2 receptors and adenosine signaling in analgesia via activation of P1 receptors in trigeminal nerves are updated. We also discuss the affection of ecto-nucleotidases, the major enzymes responsible for extracellular ATP degradation and adenosine generation in trigeminal nerves that drive the shift from ATP-induced pain to adenosine-induced analgesia. This chapter provides advanced outlines for purinergic signaling in trigeminal nerves and unveils potential therapeutic targets for the management of dental orofacial pain.",signatures:"Xiuxin Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70276",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70276",authors:[{id:"285716",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiuxin",surname:"Liu",slug:"xiuxin-liu",fullName:"Xiuxin Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"67255",title:"The Role of Purinergic Signaling in the Pathophysiology of Perinatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86425",slug:"the-role-of-purinergic-signaling-in-the-pathophysiology-of-perinatal-hypoxic-ischemic-encephalopathy",totalDownloads:854,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Perinatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), known as birth asphyxia, remains a major contributor to poor neurodevelopmental outcomes including cerebral palsy and seizures. One striking feature of HIE injury is a delayed progression of neuronal degeneration that spreads over time from the most severely damaged areas outward into neighboring undamaged regions. There is increasing evidence that these lesions act as sites of origin for waves of spreading depression (SD), a wave of neuronal and glial depolarization, that progressively enlarge the brain lesions. While the pathophysiology of SD is still under debate, there is increasing evidence that purinergic receptors in conjunction with connexin and pannexin 1 channels are necessary for sustained propagation of the waves and neuroinflammation. This review intends to discuss the relative contribution of purinergic signaling and connexin and pannexin 1 channels to trigger and spread SD waves leading to the development of progressive brain lesions under conditions of perinatal HIE.",signatures:"Tagore M. Morais-Lima, Joana C. Vicentini, Anael V.P. Alberto, Pedro H.M. de Freitas, Caio M. Perret, Natiele C. da Silva Ferreira, Deepaneeta Sarmah, Bharati Sinha, Gopika Das, Pallab Bhattacharya, Xin Wang, Luiz A. Alves and Renato Rozental",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67255",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67255",authors:[{id:"29743",title:"Prof.",name:"Xin",surname:"Wang",slug:"xin-wang",fullName:"Xin Wang"},{id:"76663",title:"Prof.",name:"Luiz A.",surname:"Alves",slug:"luiz-a.-alves",fullName:"Luiz A. Alves"},{id:"288865",title:"M.D.",name:"Renato",surname:"Rozental",slug:"renato-rozental",fullName:"Renato Rozental"},{id:"292694",title:"Dr.",name:"Anael V.P.",surname:"Alberto",slug:"anael-v.p.-alberto",fullName:"Anael V.P. Alberto"},{id:"297140",title:"BSc.",name:"Caio M.",surname:"Perret",slug:"caio-m.-perret",fullName:"Caio M. Perret"},{id:"297141",title:"BSc.",name:"Tagore M.",surname:"Morais-Lima",slug:"tagore-m.-morais-lima",fullName:"Tagore M. Morais-Lima"},{id:"297142",title:"BSc.",name:"Joana C.",surname:"Vicentini",slug:"joana-c.-vicentini",fullName:"Joana C. Vicentini"},{id:"297145",title:"Dr.",name:"Natiele C.",surname:"da Silva Ferreira",slug:"natiele-c.-da-silva-ferreira",fullName:"Natiele C. da Silva Ferreira"},{id:"297147",title:"Dr.",name:"Pallab",surname:"Bhattacharya",slug:"pallab-bhattacharya",fullName:"Pallab Bhattacharya"},{id:"297148",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepaneeta",surname:"Sarmah",slug:"deepaneeta-sarmah",fullName:"Deepaneeta Sarmah"},{id:"297149",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopika",surname:"Das",slug:"gopika-das",fullName:"Gopika Das"},{id:"297150",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharati",surname:"Sinha",slug:"bharati-sinha",fullName:"Bharati Sinha"},{id:"297151",title:"BSc.",name:"Pedro H.M.",surname:"de Freitas",slug:"pedro-h.m.-de-freitas",fullName:"Pedro H.M. de Freitas"}],corrections:null},{id:"67707",title:"A Brief View of Molecular Modeling Approaches to P2 Receptors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86862",slug:"a-brief-view-of-molecular-modeling-approaches-to-p2-receptors",totalDownloads:801,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Purinergic receptors are a class of receptors distributed into two groups, P1 and P2. P1 receptors are activated by nucleosides, like adenosine, while nucleotides active P2 receptors. In turn, P2 receptors comprise two families, metabotropic P2Y and ionotropic P2X. P2Y receptors consist in eight members, namely, P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, P2Y11, P2Y12, P2Y13, and P2Y14, described in mammals, while P2X includes seven members, numbered P2X1 to P2X7. These receptors have been described as expressed in practically all cells studied to date. In this context, P2 receptors are suggested as participating in certain diseases. The general approach applied in the discovery of new drugs is expensive and lengthy. Alternatively, in the last 20 years, molecular modeling has emerged as an exciting tool for the design of new drugs, in less time and at low costs. These tools allow for in silico testing of thousands of molecules against a target protein, as well as toxicity, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and constant affinity predictions of a given interaction. Thus, molecular modeling algorithms emerge as an increasingly important tool for the design of drugs targeting purinergic receptors as therapeutic targets of many diseases, including cancer, pain, inflammation, cardiovascular, and endocrine conditions.",signatures:"Anael V.P. Alberto, Lucianna H.S. Santos, Rafael Ferreira, Dinarte N.M. Ferreira and Luiz A. Alves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67707",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67707",authors:[{id:"76663",title:"Prof.",name:"Luiz A.",surname:"Alves",slug:"luiz-a.-alves",fullName:"Luiz A. Alves"},{id:"292694",title:"Dr.",name:"Anael V.P.",surname:"Alberto",slug:"anael-v.p.-alberto",fullName:"Anael V.P. Alberto"},{id:"296973",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"rafael-ferreira",fullName:"Rafael Ferreira"},{id:"296974",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucianna H.S.",surname:"Santos",slug:"lucianna-h.s.-santos",fullName:"Lucianna H.S. Santos"},{id:"296975",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinarte",surname:"N.M. 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People have always migrated and have moved, but, specifically looking at the last three hundred years, involuntary migration is on the rise. Involuntary migration does not only affect Europe; Asia, Africa, and North as well as South America, have had their fair share of natural catastrophes, invasions, and wars.
\r\n\tThis book will intend to look at different migrant patterns, voluntary and involuntary migration, over the last three centuries. What influenced people to leave their home countries, family, and friends and settle somewhere else? The book may include histories of the 19th century, consider tragedies and movements activated by political events in the 20th century, and/or look at recent events of the 21st century. Push and pull factors are important points. While most of us may be influenced in a negative way by the current happenings in Eastern Europe, the Russian invasion and resulting tragedies also demonstrate some very positive human traits – the preparedness of Ukraine’s surrounding countries to help those in need and to provide a safe place for the present.
\r\n\tWhether one looks at voluntary or involuntary migration into any country, after a period of adjustment, migrants do play a positive role. The research found that migrants contribute to the economy (food, shelter, employment, tax) and enrich a country’s cultural norms. Prerequisites for successful settlements are that the host society adopts a tolerant approach and that the migrants recognize the law and the language of the host country. Nothing is ever easy or without controversy, but I am a migrant (German Australian), and life in Australia has been relatively harmonious. Issues that could be considered in the book are multicultural societies (do monocultural societies still exist?) and theories of acculturation versus integration (settlement processes).
\r\n\tTwo further issues are very important in relation to human migration. There is climate change, global warming, and the environment, which clearly affect people’s movement. Small island populations are very concerned about rising sea levels. 2021 has also seen floods costing human lives: Turkey (August 2021), Brazil (December 2021), Chile (January 2021), and South India (November 2021), to name but a few. In Australia (March 2022), farms and whole townships in New South Wales and Queensland have been flooded for the second time in five years, and plans to resettle these towns are considered. Official and social media provide ample coverage of the events, which leads me to the next issue. There is today’s very important role of the media, of the official and social media. We are constantly bombarded with images of human war tragedies and flood victims. People in industrialized, western countries must be the best-informed populace. How far do the images and up-to-date TV news influence us, make us change our behavior, and perhaps even consider us more generous than we have been?
\r\n\tClimate change and the media are relatively new to the human migration debate, but both issues play important parts, and some interesting discussions are appreciated.
\r\n\t
Various data mining tools are proposed to extract patterns from data sets [1]. Large, multidimensional data sets impose high requirements as to the precision and efficiency of calculations used to extract patterns (regularities) useful in practice [2]. In this context, there is still a need to develop new algorithms of data mining [3]. New types of patterns are also obtained in result of combining different types of classification or prognosis models [4].
The Simplex algorithm from linear programming is used as an effective big data mining tool [5]. According to the basic theorem of linear programming, the solution to the linear optimization problem with linear constraints can be found at one of the vertices in the parameter space. Narrowing the search area to a finite number of vertices is a source of the efficiency of the Simplex algorithm.
Basis exchange algorithms also look for an optimal solution among a finite number of vertices in the parameter space [6]. The basis exchange algorithms are based on the Gauss - Jordan transformation and, for this reason, are similar to the Simplex algorithm. Controlling the basis exchange algorithm is related to the minimization of convex and piecewise linear (CPL) criterion functions [7].
The perceptron and collinearity criterion functions belong to the family of CPL functions The minimization of the perceptron criterion function allows to check the linear separability of data sets and to design piecewise linear classifiers [8]. Minimizing the collinearity criterion function makes it possible to detect collinear (flat) patterns in data sets and to design multiple interaction models [9].
Data sets consisting of a small number of multivariate feature vectors generate specific problems in data mining [10]. This type of data includes genetic data sets. Minimizing the perceptron criterion function or the collinearity function enables solving problems related to discrimination or regression also in the case of a small set of multidimensional feature vectors by using complex layers of low dimensional linear classifiers or prognostic models [11].
Let us assume that each of
The components xj,i of the feature vector
The pairs {
where
The
Possibility of the learning sets
where
According to the above inequalities, all vectors
The hyperplane
where ||
The margin δL1(
where ||
The margins δ L2(
The following set of
If we assume that the threshold θk can be determined latter, then we have
The parameter vertex
The feature vector
If the number
where
and
The first
If the matrix
In this case, the parameter vertex
where the vector
The last
The conditions wk.i(θk) = 0 (15) result from the equations
Length ||
In accordance with the Eq. (14), components |wk,i(θk)| can be determined as follows:
The length ||
where the optimal vertex
vectors
The solution of the Eqs. (19) satisfies the linear separability inequalities (4).
It is possible to enlarge the learning sets
If the assumptions of the lemma are met, then
The above inequality means that linear separability connditions (4) still apply after the increasing of the learning set
Justification Lemma 2 may be based on inequality similar to (21).
The minimization the perceptron criterion function allows to assess the degree of linear separabilty (4) of the learning sets
and
The augmented vectors
The dual hyperplanes
Dual hyperplanes
where
The perceptron penalty functions φjp(
The
The perceptron criterion function Φkp(
Positive parameters
where
The perceptron criterion function Φkp(
The criterion function Φkp(
where the summation is performed on all vectors
The optimal vector
Since the criterion function Φkp(
It has been shown that the minimum value Φkp(
The below theorem has been proved [6]:
The minimum value Φkp(
The regularized criterion function Ψkp(
where λ (λ ≥ 0) is the
The optimal vector
Similarly as in the case of the perceptron criterion function Φkp(
Minimizing the collinearity criterion function is used to extract collinear patterns from large, multidimensional data sets
The collinearity penalty functions φj(
The penalty functions φj(
The
The collinearity criterion function Φk(
where the sum takes into account only the indices
The collinearity criterion function Φk(
Different collinear subsets
The minimum value Φkp(
Omitting one feature vector
where Φk′(
The regularized criterion function Ψk(
where λ ≥ 0 is the
The functions φj0(
The
The perceptron criterion function Φkp(
The
The vertex
and
Eqs. (45) and (46) can be represented in the below matrix form [7]:
where
The square matrix
where the symbol
Since feature vectors
The inverse matrix
The non-singular matrix
According to Eq. (50), the weight vertex
The conditions wk.i = 0 (51) result from the equations
The
We can see that all such feature vectors
If the vertex
The
Each feature vector
The
The reduced vectors
We consider the optimal vertexical subspace
where xj,i(
A large number
The collinear interaction model (57) allows, inter alia, to design the following prognostic models for each feature
where βi′,0 = 1 / wk.i′*, βi′, i′ = 0, and (∀
Feature
The collinearity criterion function Φ(
According to the basis exchange algorithm, the optimal vertex
The sequence of vertices
The sequence of vertices
If the criterion function Φ(
Consider the reversible matrix
After a finite number
The sequence (60) of the inverse matrices
According to the vector Gauss-Jordan transformation, replacing the unit vector
where
The collinearity condition (65) causes a division by zero in Eq. (64).
Let the symbol
Similarly, the symbol
where (∀
The proof of this lemma results directly from the collinearity condition (65) [7].
A small sample of multivariate vectors appears when the number
The proof of Theorem 4 can be based on the stepwise inversion of the matrices
The final vertex
The position of the final vertices
The maximal number
The choice between different final vertices
where the above sums take into account only the indices
If the final vertex
The problem of the constrained minimizing of the regularized function Ψ(
According to the above formulation, the search for the minimum of the regularized criterion function Ψ(
The optimal vertex
As in the case of the minimization of the perceptron criterion function Φkp(
If the cost parameters γi(42) have standard values of one ((∀
Optimal vertex
The basis exchane algorithm allow to solve the constraint minimization problem (74) and to find the optimal vertex
Support Vector Machines (
Maximization of the Euclidean margins δL2(
Complex layers of linear classifiers or prognostic models have been proposed as a scheme for obtaining a general classification or forecasting rules designed on the basis of a small number of multidimensional feature vectors
In the case of a small sample of multivariate vectors, the number
As it follows from Theorem 4, if the collinearity criterion function Φ(
Minimization of the collinearity criterion function Φ(
The optimal basis
The vertexical feature subspace
The reduced vectors
The
The optimal feature subset
The collinear interaction model between
The prognostic models for each feature
where αi′,0 = 1 / wk.i′*, αi′, i′ = 0, and (∀
In the case of a data set
The complex layer can be built on the basis of the sequence of
The first optimal; vertex
The second optimal vertex
The
The sequence (84) of
The prognostic models (83) for the dependent feature (variable)
The final forecast
In accordance with the Eq. (89), the final forecast
The article considers computational schemes of designing classifiers or prognostic models based on such a data set
The concept of a complex layer composed of many linear prognostic models (88) built in low-dimensional feature subspaces is discussed in more detail. These models (88) are built by using a small number
The averaged prognostic models
In electro rheological (ER fluids) the additive particles are kept in suspension in a dielectric fluid which is non-conducting. The Dielectric fluid, i.e., the Carrier fluid has high electrical resistivity and has a low viscosity like silicon oil, olive oil, hydrocarbons, etc. The additive particles which are mixed in the carrier fluids are mainly polymers, alumina silicates, metal oxides silica, etc. These additive particles commonly have low particles size which allows the carrier fluid to maintain low viscosity when the external electric field is not applied. In ER fluid the additive particles size range remains in 0.1–100 μm in the carrier fluid. Without any external electric field these fluids stays in liquid condition as soon as the external electric field is applied the ER fluid changes from liquid to solid by viscosity change of the fluid. In Electro rheological (ER) fluids a suspension of particles are present in a non-conducting fluid. The commonly used liquid i.e. hydrocarbon or silicon oil for suspension are low viscous and have high resistivity. Suspension particles are mainly polymers, alumina, silicates, metal oxides etc. These particles are present is very low concentration so that the viscosity of the suspending fluid remains low without application of the applied electric field. The suspension particles are dielectrics of size 0.1–100 μm. In absence of the electric field the particles exhibits properties like fluid and as the electric field is applied the particles behaves like solid. These fluids which change its physical properties like viscosity due to application of electric field are called electro rheological (ER) fluids or smart fluids. Types of ER or Smart fluids: (a) Electro Rheological (ER) Fluids—electric field changes the physical properties of the fluid, (b) Magneto Rheological (MR) Fluids—magnetic fields changes the physical properties of the fluid, (c) Positive Electro Rheological (ER) Fluids—by application of the electric field the viscosity increases and (d) Negative Electro Rheological studied by Ko et al. [1] (ER) Fluids—by application of electric field the viscosity decreases. These ER fluids are one kind of smarts fluids. One of the most easily made ER fluid is adding corn flour in silicon oil or vegetable oil.
\nWhen the electric field is applied on the ER fluid the suspension particles gets polarized and form a thick chain which is parallel to the electric field between the two electrodes. The thickness of the polarized suspension particles between the two electrodes is directly proportional to the intensity of the electric field. The rheological properties of the suspension depend on its change in structure. The more yield stress of the fluid is obtained from the particle columnar structure. When the electric field is removed the suspension particles polarization gets lost and the loose there structure and roam freely in the fluid which in turn reduces the viscosity. The period of returning from the solid state to the liquid state is few milliseconds upon removing the electric field. The material for electrorheological fluid is a superfine suspension of dielectric small particles which react to the applied electric field resulting in changing in the rheological properties of the ER fluid. There are three operational modes of the ER fluid which are as follows: (a) Flow mode—in this mode the electrodes are mounted and fixed and by controlling the motion of the flow the vibrational control is achieved, (b) Shear Mode—in this mode the vibrational control is achieved by varying the shear force here one electrode is fixed and the other is free for rotation and (c) Squeeze Mode—in this mode the space between the electrodes is changed which presses the ER fluid results with a normal force.
\nIn electro rheological fluids there is a large reversible change in the colloidal suspension rheological properties when subjected to the external electric field. Lots of studies are present in which the principle and the uses of the electrorheological fluid are presented by many researchers across the globe. Another property of the ER fluids is that the response time of the ER fluid is very quick for the applied electric fields so the band width is thick. \nFigure 1\n represents the effect of ER fluid particles when application of electric field. For this interesting property the ER fluid has more demand is carious technological applications like smart structure, shock absorbers, engine mount and machine mount. The yield stress of the ER fluid can also be varied by introduction of the external electric field that is why it is also known as functional fluid. Winslow [2] patented the invention of the ER fluid. This ER effect is introduced in state of art automobile. The ER effect was first invented in 1942 by Winslow [2] after that the details understanding of the EF effect took lots of time and then to find the suitable solution for the ER fluid effect took further more time. The properties which delays and stops the ER fluid in few application fields are temperature stability, yield stress and power consumption. Particles size, carrier fluid properties, density, temperature and additives of the ER fluids plays a vital role for most of the properties changes of the ER fluids.
\n(a) Dispersing particles without electric field, (b) dispersing particles with electric field.
There is a limit up to which the dispersing particles can be mixed with the fluid because by increasing the concentration of the dispersing particles volume fraction the electrorheological effect of the solution increases which also causes few problems. As increasing the concentration of the dispersing particle after a certain concentration limit the particles started settling down which cause a problem another problem which arises is the zero field viscosity increment. The viscosity is linked with the temperature i.e. the viscosity decreases when the temperature is increased. Temperature also decreases the dynamic yield strength. Mainly the change in the yield strength occurs due to relative permittivity and the conductivity of particle and also the chemical components of the fluid. Less amount of voltage approx. 1–4 KV/mm is needed for producing ER effect in the solution. 10–6 to 10–3 amp/cm2 is the minimum needed current density for the ER effect. For calculating the power consumption of the suitable ER fluid the measurement of the current density are needed. Dynamic yield stress is one of the important ER fluid property, this stress is the maximum amount of stress required to flow the liquid when the electric field is applied. 100 Pa to 3 KPa is the range of the dynamic yield stress in current ER fluid. The comparison of the various ER fluids are still now difficult as because the standard testing procedure and the state for the fluid is not yet available properly and due to the dependency of the ER fluids on its dispersing particles and the fluid used combinations. For practical applications of the ER fluid the fluid must meet the desired criteria which are (a) Current density 4.0 KV/mm DC less than 10 μA/cm2, (b) dynamic yield stress 4.0 KV/mm <3.0 KPa, (c) Zero field viscosity 0.1–0.3 Pas, i.e., 1–3 Poise, (d) Operational temp range −25°C to +125°C, (e) dielectric breakdown strength >50 KV/mm2, (f) particle size 10 μm, (g) response time < millimeter, (h) Density 1–2 g/cm3, (i) maximum energy density 0.001 Joule/cm3, (j) power supply 2–5 KV@ 1–10 mA, (k) Any conductive surface material, (l) any opaque or transparent, and (m) physically and chemically stable with low conductivity and high breakdown voltage.
\nFor shear loading state applications usually the ER materials are used. The relationship between the ER material and the share are shown in the \nFigure 2\n. In the year 1949 Winslow [2] invented the post-yield appearance of the ER effect. During that time the materials which behave like changing in viscosity were called electro-viscous fluids as their effective or actual viscosity changes were noticeable macroscopically. Many years after it was investigated that with the change in the applied electric field the apparent or the effective viscosity ʋ remains constant, only the noticeable change was found out was the yield stress of the Bingham plastic suspension. This is shown in \nFigure 2\n. Ideal plastic fluids are also another name given to the Bingham plastics, i.e., this fluid does not have viscosity (zero viscosity). A formula representing the shear stress exceeds the yield stress of the material is given by τ = τy + ϑγ, where τ represents Shear stress, τy represents Yield Stress and ϑγ represents Shear Strain. The behavior of the ER material the comparison of the post yield behavior still not investigated. With increasing in the electric field the shear yield stress increases while the yield strain remains 1% for almost all fields. The reaction of the ER fluid on electric field is shown in \nFigure 3\n.
\nSmart fluid characterization (a) without electric field and (b) with electric field.
Reaction of the ER fluid when external electric field is applied.
The ER fluids which are available in the markets are very costly so here are few lists of combinations of the additive particles with the fluid to prepare the cost effective ER fluid. With suitable proportions and amount of the additive particle we can achieve the desired ER fluid as per our need. Various carrier fluids are aldehyde, grease, ketones, kerosene, aroclor, castor oil, chloroform, mineral oil, olefins, olive oil, dielectric oil, diphenyl sebacate, various ethers, resin oil, transformer oil, silicon oil etc. Various additive particles for the ER fluid are alfa silica, alginic acid, alumina, alfa methylacrylate, mannitol, boron, macrocel-C, carbon, cellulose, charcoal, chlorides, dyes, gypsum, micronized mica, nylon powder, olefins, porhin, pyrogenic silica, quartz, rubber, silica gel, etc. [3].
\nER fluid preparation procedure are very simple and mostly all the ER fluids are prepared by this manner the following procedure is used for preparing the ER fluids: (a) The desired powder is chosen and same particle powder size particles are required for the ER fluid dispensing particle, (b) the chosen powder must be passed through size sieve for all the particles same and must be weighted on the weighing machine, (c) the powder is poured in glass container and desired amount of the ER fluid is poured in the glass container which contains the powder of uniform size and are stirred continuously until the powder mixed with the fluid completely, (d) the mixture of the powder and the fluid are stirred for 2 h by glass rod or magnetic starrer at a constant RPM to get a uniform homogenous mixture, (e) the mixed solution is passed to a vane pump five times to get a good result homogenous solution and (f) this process should be followed for other ER solution preparation [3].
\nThe testing of the ER fluid is necessary for selecting of the desired ER fluid for the desired application. The following tests are mainly used (a) Temperature test, (b) breakdown test, (c) viscosity test and (d) sedimentation test.
\nThe electrorheological fluids which are totally dependent on the applied electric fields are used in resistive force creation and damping. Examples of applications are active vibration suppression and motion control. Wang et al. [4] have presented the uses of ER fluids in microfluidics [5]. Various industries like automobiles industries are demanding modified ER fluids with more efficiency Gurka et al. [6] introduced ER-Fluid RheOil®3.0 which improves the sedimentation and re-dispersing behavior. Brennan et al. [7] studied and distinguished the two classes of the ER dampers, first one acts by shearing the stationary fluid and the second one acts by pumping the ER fluid [5]. The two classes are described in details below. Most of the dampers of smart fluids have three common components, i.e., a cylinder, cylinder valve housing and a piston. The vibrating structure kinetic energy can be controlled and dissipated by providing either electric or magnetic field in the valve. In the ER damping process two types of frictions are used they are viscous and coulomb friction [8]. The columbic force denotes the friction acting when two surfaces comes in contact to each other like friction of bearing and hinges friction. Friction is independent to the body velocity, i.e., it is constant. To push fluids through narrow obstructive passage viscous friction comes into play these exists in valves and orifices and is body velocity dependent. The viscous friction and the columbic friction summation is the actuation friction which is denoted in \nFigure 4\n. These frictions have good effects also in the damping machines. The transmission of the vibration to the device is possible by dry sealing friction. For sensitive instruments small vibrations can cause poor accuracy [9]. Bad effect of the friction is also present in the system when the force applied is near to overwhelm the static friction this is known as motion of stick–slip.
\nActuator friction (a) friction columbic, (b) friction viscous, and (c) total friction.
At a near to zero velocity the stick–slip motion happens like an unexpected motion of jerking. Naturally, kinetic friction coefficient in between the two surfaces is smaller than the static friction coefficient. When the given force is more to overwhelm than the static friction then the friction decreases from static to dynamic. Because of this sudden decrease of the friction there will be a sudden velocity jump movement. To show this effect the system of two degree of freedom is taken.
\nIn this type of mode of ER damper there are one or two parallel electrodes which can move parallel to each other and is always perpendicular to the electric field applied so that the fluid can have uniform shear and the ER fluid is present in between the two electrodes. From \nFigure 5a\n c and l are the breath and length of the electrode and j is the electrodes gap. Here E is given voltage, F is net damping force and V is the relative velocity of the electrodes. Two forces are acting in this ER damper (a) Active force Fc because of ER effect and (b) Passive force Fy due to the fluid viscosity. Fy, i.e., the passive force is always present and directly linked with the viscosity of the fluid as well as the damper geometric properties. During application of the electric field a force Fc (because of creation of particles suspension lining up between the electrodes) i.e. static force which is needed to overwhelmed so that the motion can occur [10]. The force Fc is product of area of electrode and the yield strength of the fluid and does not depend on the electrode plate velocity. The net force F of damping of this ER damper is the sum of two components of force. The main aim of this ER damper is to give large ratio of off-field to on-field damping by force ratios Fy and Fc. Because of this large ratio gives various responses by ER unit with changing voltage.
\nModes of operation: (a) shear, (b) valve, and (c) squeeze.
In this type of mode the ER fluid is pressed between the two electrodes as given in \nFigure 5b\n. Because of this the ER fluid is exposed to tensile, compression as wells as shear. In the absence of the given electric field if the ER fluid is pressed it behaves like Newtonian fluid. There is a pressure drop AP occurs at flow rate volume Q. This pressure change in between the valve is because of the velocity of the ER fluid. Moreover, during the presence of the electric field, yield stress is generated by the ER fluid which results more pressure drop between the electrodes plates length. The net damping force is summation of two force components of this type of ER damper. In this type of mode the device effectiveness is the across valves pressure drop with or without the effect of ER [10].
\nThe electrorheological fluids which are totally dependent on the applied electric fields are used in resistive force creation and damping. Examples of applications are active vibration suppression and motion control. L. Wang et al. [4] have presented the uses of ER fluids in microfluidics. Various industries like automobiles industries are demanding modified ER fluids with more efficiency Gurka et.al [6] introduced ER-Fluid RheOil®3.0 which improves the sedimentation and re-dispersing behavior. Brennan et al. [7] studied and distinguished the two classes of the ER dampers, first one acts by shearing the stationary fluid and the second one acts by pumping the ER fluid. The two classes are described in details below.
\nIn this mode the gap between the electrodes are changed and the ER fluid is pressed or squeezed by the force acting normally. \nFigure 5c\n represents the squeezing mode of the ER fluid.
\nER fluids have wide applicability, economic benefit, social benefit high performance for these advantages these smart fluids will find path in various engineering applications in various technological fields. Without any doubt we can say in the future ER technology is going to rule various applications in engineering technological fields. As soon as this technology is accepted then it will be a revolution in both economy and society. From all these advantages of the ER fluids we can predict that in the near future the ER fluids will be used in various technological fields as given below.
\nScientists and Engineers can develop new kind of parts that can easily fulfill the needs of the motor vehicles using the technology of ER. Like for example ER technology used for cooling engine i.e. speed fan clutch of the motor vehicle, shock absorber, brake having break torque controlled, system for suspensions by damping controlled etc., These components using ER technologies will have less wear and tear, more performance, less cost, prolong life service, controlled easily, easy to produce by microcomputer, fast response, high sensitivity.
\nThe valves which are used nowadays for control of pressure and flow rate control can be replaced by ER technology in the future. Because ER technology valves will have no or less movable parts, simple easy structure, low cost, prolong service life, no mechanical processing, minimal tear and wear and electronical control of pressure and rate of flow. For this reasons ER technology will rule the hydraulic industry in the near future.
\nBy utilizing the benefits of the ER technology engineers can produce new type of rotational sealing controlled devices for face the challenges of the magnetic fluid sealing and rubber fluid sealing. Because of the pros like good effect of sealing, minimal tear and wear, less magnetic field and prolong life of service.
\nIn robotic industries nowadays for flexible joints are being controlled by hydro-electric control devises instead of ER fluidic joints technology which can perform much better function than the hydraulic-electric control. Engineers are designing and manufacture flexible joints which will have less volume, fast response time, minimal wear as well as tear, nimble, and which can be easily controlled by micro-computers. ER fluids can provide all these advantages over the hydraulic-electric controls.
\nThere are various commercial uses of the ER fluids and many uses are still undiscovered, in automotive industries the ER fluids are used in clutches, seat dampers, shock absorber, engine mount etc. Many other applications of the ER fluids are listed as follows: (a) Fluid flow via thin channel, (b) for friction instruments clutches, (c) servomechanism for impact and vibrator instruments, (d) pick-pick applications, (e) damping isolator, (f) automobile damping, (g) mounts for engine, (h) power transmission in robots, (i) machine tool artificial intelligence, etc. This list is not the final list because still now many uses of the ER fluid in various fields are yet to discover.
\nRheological characterization is done to identify the change in viscosity of the ER fluid with respect to the shear rate at various electric fields. Garcia et al. [11] have studied the rheological properties of the ER fluid by using ARES rheometer by using parallel plate diameter 50 mm diameter electrode with 1 mm gap between them. High voltage amplifier was used to supply the DC voltage.
\nTo study the permittivity and the power factor of the ER fluid the dielectric properties characterization are done. Rejon et al. [12] describes the method of measuring the dielectric properties of the ER fluid. They used guard ring capacitors and high resistor meter. DC high voltages were used for the test.
\nThe structural changes of the ER field during and before the DC voltage was studied by Rejon et al. [13]. The studied the microscopic structure of the ER fluid by microscope. They studied the microstructural changes of the ER fluid at different DC applied voltages from 0.5 to 2.5 KV/mm.
\nER fluids have lots of interesting properties which attracts them in various applications fields among the various important properties of the ER fluid lies fast reaction, precise controllability and easy boundary between the electrical and mechanical input output power. Because of these interesting properties of the ER fluid the ER fluid is used in motion control and will be used in various applications fields in the near years to come. ER fluids characteristics in most advanced way is briefly described below as given in latest reports: (a) When external electric field is given ER effect is seen by change in viscosity of the carrier fluid from liquid to solid as the viscosity of the liquid increases and after removal of the electric field solid to liquid viscosity decreases making the liquid less thick like the initial state, (b) the process in which the ER fluid changes its state from liquid to solid upon application of the electric field must be reversible, i.e., it should return back to its original state (liquid state) as soon as the external electric field is removed. Viscosity change must be less step, (c) upon application of the electric field the transition of the liquid state to the solid state must be very fast, i.e., 5–10 s, (d) and liquid to solid transition must be only possible by electric field only and not by any other means. By all these characteristics of the ER fluid the ER fluid can be connected with the modern technological applications. This technology is one newly type of future challenge as its attractive properties are being used broadly, which can bring a big change in industries. The main component of the ER technology is the ER fluid which should bring in the technological applications like dampers of ER fluids which is a best solution for control of vibrations.
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