\r\n\tIt has been established that energy/nutrient depletion, calcium flux injury, or oxidative stress disrupt endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis and even induce accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins leading to endoplasmic reticulum stress. Under endoplasmic reticulum stress conditions, an adaptive mechanism of coordinated signaling pathways, defined unfolded protein response (UPR), is activated to return the endoplasmic reticulum to its healthy functioning state. The aging causes a decrease of the protective adaptive response of the UPR and an increase of the pro-apoptotic pathway together with endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural injury. Controlling endoplasmic reticulum stress response, maintaining the appropriate endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructure and homeostasis, and retaining mitochondria interplay are crucial aspects for cellular health.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book presents a comprehensive overview of endoplasmic reticulum, including, but not limited to, endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural anatomy, MAMs, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and their implication in health and diseases. Additionally, identifying perturbations in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response could lead to early detection of age-related disease and may help develop therapeutic approaches.
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Even in one of the most important food categories—fresh fruit and vegetables—there is a current trend whereby consumers are increasingly looking for a sustainable form of trade. The agri‐food industry
Defined as a group of activities between companies and sectors linked by business relations designed to add value to food on the journey from field to fork.
—and the fruit and vegetable sector in particular—must meet requirements that vary geographically and over time as a result of changing technology and consumer behaviour.
\n
Eating habits have always been an important element of culture [1]. Numerous models have been adopted by different scientific disciplines to describe the choices and behaviour of food buyers [2–6]. Whereas in the past food choices were largely dictated by the necessity of satisfying a basic physiological need, nowadays the motivation is more social in nature [7], suggesting that external factors can affect what we choose to eat [8]. Of these new requirements, the ‘emotional’ aspects (security, love, esteem and self‐fulfilment) are undoubtedly among the most interesting when it comes to understanding changes in food consumption [9,10]. Sociodemographic variables no longer seem sufficient to explain the behaviour of the modern consumer, who instead must be viewed with a multidisciplinary approach that takes additional aspects into consideration. This evolution has spawned the modern consumer of fruit and vegetables, who is more conscious of environmental sustainability and socio‐economic issues and relies on these factors to inform his or her choices. More specifically, factors such as the type of product, its qualitative aspects, packaging [11] and distribution channel, although very different from one another, have become fundamental in guiding the purchasing behaviour of consumers [12,13]. Now more informed consumers tend to buy products that can be classed as sustainable, a definition that over time has become multidimensional [14]. This information is particularly relevant for the credence attributes of fruit and vegetables, which cannot be ascertained even after the consumption experience. These include, for example, aspects such as the local provenance of the product, how organic it is, producer support and respect for workers’ rights [15]. In this case, the consumer\'s decision is based solely on how much confidence he or she has in the information on the label, the brand or other elements that help to build the product\'s reputation by sharing some of its extrinsic qualities. As a result, the information asymmetry is reduced and the credence attribute becomes a search attribute, which means that some information may be known to consumers before they buy, regardless of the consumption experience.
\n
The increased focus on social and environmental balance and how to convey these aspects properly thus have considerable implications for the fruit and vegetable supply chain. To differentiate or promote new products, consideration must be given to the use of natural resources, as well as minimising the impact of farming on the environment and on the local community, how and where the produce is grown, the characteristics and socio‐economic and environmental impact of processing, the health benefits of the product, its distribution channel, and finally waste recycling and management. Meeting these consumer expectations requires an industry‐wide commitment to maintain, improve and promote the qualitative aspects of the product and producer, which in turn becomes an incentive for corrective action and improved performance by supply chain actors. The purpose of this paper is therefore to describe those instruments that have been developed thus far within the fruit and vegetable supply chain, discussing their main benefits, limitations and drawbacks.
\n
\n
\n
2. An overview of certification schemes and communication tools for F&V
\n
To address this growing demand for sustainability in a way that is appropriate and commensurate with the consumer\'s needs, a wide variety of schemes have been developed over the past decade—both in the fruit and vegetable supply chain and elsewhere—that differ in terms of their objectives, structure and operating methods. These consist of optional certification tools (voluntary product certification and standards), as well as self‐declaration. The main examples are listed in Table 1. These schemes are not intended to demonstrate compliance with legal requirements. However, when used by operators to facilitate the transition with other actors in the fruit and vegetable supply chain by indicating conformity with legal requirements, it is clear that this type of tool cannot be used to differentiate products on the market.
\n
\n
2.1. Certification and standards
\n
With regard to F&V certification schemes, a special arrangement whereby a certificate is issued by a third party guarantees compliance with a certain number of characteristics or attributes of the product or its production method or system, as defined in a standard. These include a wide range of initiatives at different points along the food chain (either before or after leaving the farm, along the entire food chain or in part of it, in all sectors or in a particular market segment).
\n
\n
\n
\n
Tipology
\n
Standard of reference
\n
Key features
\n
\n
\n
Integrated production
\n
Voluntary third-party certification
\n
UNI 11233
\n
Selection of agronomic preventive measures and biological/physical/chemical methods are carefully selected and balanced taking into account the protection of health of both farmers and consumers and of the environment
\n
\n
\n
Supply chain traceability
\n
Voluntary third-party certification
\n
ISO 22005 (2008)
\n
Traceability
\n
\n
\n
Quality management system
\n
Voluntary third-party certification
\n
ISO 9001
\n
Minimization of harmful effects on the environment, conformity to applicable regulatory requirements, achievement of improvement of environmental performance
\n
\n
\n
Social responsibility
\n
Voluntary third-party certification
\n
SA 8000
\n
Ethics
\n
\n
\n
Food security management system
\n
Voluntary third-party certification
\n
ISO 22000 (2005), HACCP (FAO/OMS Codex Alimentarius)
\n
Food security
\n
\n
\n
Good Agricultural Practices (GLOBALGAP)
\n
Voluntary third-party standard
\n
Chain of Custody Standard
\n
The certificate covers the process from farm inputs like feed or seedlings and all the farming activities until the product leaves the farm
\n
\n
\n
British Retail Consortium (BRC)
\n
Voluntary third-party standard
\n
BRC Global Standard Food
\n
Senior management commitment and continuous improvement, hazard and risk analysis, quality management system, site and building standards, vehicle operating standards, facility management, good operating practices, personnel
\n
\n
\n
International Food Standard (IFS)
\n
Voluntary third-party standard
\n
GFSI Global Food Safety Standard
\n
Senior management responsibility, quality and food safety management systems, resource management, production process, measurements, analysis, improvements and food defence
\n
\n
\n
Eco management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
\n
Voluntary third-party certification
\n
UNI EN ISO 14001
\n
Environmental efficiency
\n
\n
\n
Self-declared environmental claims
\n
Type II environmental labelling
\n
ISO 14021
\n
Environmental: defined once for once, for example recyclable
\n
\n
\n
Environmental Product Declaration (EPD®)
\n
Type III environmental labelling
\n
UNI ISO 14025:2006
\n
Environmental: quantified product life cycle environmental performance information
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Summary of the main certificates and other tools used in the fruit and vegetable supply chain.
Source: Re-elaboration with permission from Tecco et al. [16].
\n
Their use is particularly apt, given how complex the operator\'s commitments are, set out in detailed standards that require periodic verification.
\n
Among the voluntary standards certified by third parties, Global Gap (until 2007 EurepGap), an initiative of the Euro‐Retailer Produce Working Group (EUREP), is currently one of the initiatives with the most members in Europe and worldwide [17]. Certification is based on compliance with Good Agriculture Practices (hence the acronym GAP) for agricultural produce of plant origin. This addresses consumer expectations in terms of food safety, traceability, the environment and health and safety of workers. The protocol can be adopted for individual phases or for the entire supply chain, with a module‐based certification system in which option 1 is for farms, while option 2 includes quality system management by commercial farms and F&V packaging, which take place downstream of agricultural production.
\n
In addition to third‐party certification, certification schemes may use labels or logos (the latter sometimes registered trademarks) as a communication tool. The labels used fall into the following classifications and descriptions of the International Standards Organisation (ISO):\n
Type I label (ISO 14024)—often referred to as an eco‐label
The use of the term ‘ecolabel’ for this category can be confusing, since the European Union also has an Ecolabel scheme.
, this is awarded by third parties in the public or private sector which operate independently of the producer. They involve the use of a logo associated with the certified product. These are based on a multi‐criteria system that analyses each stage of the product life cycle, identifying the threshold values to be met;
Type III label (ISO 14025)—in this case, an accredited third‐party certification body analyses the entire product life cycle based on parameters previously established by a life cycle analysis (LCA); this system can be used with any type of production. The aim was to inform consumers by providing elements enabling them to compare functionally similar goods and services.
\n
In the case of the Type I label used in the fruit and vegetable supply chain, the majority of organic production logos and the European environmental quality logo (Ecolabel) fall into this category for the primary sector. The other label in this category is the carbon neutral label; this is becoming increasingly widespread, especially among operators who produce and market tropical fruit.
\n
In the case of AgroFair, the first farming cooperative in the world to market tropical fruit such as bananas and pineapple under the fair trade and welfare banner, the goal has been to extend fair trade and welfare recognition through additional certification demonstrating zero‐emissions production. A similar approach has been taken by Dole Costa Rica to comply with environmental strategies defined according to the Costa Rica Carbon Neutral Strategy 2021 [18].
\n
The EPD® (Environmental Product Declaration), a document that quantifies a product\'s environmental performance through appropriate categories of parameters calculated with LCA methodology, is considered Type III labelling. One example of the application to the F&V supply chain is Italian apples, produced under the aegis of the Italian Association of Apple Producers (Assomela). Here, an LCA was used to quantify the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of apples in relation to the 2012, 2013 and 2014 harvest [19].
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Self‐declaration
\n
Another scheme in the fruit and vegetable sector is self‐declaration. Membership of these schemes is through self‐declaration or selection by the operator of the scheme. Self‐declaration is generally regarded as suitable for relatively basic information concerning particular environmental aspects of the product, such as the absence of substances that are harmful to the environment, recycled content or biodegradability. It is also based on the use of a label or logo, although no external bodies are involved.
\n
The labels used for this scheme are again covered by the ISO classification and are described as follows:\n
Type II Label (ISO 14021)—Self‐declared environmental claims. This is effectively done by the producers, importers and distributors of the products [20]. According to ISO 14021, self‐certification must include clear information that is not misleading or open to misinterpretation, and which can be certified if necessary (for example, if asked to produce the documentation certifying the label, these must be supplied).
\n
There has been widespread uptake of this tool in the fruit and vegetable supply chain for the self‐certification of organic production, in parallel with the development of Participatory Guarantee Systems [21].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Benefits distribution of voluntary socially and environmentally responsible behaviour along the fruit and vegetables supply chain
\n
The use of such schemes offers potential across the fruit and vegetable supply chain in terms of increased competitiveness, which benefits producers, intermediaries and end consumers.
\n
Table 2.
Benefits of regimes according to the actors’ categories.
Source: Authors’ elaboration.
\n
However, the distribution of these benefits within the fruit and vegetable supply chain is linked to the methods and frequency with which such tools are used by operators, as well as their visibility.
\n
For this purpose, it is worth considering a further distinction, which allows the tools to be classified according to the type of relationship created: Business to Business (B2B), in the case of business‐to‐business relationships where the final recipient of the information is internal to the supply chain, or Business to Consumer (B2C), for relationships between distributors and consumers (Table 3).
\n
Table 3.
Classifications of schemes according the kind of audience.
Source: Authors re-elaboration with permission from European Commission [22].
\n
B2B tools are not shared with end consumers, who are often unaware of their existence. GlobalGAP, International Food Standard and ISO 22000 certification are all B2B standards whose goal in the fruit and vegetable supply chain, as well as in the food industry as a whole, is to facilitate trade between industry operators by offering assurances to buyers based on certifiable standards that form the basis of a common language on which to build trade relations.
\n
B2C certification is a useful tool to show the market (customers, consumers, public opinion in general) that the products meet the stated requirements. The choice of requirements is therefore strategic for the success of the product and the certification, as the product takes on associations and becomes recognisable depending on the information conveyed.
\n
Supermarket distribution, as the most important retail channel for fruit and vegetable produce with a market share of between 60 and 90%, depending on the Member State
More so in northern Europe than in the south.
[23], is the party that relies the most on the use of such schemes, both as a recipient of information via B2B certification, and as a provider of information to its own customers with B2C tools. By consulting the database of best practices in environmental and social sustainability, developed as part of the Retailers’ Environmental Action Plan (REAP)
The outcome of this project, launched by the European Commission in 2009, was the construction of a multi-stakeholder platform to facilitate the virtual exchange of such actions among European supermarket operators. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/industry/retail/reap/browse-by-category_en.html
and adopted by leading European retailers, we can see how the initiatives taken by Delhaize Group, Eurocoop, Mercador, Kaufland and Rewe Group in the F&V supply chain signal an approach designed to support and communicate improvements in production and consumption systems, using certification as a dual means of assurance and communication. The intention of minimising the impacts of direct activities throughout the F&V supply chain is apparent, for example in the preference for products that wherever possible satisfy the requirements of the green economy, in the priority given to products that meet certain production standards, and in the optimisation of transport efficiency.
\n
The use of B2C tools currently prevails in Europe [24]. The use of certification schemes that cover both applications using trademarks is also growing. The label used by Coop Italia for its own‐brand fresh produce (Figure 1) is a good example of this combined approach. Quality assurance and product safety are certified by third‐party controls that focus on four complementary aspects:\n
the provenance of products from integrated farming;
chemical residues 70% below the legal limits;
the absence of post‐harvest chemical treatment;
strict control from field to point of sale.
\n\n
Figure 1.
Coop logo on fresh produce.
\n
In the F&V supply chain, therefore, it seems fairly obvious that environmental and social sustainability has now become an asset for competitiveness, especially in supermarket distribution, due both to its role as a hub or bottleneck [24] within the F&V supply chain, and for its ability to respond more quickly to this challenge, seizing the advantages [25] through third‐party certification and the private label.
\n
\n
\n
4. Drawbacks of the status Quo across the fruit and vegetables supply chain
\n
Looking then at the distribution of benefits among stakeholders and the relationships between them along the F&V supply chain, it is possible to present this synthetically, as proposed in Figure 2.
\n
As well as demonstrating the dominant position of the retailer as a major beneficiary of the voluntary adoption of socio‐environmental responsibility behaviours, the diagram shows the subordinate position both of producers and consumers in relation to the retailer.
\n
As confirmation of the general trend observed in the spread and effectiveness of corporate sustainability strategies [26], even in the fruit and vegetable supply chain, the competitive outcome appears to be closely related to the mechanisms that link the various stakeholders and their sustainability enhancement actions.
\n
Despite the predominance of B2C tools and the development of multi‐information labels (Figure 1), a segmented communication strategy is emerging within the sector, as well as a lack of multidimensional cross‐cutting tools with a 360° approach to sustainability.
\n
Figure 2.
Illustration of the benefits distribution resulting from the voluntary adoption of socio‐environmental responsibility behaviours and the reciprocal position within the F&V supply chain. Source: authors’ elaboration.
\n
The diversity and fragmentation of the fruit and vegetable production system, coupled with inconspicuous own‐brand policies, lead to a situation in which the adoption of responsibility behaviours in terms of sustainability, and the resulting product differentiation is mostly dictated by the demands of supermarket chains [27], instead of being designed from the ground up to showcase the unique aspects and local nature of the production system. While this ensures that producers meet high standards and encourages the renewal of retailer distribution agreements, at times even securing a premium price (net of expenses and additional costs), the level of visibility and recognition of producers among final consumers remains low. The situation is even more complicated for producers who must join several schemes to fulfil their buyers’ requirements. Producers who do not participate in the main certification schemes (through choice or due to difficulties inherent in the country of origin, in the case of the tropical fruit sector) face the risk of exclusion from the market. Non‐adoption can therefore translate as a market barrier.
\n
Even the act of purchasing ‘sustainable’ produce is beset by a series of difficulties linked to effective communication, from consumer motivation/education to the knowledge‐action gap and behaviour‐impact gap problems [28].
\n
Strict communication rules require information to be presented clearly and concisely, given the limited space on the label. This physical limitation can lead to distortions, misleading consumers in a context where the meaning of sustainability attributes could be ambiguous for the end user [29]. On the one hand, the complexity of sustainability risks being reduced to a few synthetic messages/actions with purely cosmetic content [30]. In cases where compliance is certified with minimum requirements or by self‐declaration, doubts may arise over the credibility of the information or the transparency of the requirements envisaged.
\n
On the other hand, more information in a single label can be confusing, given the consumer\'s gaps, thus defeating the very purpose of the label [20,31]. Where the consumer is more socially and environmentally motivated, the buying decision will be more informed and the buyer more likely to use the information on the label correctly. In other words, the communicative effect of the label does not influence the ‘average’ consumer, but tends to work mainly with consumers who are already motivated [29]. Behavioural change is difficult when the information given is too complex to decipher or is based on conflicting values: in these situations, consumers have a tendency to seek refuge in their usual buying habits [28].
\n
Furthermore, it is now known that discrepancies exist between the expected (stated) behaviour and the observed (actual) behaviour of consumers when making a purchase, fostering the creation of a gap between knowledge and action (the ‘knowledge‐to‐action gap\'). This inconsistency is linked to the fact that the judgement and selection criterion for a sustainable product have to compete with contingent factors influencing the intrinsic and extrinsic opinion of the product, such as sensory quality, nutritional value, price, brand and quantity, in which the sustainability of the product and/or the production process is merely seen as one of many final characteristics of the product category. A choice seen as sustainable does not always have the desired effect, leading to a gap this time between behaviour and impact (the ‘behaviour‐impact gap\') [32]. In this case, information and cognitive barriers prevail alongside rebound effects [33] attributable to the presence of negative external factors within the supply chain or its interaction with the outside world. This risks having a marginal or zero effect on the commitment of parties who have adopted environmentally and socially responsible behaviours [32] and those who support them by buying their products.
\n
\n
\n
5. Future challenges
\n
Although in recent years certification schemes, as a means of private regulation and communication of the corporate sustainability commitment, have diverged enormously to increase the transparency of results and the disclosure of actions taken by producers in terms of their operating processes, significant efforts still need to be made before these become a win–win strategy for stakeholders in the fruit and vegetable supply chain. The greatest obstacle is fragmentation, in the sense of a compartmentalized and linear vision of the supply chain and an interpretation of sustainability based on size and components.
\n
The predominance of a vertical approach represents a drag on the harmonisation process. The lack of horizontal relationships leads to unfair competition and undermines the effectiveness of these tools, especially for the end user.
\n
While the general objective is to improve the sustainability of the fruit and vegetable supply chain, a systemic approach is needed in which—according to Nash\'s game theory—the best result is achieved when each stakeholder in the supply chain does what is best for itself and for the group at the same time. These represent the preconditions for a transition from the social responsibility of individual enterprises to that of an integrated supply chain or territory (depending on our point of view), in keeping with a social responsibility approach in which competitiveness derives not only from the ability to respond to the market, but also from a commitment to achieve adequate levels of sustainability guaranteed throughout the supply chain and to contribute to the economic development of the local area. In this sense, the supply chain builds and adds value, providing content and relational continuity for market transactions.
\n
In this respect, power should be redistributed along the value chain and more consideration given to each end of the supply chain—that is producers upstream and consumers downstream—to respond to the needs of the fruit and vegetable sector by anticipating its needs.
\n
The challenge is therefore to embrace and increasingly involve in this education and communication process the ‘custodians’ of sustainability, in other words operators engaged in day‐to‐day farming, who manage agricultural production inputs and control more or less consciously the impacts for the end consumer.
\n
It is essential therefore that producers, individually or—better still—through producer organisations, as stakeholders with direct experience of the product on the ground, succeed in having a more active and visible role, so that socio‐environmental responsibility behaviours are targeted as a worthwhile and strategic competitive advantage. The potential in terms of the reservoir of capital that can be tapped is considerable, ranging from human and organisational to relational and symbolic capital [26].
\n
To communicate the potential for innovation and the creation of added value for the final market—and so for products that meet the ‘green and social requirements\'—the consumer must also be fully equipped to decipher the information contained in the label and to recognise its objectivity and verifiability.
\n
This approach means adopting new mechanisms for coordination between stakeholders, with appropriate forms of control such as industry codes of conduct [34,35], collaborative practices such as participatory certification systems aimed at building trust, cross‐cutting assessments and analysis tools for the sector, using F&V life cycle analysis not only to assess the environmental impacts, but to consider their social [16] and economic implications. The life cycle thinking approach is part of the broader theoretical framework of life cycle sustainability analysis (LCSA) [36–38]. It paves the way for the construction of an interdisciplinary methodology aimed at combining and integrating the assessment of sustainability issues.
\n
All of these developments are desirable, even when examined as part of the transition towards an increasingly circular economy within agri‐food systems [39].
\n
\n
\n
6. A meaningful case study: Delizie di Bosco del Piemonte
\n
In the light of these initial points and considerations, below is a summary of a green marketing initiative [25], that we consider significant, both because it is promoted directly by a group of small producers in an upland area in the Province of Cuneo (in the Piedmont region of northwest Italy), and because the marketing content is designed to convey to the end consumer the multidimensional nature of sustainability practices and responsibility (both environmental and social). The Agrifrutta cooperative, a member of the Ortofruitalia producer organisation (PO), in a bid to bolster its image and promote its small‐fruit production, decided to reduce the environmental impact of its cultivation techniques, simultaneously quantifying the actions taken so that compensatory measures could be adopted if necessary. First and foremost, the production processes and practices related to cultivation and post‐harvest management of strawberries [40] and small fruits [41] were analysed and evaluated using the life cycle assessment (LCA) tool. The relevance of this technique consisted of the possibility of evaluating all phases of the strawberry and small‐fruit production process as interrelated and interdependent, and of having an objective evaluation and quantification method to analyse the different components of the impacts associated with strawberry and small‐fruit production.
\n\n
This has effectively meant a renewed approach to the existing production/commercial system, resulting in the adoption of new practices more suited to reducing the environmental/social impact (such as reducing the volumes of substrate used in the nursery, and using biodegradable and compostable films for mulching and packaging), communicated to consumers by creating the ‘Delizie di Bosco di Piemonte’ brand (Figure 3).
\n
Figure 3.
Agrifrutta cooperative logo for strawberries and small fruit.
\n\n
Following the impact assessment of production supply chains, a form of carbon offsetting was proposed through the development of silvicultural systems properly managed by the same small‐fruit producers (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
Offsetting scheme for the strawberry and small‐fruit industry adopted by the Agrifrutta cooperative.
\n
Indeed, unlike other primary sectors, agriculture is not only a source of carbon dioxide emissions, but has the undeniable advantage of being able to perform CO2 sequestration, thus enabling internal carbon offsetting. The differentiated production model of the farms considered, which rotate different crops each season and comprise areas of woodland, pasture or meadow, makes them natural holders of a ‘green credit’ and thus able to offset fully the carbon dioxide generated in their production cycle. This allows them to create an environmental business plan which forms the basis for the conservation of the characteristic landscape and agro‐biodiversity of the production area. The approach taken has prepared the ground for producer members and various industry stakeholders to forge stronger ties with the local area, and to leverage this to build a reputation capable of establishing new and lasting agreements with communities, distribution channels (supermarkets) and end consumers. The brand has strengthened the image of the product and the producer community. Creating a brand addressed the requirements imposed by a new market structure that requires ever greater product differentiation. It has also raised its profile in national and international markets, emphasising its close links with the surrounding area; even in national and international supermarket distribution, the cooperative\'s products can be identified and recognised, and thus distinguished from similar products.
\n\n
The decision to offset emissions through management of existing local areas, as well as contributing to climate change mitigation, is also an opportunity to improve woodland management, environmental protection and the development of rural and mountain areas.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors acknowledge support from the Lagrange Project of the ISI Foundation funded by the CRT Foundation.
\n',keywords:"Sustainability, Fructicolture, Certification, Stakeholders, labels",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50995.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50995.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50995",totalDownloads:2039,totalViews:975,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:5,impactScorePercentile:91,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 21st 2015",dateReviewed:"March 30th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 30th 2016",dateFinished:"June 7th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The concern for products that meet the requirements of sustainability is a key factor that drives consumers and can be the engine of a successful economy in the food businesses. In the specific case of the fresh fruit and vegetables, more than ever, sustainability understood as a greater focus on the social and environmental performance of the product and of its supply chain, can be considered as a tool to counter the consumer's disaffection. The communication of the product's sustainability can indeed represent a tool to bring out the fruit and vegetable products from the anonymity, a strategy to will make it ‘remember', relying not only on the traditional values recognized to the segment, but also on a set of the supply chain attributes that can differentiate it. However, how to get effectively to the consumer by using a multidimensional and complex concept as the product's sustainability of the product, how to make the sustainability attribute a factor to be considered in the final purchasing choices, how to involve the different stakeholders in the building of a sustainable supply chain (regardless of its length) are still open discussion topics. After presenting the main sustainability certification and communication tools adopted till nowadays for the fresh fruit and vegetables supply chain, the chapter investigates the relative potentialities and criticisms in order to turn them into a real competitiveness’ asset.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50995",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50995",book:{id:"5189",slug:"sustainable-supply-chain-management"},signatures:"Nadia Tecco, Nicole Giuggioli, Vincenzo Girgenti and Cristiana\nPeano",authors:[{id:"179865",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nicole",middleName:null,surname:"Giuggioli",fullName:"Nicole Giuggioli",slug:"nicole-giuggioli",email:"nicole.giuggioli@unito.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"179987",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristiana",middleName:null,surname:"Peano",fullName:"Cristiana Peano",slug:"cristiana-peano",email:"cristiana.peano@unito.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"181109",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Tecco",fullName:"Nadia Tecco",slug:"nadia-tecco",email:"nadia.tecco@unito.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"181111",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Girgenti",fullName:"Vincenzo Girgenti",slug:"vincenzo-girgenti",email:"vincenzo.girgenti@unito.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. An overview of certification schemes and communication tools for F&V",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Certification and standards",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Self‐declaration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Benefits distribution of voluntary socially and environmentally responsible behaviour along the fruit and vegetables supply chain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Drawbacks of the status Quo across the fruit and vegetables supply chain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Future challenges",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. A meaningful case study: Delizie di Bosco del Piemonte",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Harris M. Good to eat: riddles of food and culture [Paperback] [Internet]. 2nd ed. Long Grove, Illinois, USA: Waveland Pr Inc; 1998.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Axelson ML, Brinberg D. A social‐psychological perspective on food‐related behavior. 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Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23685366\n'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Defined as a group of activities between companies and sectors linked by business relations designed to add value to food on the journey from field to fork."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"The use of the term ‘ecolabel’ for this category can be confusing, since the European Union also has an Ecolabel scheme."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"More so in northern Europe than in the south."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"The outcome of this project, launched by the European Commission in 2009, was the construction of a multi-stakeholder platform to facilitate the virtual exchange of such actions among European supermarket operators. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/industry/retail/reap/browse-by-category_en.html"}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nadia Tecco",address:"nadia.tecco@unito.it",affiliation:'
Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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1. Introduction
A distinct approach is required for periodontal pathologies that produces lesions within the tooth- supporting tissues, once associated with risk factors which are complementary to systemic diseases [1]. Bacterial plaque is the prime aetiology of periodontal diseases, accelerating tissue damage. However, the role of plaque is debated when the vulnerability to periodontal diseases persist despite regular conditions. According to the majority of researchers’ perspective, periodontal disease cannot occur in the absence of plaque and tartar, and also suggests that a systematic predisposition merely progresses the tissue destruction caused by microbial flora. On the other hand, few authors claim that there is no concrete evidence establishing cause-effect relationship between the nonspecific bacterial plaque and severity of tooth supporting tissue injury [2].
The host immune response system, the integrity of the tissues, humoral and cellular immunity, and certain endocrine and nutritional factors are the major factors for the development and progression of periodontal disease. Multitude of other factors are also related to periodontal diseases including age, intraoral sites that are more prone to infection and specific microbial agents such as Captosinofaga, Actinomyces naeslundi and Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans [2]. Apart from the host immune response system, these factors also add on to the vulnerability to periodontal disease, presenting simple to complex signs. Furthermore, the presence of associated metabolic disorders would also lead to periodontal damage [2].
Genetic elements play a vital role in influencing the inflammatory and immune response of the periodontal disease. Due to the key role played by the immune system in the pathophysiology of the disease, research is directed to identify the genetic mutation or polymorphism related to the various aspect of immunity. The result of these genetic variations might be minor or unimportant or very important and severe based on its effect and infectivity [3]. Genetic diseases are broadly classified into two entities: Simple Mendelian Disorders and Complex Genetics Disorders. Simple Mendelian Disorders are otherwise known as monogenic or single-gene disorders since they are caused by alterations of a single gene, acquired through autosomal recessive or dominant type of inheritance. Several monogenic gene disorders with biochemical defects present with severe periodontitis as one of their clinical manifestations. In these conditions, genetic alteration occurs at a single locus, producing the clinical phenotype which is responsible to cause the disease. Such a genetic alteration, that is associated with a disease phenotype in all families and there is no alternative mechanism to overcome the impact of the genetic defect, is termed as mutation [4].
Complex genetic diseases prevail in more than 1% of the population and are known to be more dominant than Simple Mendelian disorders. Being affected by environmental and lifestyle factors, complex genetic diseases occur as a result of genetic variations at multiple areas of the genes. Alterations in multiple genes, with each contributing a little to these complex genetic diseases, are called polymorphisms. Specific allele occurring in at least 1% of the population is known as genetic polymorphism. Single base mutation that replaces one nucleotide for another is said to be the simplest type of polymorphism and is termed as a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and simple tandem repeats (STRs), comprising of nucleotide or allele repetition are other types of polymorphism [5]. These genetic polymorphisms are not directly associated with the disease as in monogenetic disorders, however, specific alleles are found with greater incidence in the affected individuals than healthy individuals. The results prove to be true only when two different genetic variations coexist. Complex periodontal disorders are chronic, slowly progressive and are mostly of mild phenotype [5].
Variations in numerous genes encoding different proteins result in a genetic predisposition to a clinical phenotype. Environment and lifestyle play a significant role in impacting the development of complex diseases. Host response influenced by the genetic makeup is responsible for the progression of periodontal disease. Genetic defects or alterations can raise the incidence of periodontal disease. If the physiological process elicited by the gene is related to the occurrence and severity of disease, that specific gene is considered as a contributory element in periodontal disease [6]. Literature evidence reports that the genetic variants play a major role in the aetiology of syndromic and non-syndromic periodontitis.
1.1 Terminologies
1.1.1 Allele
One of two or more alternate forms of a gene or marker at a particular locus on a chromosome. (A glossary of relevant genetic terms –Dialogues in clinical neuroscience) [7].
1.1.1.1 Chromosomes
A thread-like, gene-carrying bodies in the nucleus of a cell. Chromosomes are composed primarily of DNA and protein. They are visible only under magnification during certain stages of cell division. Humans have 46 chromosomes in each somatic cell and 23 in each sex cell. (Basic principles of Genetics -Glossary of terms) [8].
1.1.1.2 Genes
Units of inheritance usually occurring at specific locations, or loci, on a chromosome. Physically, a gene is a sequence of DNA bases that specify the order of amino acids in an entire protein or, in some cases, a portion of a protein. A gene may be made up of hundreds of thousands of DNA bases. Genes are responsible for the hereditary traits in plants and animals. (Basic principles of Genetics -Glossary of terms) [8].
1.1.1.3 Genetics
The study of gene structure and action and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring. Genetic mechanisms are the underlying foundation for evolutionary change. Genetics is the branch of science that deals with the inheritance of biological characteristics. (Basic principles of Genetics -Glossary of terms) [8].
1.1.1.4 Genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual. Genotype can refer to an organism’s entire genetic makeup or the alleles at a particular locus. (Basic principles of Genetics -Glossary of terms) [8].
1.1.1.5 Monozygotic twins
Identical twins. Twins that come from the same zygote are essentially the same genetically. Differences between monozygotic twins later in life are virtually always the result of environmental influences rather than genetic inheritance. Fraternal twins may look similar but are not genetically identical. (Basic principles of Genetics -Glossary of terms) [8].
1.1.1.6 Dizygotic twins
Nonidentical twins that arise when two different eggs are fertilised by two different sperm; also called fraternal twins. (Glossary. Nature) [9].
1.1.1.7 Mutation
An alteration of genetic material such that a new variation is produced. For instance, a trait that has only one allele (A) can mutate to a new form (a). This is the only mechanism of evolution that can produce new alleles of a gene. (Basic principles of Genetics -Glossary of terms) [8].
1.1.1.8 Phenotype
The observable or detectable characteristics of an individual organism--the detectable expression of a genotype. (Basic principles of Genetics -Glossary of terms) [8].
1.1.1.9 Epigenetics
Heritable changes to DNA structure that do not alter the underlying DNA sequence, eg, DNA methylation.
1.1.1.10 Polymorphism (genetic)
The existence within a population of two or more genotypes, the rarest of which exceeds some arbitrarily low frequency (say, 1 percent); more rarely, the existence of phenotypic variation within a population, whether or not genetically based. (Glossary. Nature) [9].
1.1.1.11 Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
Heritable polymorphism resulting from a single base pair change. SNPs generally have only two alleles.
1.1.1.12 Linkage
In genetics, refers to how two genes that are nearby to one another on the same chromosome are often inherited together (Glossary. Nature) [9].
1.1.1.13 Linkage disequilibrium
Describes the state of two genotypes at different loci being dependent, showing a correlation; does not require gene linkage (Glossary. Nature) [9].
1.1.1.14 Linkage equilibrium
The association of two alleles at two or more loci at the frequency predicted by their individual frequencies (Glossary. Nature) [9].
1.1.1.15 Segregational analysis
The process of fitting formal genetic models to data on expressed disease characteristics (phenotype) in biological family members in order to determine the most likely mode of inheritance for the trait or disease under study. (NCI”s Dictionary of Genetic terms) [10].
1.1.1.16 Histone modification
A histone modification is a covalent post-translational modification (PTM) to histone proteins which includes methylation, phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitylation, and sumoylation. The PTMs made to histones can impact gene expression by altering chromatin structure or recruiting histone modifiers. (What is epigenetics).
1.1.1.17 Linkage analysis
Study aimed at establishing linkage between genes. Today linkage analysis serves as a way of gene-hunting and genetic testing (Webster’s New World medical dictionary) [11].
1.1.1.18 Concordance
The amount of similarity in phenotype between a set of individuals. May be used to refer to the presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins. (Molecular biology -Glossary) [12].
1.1.1.19 Discordance
Typically means that a similar trait is not shared between twin members [12].
2. Methodology
An electronic bibliographic search was carried out in three databases namely Pubmed central, Google Scholar, Ebsco, focusing on genetic studies related to periodontics. Books on genetics and periodontics were additionally referred for writing the book review.
3. Genetic study designs
The studies that show evidence of genetic predisposition to periodontitis can be grouped into four areas of research based on the statistical approaches to determine genetic components and genetic model [13].
Family studies.
Segregation analysis.
Twin studies.
Population studies.
Linkage studies.
Association studies.
3.1 Family studies
Hereditary combination of a trait or disorder will recommend genetic aetiology. Hereditary patterns may additionally indicate exposure to common environmental factors within these families. Familial aggregation could result from shared genes, shared environmental exposures and behavioural risk factors like education, socio economic grouping, oral hygiene, possible transmission of bacteria, diseases like polygenic disorder, passive smoking, exposure to pollutants and sanitation. Therefore, the complex interactions between genes and also the surroundings should even be thought-about in the analysis of familial risk for periodontic diseases [14].
3.2 Segregation analysis
They are used to study the inheritance of disease within the families. Genes are passed from parents to kids in an exceedingly foreseeable manner, and typically segregate in families as foretold by Mendel’s laws [15]. Pattern of transmission of disease through generations is analysed in several families and compared with those expected under different models of inheritance to choose the best fitting model.
In this way, segregation analysis helps to identify the best model that simulates the ascertained transmission of a trait in a given population by sequential comparison with all the available models. Segregation analysis is applied by geneticists to determine whether a trait transmission belongs to Mendelian mode of genetic transmission [16].
The pattern by which disease is transmitted across generations depends on whether or not disease alleles:
Lie on autosome/sex chromosomes.
Dominant or Recessive.
Fully or partially penetrant.
Genetic characteristics involving mode of transmission (e.g. autosomal, X-linked, dominant, recessive, complex, multi-locus, or random environmental), penetrance, phenocopy rates and frequencies for disease and non-disease alleles are some of the characteristics assessed in the various models. Phenotype of individual will be determined by the dominant allele. The recessive allele can be inherited only if it is located at both loci on homologous chromosomes. Penetrance refers to the possibility that a particular phenotype will rise from a genotype. Partially penetrant explains that only few individuals who inherit the disease alleles will be affected. The power of segregation analysis was dependent upon the size of population to study the observed pattern of disease.
3.2.1 Advantages
Segregation analysis helps to assess whether the disease gene is autosomal or sex linked, recessive or dominant.
3.2.2 Limitations
Minimal power to resolve heterogeneity (Multiple causes)
Cannot distinguish between genetic and environmental influences
Mode of inheritance among older individuals was difficult to carry out
Does not find or aim to find a specific gene responsible for a trait.
3.3 Twin studies
Twin studies are commonly used to study the influence of genetic and environmental factors on the complex diseases like periodontitis with multifactorial aetiology. Studying phenotypic traits of twins is a method of differentiating variations due to environmental and genetic factors [17]. Sir Francis Galton in 1875 was the first scientist to use this concept. The subject of interest in twin studies can be monozygotic or dizygotic twins.
Monozygotic twins ascend from single fertilised ovum and are therefore genetically identical and always the same sex. Dizygous twins arise from the fertilisation of two separate ovum and share one half of their descendent genes in the same way as siblings do. Concordance refers to the degree of similarity between twins in one or more characteristics whereas discordance refers to the degree of dissimilarity between twins in one or more characteristics.
Only environmental factors might account for any discordance in disease between monozygotic twins [18, 19]. Environmental and genetic variation might account for any discordance in disease between dizygotic twins. Presuming that the environmental influence is constant, the effects of excess shared genes in monozygotic twins measures the difference in discordance between monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins [20, 21].
For binary traits (present or absent), a genetic effect is inferred if the positive concordance rate, or percentage of twin pairs in which both twins are affected, is greater for MZ than DZ twins.
There are two types of twin studies:
Classic twin study- Monozygotic and dizygotic twins are reared together and compared.
Study in which monozygotic twins are reared apart- This study shows the effects of shared genes without the confounding effects of a common family environment. Any similarities between both of them will be attributed to their shared genes and dissimilarities will be because of environmental factors.
Heritability, which refers to the proportion of phenotypic variation attributed to genetic variation, can be evaluated efficiently by twin data. 50% heritability clearly states that half of phenotypic variance in the population is attributed to genetic variance and it does not imply that a child of an affected parent has a 50% chance of inheriting the disease.
It was proposed that 38–82% of the population variance for probing depth (PD), attachment loss (AL) and dental plaque may be attributed to genetic factors in a study involving 110 pairs of adult twins [22]. A successive study on 64 monozygotic and 53 dizygotic pairs of adult twins disclosed the fact that genetic variance contributes to almost half of the variance in disease pattern in the population. From the results of the study, it was concluded that MZ twins were more alike than DZ twins for all clinical parameters [23].
Therefore, the difference in concordance between MZ and DZ twins for a specific phenotype could be used to evaluate the relative contribution of genes (heredity) and environmental factors to a disease and analysing disease presentation in twins is an essential first step in this process. Though twin studies overcame the drawbacks of segregation analysis, few such studies have been conducted because of the inadequacy of such twins.
3.4 Population studies
Environmental or behavioural risk factors for a disease are usually first detected in significant epidemiological or population-based studies. A genetic polymorphism is the long-time manifestation in a population of two or more genotypes that could not be maintained by frequent mutation.
The frequencies of polymorphisms of candidate genes can be compared between diseased individuals and controls [4]. It can be proved that the candidate gene determines the vulnerability to disease when there is a clear cut difference in the frequency of a specific polymorphism, between a case group and a control group. In this way, pathogenesis, causal heterogeneity of disease process and individuals most at risk for the disease can be interpreted well [24, 25].
In chronic periodontitis, no evidence of any simple pattern of genetic transmission that would support an etiologic role for a single gene mutation is demonstrated. In contrast to simple genetic diseases that may be caused by a single genetic mutation, the additive effect of multiple genes is a determinant of disease susceptibility in complex diseases such as chronic periodontitis [14].
3.5 Linkage studies
Linkage analysis is a technique used to map the gene responsible for a trait to a specific position on a chromosome. These studies are based on the information that genes that are located closely on the same chromosome incline to have inherited together as a unit. Such genes are said to be linked and defy Mendel’s law of independent assortment.
The distance between two allele at different loci will determine whether they will recombine. This is termed as recombination or crossover event. There is 50% chance that any two maternal or paternal alleles will recombine and be transmitted together to an offspring. However, alleles at nearby loci are linked and they tend to segregate together.
Linkage study necessitates use of very expensive DNA markers which was acceptable only after learning strong evidence of a genetic basis for a trait using segregation analysis or family aggregation analysis. By identifying the genetic markers that are associated with the disease causing alleles, the researchers can modify the location of a disease allele. Inheritance of a disease can be established if the distance between marker and disease allele is within 20–30 centimo grams (cM). In humans, 1 cM represents approximately 1 million nucleotide bases.
In this way, segregation of a trait in a manner consistent with linkage to a known genetic marker can be tested. Once the linkage is detected, the gene responsible for the trait can be placed in the vicinity of the linked genetic polymorphism since the exact chromosomal location of the genetic marker is known. Hence the genetic basis of disease is proved by linkage. Linkage is usually used as an initial step to identify the approximate location of a gene of interest, allowing the successive studies to determine the mutation responsible for a disease trait.
Linkage studies usually start by identifying markers (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) on a section of chromosome and then narrowing down the region until the gene of interest is found. DNA markers that are located proximal to a disease gene will be inclined to be inherited together with the disease gene. The closer a marker is to the disease gene, the closer the linkage and the more likely it is that they will be inherited together.
Linkage studies use sets of families, containing multiple affected individuals. Genotypes are determined for affected and unaffected family members, and complex statistical models are used to decide whether marker allele and disease co-segregate in the families under a given inheritance model.
Linkage is calculated using a LOD (Logarithm of odds) score. It is described as the ratio of probability that the disease and the marker loci are linked rather than unlinked. Supporting linkage gives a LOD score of +3 (1000:1) whereas, absence of linkage denotes a score of −2. Boughman et al. was first to assess the linkage between dentinogenesis imperfecta and aggressive periodontitis [26].
Marker linked to disease allele within a family may not be linked with disease in the population, which implies that same marker allele need not be transmitted with the disease allele in all affected families. However, Allelic associations (which is discussed below) occur when the same marker allele is linked to disease in multiple families.
3.5.1 Drawbacks
Linkage studies have been successful only in identifying the genetic basis of simple Mendelian traits, where mutation of a single gene can cause a disease. Nevertheless, Linkage studies of complex diseases are not successful since complex diseases are due to the combined effect of multiple genes of minor effect and each gene contribute a small amount to the disease phenotype [27, 28].
It has extremely low statistical power for diseases in which there is extensive heterogeneity among different families that have different combinations of vulnerable genes and environmental exposures.
3.6 Association studies
Associations indicate that the presence of an allele confers risk for disease within a specific environment. Allele association helps to identify whether the frequency of an allele is considerably increased or decreased in a particular disease. The difference between association studies and genetic linkage is that association studies compare a population of affected individuals with control population whereas, the latter is demonstrable only in families or siblings.
Therefore, Association studies involve candidate gene approach, a gene mapping approach that tests whether one allele of a gene appears more frequently in patients with disease than in subjects without the disease. Candidate genes are selected based on their reasonable role in disease process such as producing a protein that is important in disease pathogenesis.
Linkage disequilibrium is a term used when the same marker allele is linked with disease in multiple families. Frequency of allele at a given locus is compared between patients with disease and healthy subjects to test this association. Biologic link between the disease and an allele cannot be confirmed through association. Association might result due to few environmental factors causing both the marker and the disease to rise in the population, or due to a difference in the racial or ethnic makeup of the cases and controls, or from chance alone [29]. True linkage disequilibrium refers to a situation when marker and disease allele are placed close to each other on chromosomes and the chances of disease are more.
On the whole, this population-based approach compares marker allele frequencies between affected and unaffected individuals, using a standard case–control design. When a positive association is found, few interpretations are made: [30].
Associated allele is considered as the disease-predisposing allele.
Associated allele is in linkage disequilibrium with the exact disease-predisposing locus.
Association arise out of population stratification.
Association is a sampling, or statistical, artefact.
Numerous case control studies are reported in which genotype frequencies of an inherited DNA variant for a group of periodontitis cases are statistically compared to periodontally healthy control subjects. If the genotype frequencies vary so much that the results are very unlikely to occur by coincidence, it is assumed that the genotype is more common in cases than controls and is associated with high disease risk.
3.6.1 Advantages
Association studies are beneficial for discovery of inherited genetic variation important for a wide range of complex diseases including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic disorders, obesity and mental illness.
3.6.2 Disadvantages
Alleles that can be used to predict disease in one population may not be useful in other populations or even in the same population when exposed to extremely different environments. In the presence of pathogens, individuals with the low response allele develop disease. On the other hand, no relationship may exist between the disease and this allele in populations where the particular bacteria is absent.
Low power to evaluate small genetic effects
Small presentation of actual causal or rare variants
Non-consideration of prior mechanistic or biological information [31]
3.7 Evidence for the role of genetic variants in periodontitis
The above mentioned studies demonstrate that different genetic loci are capable of causing the disease in dominant and recessive ways [32]. Few of the genes responsible are autosomal whereas others are X-linked. These factors account for the different observed modes of transmission (Tables 1–4).
Subjects with one AP disease allele and two copies of the high IgG2 response allele develops Localised Aggressive periodontitis Subjects with one AP disease allele and one copy of high IgG2 response allele develops widespread disease since their IgG2 response to LPS would be less robust.
Aggressive Periodontitis disease and IgG2 responsiveness to bacterial LPS segregate independently as dominant and codominant trails
Independent twin studies at Minnesota and Virginia in which the relative contribution of environmental and host genetic factors to clinical measures of periodontal disease were examined
Significant heritable component for gingivitis, PD, CAL, plaque. 38–82% of the population variance for these periodontal measures of disease may be attributed to genetic factors.
Composite IL-1 genotype consisting atleast one copy of the rare allele at both an IL- 1 α and IL -1β loci was associated with severe periodontitis in North European adults.
Association-18.9 Genotype positive nonsmokers were 6.8 times likely to have severe periodontal disease.
Study conducted to analyse composite genotype in Caucasians
More rare IL-1β sites were in linkage disequilibrium,ie, IL-1 β allele was found to be more prevalent in chronic periodontitis than the composite genotype.
TNF genotypes were determined in 32 Caucasian patients with chronic periodontitis and 32 orally healthy matched controls, and correlated with TNF- alpha production by oral polymorphonuclear leukocytes
No association between Chronic Periodontitis and TNF- α polymerisation
Study conducted on patients with Chronic and Aggressive periodontitis (AP)
MHC class II DR4 antigen were at increased risk of type of DM 1 related complications including periodontitis DR4 antigen was more prevalent in patients with AP disease than controls
Table 4.
Association studies.
4. Genetic polymorphisms and periodontal disease
A polymorphism is a form of genetic variant that appears in at least 1% of a population and evolves from mutation. 90% of polymorphisms come from Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) where a single base of one nucleotide is replaced with another. In majority of SNP that occur in genes, the protein produced remains unaffected, but have an effect on the gene product. Since all forms of periodontal disorders are linked with bacterial infections, outlining the relative roles of genes and environmental factors in these complex disorders is a challenge [47]. In case of chronic periodontitis, studies on twin adults imply that a sizable proportion of the population variance for periodontal measures such as pocket depth, attachment loss, and bone loss might be endorsed to genetics. Early onset periodontitis is often genetic, and the likelihood of inheriting periodontitis is high, as indicated by genetic studies [48].
A large part of in vitro and in vivo analyses [49] of human tissues as well as studies in animals strongly confirms that cytokines play a key role at all stages of the immune response in periodontal disorder. The various genetic polymorphisms associated with periodontal diseases are shown in (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Flowchart showing the various genetic polymorphisms associated with periodontal disease.
4.1 Inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines
4.1.1 Interleukin-1
IL-1 gene polymorphisms were the first described genetic markers related to periodontal disease in 1997 [10]. The three cytokines originally defined as the members of the IL-1 family were IL-1α and IL-1β, are the major agonistic molecules, whereas IL-1Ra, a biological antagonist. These functionally similar molecules are encoded on separate genes in the same region of chromosome 2. SNP’s were found in IL-1 gene cluster, a C to T transition at nucleotide: 889 in the IL-1α and the second at +3954 of IL-1β gene. Occurrence of allele 2 of the IL-1B +3953 SNP was significantly increased in patients with advanced periodontal disorder [50, 51, 52, 53, 54].
Dental Implants: Investigations in individuals with polymorphisms of IL-1α and IL-1β genes with IL-1β – 511 2/2 genotype showed evidence of a substantially higher incidents of marginal bone loss [55].
Intrabony defects: Impact of IL-1 gene polymorphism on clinical and radiographic healing results in patients treated with Guided Tissue Regeneration (GTR) therapy [56] did not reveal any statistical variations between IL-1 + and IL-1 – patients.
4.1.2 Interleukin-2
It is established that – 330 (T → G) polymorphism in IL-2 gene is related to acute and vital role in pathogenesis of periodontitis [57].
4.1.3 Interleukin-4
Study of IL-4 gene polymorphisms in the intron 2 and in the promoter positions (PP+ and IP+) showed no link with periodontal disease exposure.
4.1.4 Interleukin 6
IL-6 in intron 2 and in the promoter positions (PP- and IP) gene polymorphisms in chronic periodontitis suggested that −572 G/C polymorphisms of IL-6 gene may be one of the protecting factors connected with lower susceptibility to chronic periodontal disease [50, 51, 52, 53].
4.1.5 Tumour necrosis factor-α
Study to explore 4 polymorphisms in TNF- α gene which are all transitions from G to A, 3 in the promoter positions: – 376, − 308, − 238 and at position +489, failed to be identified as susceptibility or severity factors in periodontitis.
4.1.6 Interleukin-10
Three SNPs in the promoter regions of IL10 genes, a G to A transition, at position – 1087, C to T transition at 819, and a C to A transition at 592 have been linked with altered synthesis of IL10.
4.1.7 Interleukin 18
Six different IL-18 gene polymorphism (−656, −607, −137, +113, +127, and codon 35/3) were investigated and none of the polymorphisms were linked to destructive periodontal disease [38, 44].
4.2 Immunoreceptor related polymorphism
4.2.1 Fcγ receptor polymorphisms
The phagocytes harbour the Fc-gamma receptor which attaches to IgG. There are three broad classes of FcR: FcãRI (CD 64), FcãR II (CD 32), FcãR III (CD 16) in chromosome 1. Of which FcãR IIIa and FcãR IIIb, is found to be frequently associated with chronic periodontitis. FcãR IIIb has a NA1-NA2 polymorphism. NA1 is a more efficient opsono-phagocytic agent than NA2 [58].
When one or several of FcγR-mediated leukocyte functions are less or over efficient due to polymorphisms, it is likely that vulnerability or severity of periodontal disease is seen [46, 47].
These are signal molecules essential for the cellular response to bacterial cell wall components. TLR 2 exhibits polymorphism (Arg to Thr at 677, Arg to Gly at 753) which alters their ability to respond to cell wall components. Polymorphism of TLR4 (Asp 299 Arg 677 Trp; Arg753 Gln) have been known to be linked with impaired Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) signal transduction. Their relationship has still not been established [48].
4.2.3 CD14 gene polymorphism
The transcriptional activity of the CD 14 gene is enhanced by the presence of R-allele in the promoter region at position −260(−159). Research in Caucasian population revealed CD14–260 polymorphism in chronic periodontitis with no major link. A higher frequency of the N –allele and the N/N genotype of CD14–1359 polymorphism were observed in patients with aggressive periodontitis and in subjects with severe periodontal disorder [37, 41].
4.2.4 CARD 15 gene polymorphisms
The 3020insC and 2104 C > T polymorphisms seen in CARD15 (NOD2) gene results in decreased stimulation of nuclear factor-kappa B, thereby leads to alteration in the gene expression of pro inflammatory cytokine genes and diminished production of cytokines. However there has been no further established role for CARD 15 from studies in Caucasians [52].
4.2.5 Polymorphism of RANK gene
RANKL and its receptor RANK are the key elements reported to cause increased bone resorption in periodontal disease through osteoclast differentiation and activation of nuclear factor-B (RANK), RANK ligand (RANKL), and osteoprotegrin (OPG). Association studies show no significant link of the SNPs with AgP in Japanese population.
4.2.6 N-formyl peptide receptor polymorphism
FMLP receptor has a high affinity variant (FPR1) which binds with FMLP receptors of microbial cells triggering chemotaxis, degranulation and superoxide production which are found to be disrupted in genetically modified periodontitis. Polymorphisms were noted at the nt329T-C (codon 110 phenylalanine-serine), and at the nt378C-G (codon 126 cysteine-tryptophan) in the 583 bp interval of FMLP receptor gene. Coincidentally this is found to be significantly linked to the Agp phenotype in Afro-American patients [17, 18].
4.2.7 Vitamin D receptor (VDR) polymorphisms
Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism has influence on bone mineral density and turnover. Studies proved vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene is localised in chromosome 12 with a group of polymorphisms: BsmI, ApaI and TaqI and relationship between TaqI VDR gene polymorphisms and periodontitis.
4.3 Antigen–antibody gene polymorphism
4.3.1 HLA genetics
The MHC genes are the most polymorphic genes present in the genome of every living organism. Research implied that patients with HLA-DRB1*1501-DQB1*0602 genotype may have accelerated T cell response and are thereby prone to periodontitis.
4.3.2 Immunoglobulin g2 variations
IgG molecules constitute genetically strong variants in the gamma heavy chains, termed Gm allotypes. Patients with rapidly progressing periodontitis with positive Gm shows higher antibodies [54].
4.4 Polymorphism in genes encoding enzymes
4.4.1 Cathepsin C gene polymorphism
Cathepsin C is a lysosomal protease in neutrophils and macrophages identified in chromosome 11, responsible for periodontal disease in young children termed as prepubertal periodontitis [51, 52].
MMP-1 is an important mediator of connective tissue destruction in periodontal disease. A single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter position of - 1607 bp of MMP-1 gene a, 5′-GGA-3′, instead of 5′-GAT-3′ has been identified to be linked with higher threat of generalised aggressive periodontitis [58].
4.4.3 Polymorphisms in cyclogenase −2 gene
PGE2 is a significant mediator of tissue destruction, catalysed by COX-2. A SNP of COX-2 in the chromosome 9q32–33. This modifies the expression of the COX-2 gene and polymorphism of -765G to C is linked with lesser risk for periodontitis.
4.4.4 Polymorphisms in genes encoding myeloperoxidase (MPO) and N-acetyl transferase (NAT-2)
A SNP in the promoter position of −1607 bp of MMP-1 gene a, 5′-GGA-3′, instead of 5′-GAT-3′ has been learned to be connected with increased risk of generalised aggressive periodontitis. A link between bone density loss in periodontal disease and polymorphism of NAT2 have been reported [59].
4.4.5 Polymorphisms in genes encoding vasoactive enzymes
The study of genotypes between affected and healthy showed the presence of lymphotoxin-á (TNF-â), angiotensin- converting enzyme and endothelin-1(ET-1) polymorphism with link to three-locus combination [41, 60].
5. Periodontal diseases as a manifestation of systemic genetic disorders
Certain systemic disorders predispose the patient’s susceptibility to acquire periodontal disease, which may present clinically in a chronic or an aggressive form. The involved pathogenesis includes modifications in the immune, endocrine and connective tissue status of the individual. These changes eventually result in the occurrence of syndromes with periodontal disease either as a primary manifestation or by aggravating a pre-existing condition associated with the presence of local factors. The alterations in the immune system may be noted at cellular and/or humoral level. Lymphocytes play a pivotal role in driving the immune response, and a defect or absence of one or more lineages may result in fatal conditions like leukaemia or Acquired immune-deficiency syndrome [61]. Neutrophil defects in turn may be of a qualitative (altered chemotaxis and phagocytosis) or quantitative nature (neutropenia, agranulocytosis), and both predispose to rapid and severe periodontal destruction.
A high susceptibilty to develop periodontitis has been associated with conditions such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21), Chediak-Higashi syndrome and Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome. These subjects present with an increased incidence of infections with a plausibility owing to a diminished expression of surface glycoproteins required for bacterial adhesion [62]. Other connective tissue disorders, also induce an elevation to periodontal inflammation mostly linked with plaque and in some cases an overstated response relatively disproportionate to the amount of microbial plaque present.
5.1 Unleashing the underlying mechanism
Inorder to understand the pathogenesis of Genetic diseases, they have been broadly classified as,
Immune related alterations: eg severe congenital neutropenia (SCN) or infantile genetic agranulocytosis or Kostmann syndrome (IGA), Chediak-Higiashi syndrome, Down syndrome, Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome, hyperimmunoglobulinemia E syndrome [61].
5.2 Systemic and periodontal manifestations of common genetic disorders
5.2.1 Connective tissue deformities
5.2.1.1 Marfan syndrome
Mutation of a gene encoding for fibril-1 present in chromosome 15 marks a defect in the synthesis of a glycoprotein forming part of the connective tissue matrix. This causes defects in a series of locations such as the ocular lens suspensory ligament, blood vessel walls and, apparently, the periodontal ligament [62].
Periodontal manifestations:
The mode of periodontal pathogenesis in these syndromes can be understood by connective tissue modifications which generates increased vulnerability to periodontal inflammation and bone resorption. Despite the co-existence of a similar background alteration, the manifestations of periodontal disease vary in their presentation in each of the syndromes. For instance, Marfan syndrome exhibit both chronic and severe form of disease with patterns of horizontal and vertical bone resorption, in accordance to the presence of bacterial plaque. However, tooth mobility has been shown to be a sequel to periodontitis, and is not endorsed to the primary condition of the syndrome [62, 63].
5.2.1.2 Ehler-Danlos syndrome
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS) comprises a group of genetic diseases involving the connective tissue characterised by mutations in the genes responsible for the collagen biosynthesis. The clinical expressions of EDS include increased tissue fragility, hypermobility of joints, and hyperextensibility of skin [64].
Periodontal manifestations
In EDS, periodontal disease can be linked with syndromes type I, VII, III, or IV. Type I EDS has increased predisposition to periodontal disease, whereas type VIII manifests as early onset periodontitis, with premature loss of permanent teeth, fragility of the mucosa leading to bleeding gums and oral mucosa The postulated mechanism is a defect in type III collagen, amounting to a total of periodontal junction. Moreover, a relationship has been found to Fusobacterium nucleatum, which could be isolated from the active affected sites [65].
5.2.2 Immune related conditions
The immune conditions contemplated in the above classification are all primary immune deficiencies caused by a decrease in neutrophil presence, or by modifications in the functions of these cells – as in the above cited syndromes. These conditions predispose patients to bacterial and fungal infections in childhood, because the decrease in neutrophil presence alters the host defence capacity. Additionally, a drop is seen in the production of granulocyte colony stimulating factors [66, 67]. Let us discuss some significant disorders.
5.2.2.1 Chediak-Higiashi syndrome
Chediak-Higiashi syndrome is supplemented by leukocyte modification, basically limited to the lysosomes, which destroy melanosomes producing oculocutaneous albinism. Affected patients also present mental retardation, and neutropenia additionally may also be observed – with altered LA.
5.2.2.2 Down syndrome
Down syndrome or trisomy 21 results because of chromosomal abnormality that causes peculiar physical changes, with co-existing mental retardation and other systemic alterations. The immune changes described in Down syndrome are linked to function of WBCs, responsible for the defensive mechanisms in periodontal tissues [68, 69].
5.2.2.3 Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome
Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome is classically manifested as palmoplantar erythematous hyperkeratosis along with periodontal disease. The proposed mechanism is linked to a mutation of the gene encoding for cathepsin C, which generates a lysosomal protein implicated to modify the host immune response, inflammatory response and extracellular matrix function with significant changes in the palmar, plantar and gingival epithelium [64]. Hyperimmunoglobulinemia E (HE) consists of an increase in serum immunoglobulin E (IgE). This in turn leads to a series of systematic variations with involvement of the skin, facial malformations and increased vulnerability to staphylococcal infections [70, 71].
5.3 Periodontal manifestations of immune related disorders
In neutrophil disorders, the notable reduction in the amount of neutrophils tends to disregulate the host defence capacity, causing periodontal disease to manifest at a younger age. Gingival inflammation, aggressive periodontal tissue destruction, edema, pocket formation and tooth mobility are common presentations. This clinical representation is much similar to prepuberal or rapidly progressive periodontitis with premature loss of the deciduous teeth [66, 68, 72].
5.3.1 Chediak-Higiashi syndrome
Chediak-Higiashi syndrome manifests as early occurrence of periodontitis with premature exfoliation of both dentitions. The bone resorption patterns may be local or generalised, and are linked to associated inflammation. The disorder is associated with anaerobic flora, due to the amble presence of purulent processes. The abundant presence of spirochetes in the locations with inflammation and high proteolytic activity, which facilitates bacterial adherence further explains the pathosis. Adding to this, the co-existence of lysosomal modifications and defective chemotaxis in neutrophils gives rise to very rapidly progressing periodontitis that inclines to be recurrent and is refractory to antibiotic treatment [68].
5.3.2 Down syndrome
Down syndrome is characterised by aggressive and generalised periodontitis, with subsequent damage of the supporting tissues and loss of teeth at an early age. Eight percent of Down syndrome children suffer periodontal lesions by 12 years of age [73]. The rate of occurence of periodontal disease in this population ranges from 60–100% in young adults under 30 years of age [70]. The co existence of immune deficiency, inadequate control of bacterial plaque, deficient masticatory function, early ageing and alterations in dental anatomy (short roots) predispose or aggravate the progression of periodontal disease [74, 75].
In patients with higher level of mental retardation, difficulties are observed with relation to oral hygiene maintenance. Oral health care needs to be emphasised in order to avoid the accumulation of plaque leading to initiation of the disease [76, 77, 78]. The presence of defective neutrophil chemotaxis, leads to progressive periodontitis as observed in juvenile periodontitis. Concurrently, it has been reported that the B cells,T cells, and monocytes, also illustrate functional defects. The periodontal destruction is directly proportional to the degree of alteration in functional chemotaxis. The mechanism mounting for the dysfunction is attributed to a decrease in the number of cell surface receptors, and diminished levels of zinc and some vitamins in serum [70].
5.3.3 Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome
Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome presents as aggressive periodontal inflammation with the premature loss of both primary and permanent dentitions. The underlying mechanism involved are due to immune modifications apart from alterations in the gingival tissues along with the notable presence of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans [72].
5.3.4 Hyperimmunoglobulinemia E syndrome
Hyperimmunoglobulinemia E syndrome manifests with overhiked susceptibility to infections and thus contributing to the development of periodontitis. The process involved here is thought to be associated with a deficient host cellular and humoral immune response, comprising of an inadequate neutrophil chemotaxis secondary to alteration in the regulation of T cell cytokines. The rapid spike in circulating IgE leads to a reduced production of gamma-interferon, which intervenenes with anti-inflammatory and bone resorption-inhibiting processes. Thereby, the heightened inflammatory and resorptive phenomena noted in these patients, gives rise to early and advanced periodontitis. This disorder is associated with abundance of pathogenic microflora (P. gingivalis, T. denticola, E. corrodens) that results in severe periodontal damage in adults and in children [73]. The syndromes, mode of inheritance, function of responsible gene and periodontal manifestations are given in Table 5.
Syndrome
Mode of inheritance
Defect
Function of normal gene
Oral & periodontal manifestation
Severe congenital neutropenia type 1
Autosomal dominant
Neutrophil elastase gene (ela2)- 19p13.36
The products of elastase gene degrade membrane protein a of bacterial cell wall.
Early age periodontitis similar to pre pubertal periodontitis
Gingival inflammation, Increased probing depth, Severe alveolar bone loss in both dentitions
Cohen syndrome
Autosomal recessive
Mutation in the vps13b gene
Functional vps13b protein.
Early adult periodontitis
Ehlers-danlos syndrome (type iv and viii)
Autosomal dominant
Type iv: mutation in type iii collagen Type viii: mutation in chromosome 12p13
Synthesis of type iii collagen
Severe periodontitis Prolonged bleeding Delayed healing
Table 5.
Comprehensive tabulation of genetic disorders and their periodontal manifestations [44, 61, 62].
6. Future perspectives
At least 50% of periodontitis vulnerability is attributed to heredity or genetic factors [20]. Clinical observations and scientific studies have demonstrated that the heredity of a host response pattern may be an important susceptibility factor in developing periodontal diseases [20, 79, 80]. Added information from new technologies, such as micro-arrays and DNA-sequencing, lead to the identification of specific genetic, environmental, and behavioural factors that influence periodontitis susceptibility [81].
In order to enhance the therapeutic management of periodontal disease, we must not only be able to identify genetic determinants, but also learn to modify, control or modulate the host response either by stimulating a desired immune response, or by decreasing the activating factors of bone resorption,both of which hinders the progression of the disease by [82, 83, 84].
7. Concluding remarks
At present, the clinical application of the effect of genetics in periodontics is minimal. Despite several researches revealing association of candidate gene polymorphisms with periodontal disease, lacunae lies owing to co-existence of multiple etiotrophic factors and the plausible role of epigenetics in the periodontal disease severity. Future research shall be directed towards multiple genes, their interactions and role of epigenetics in modifying the periodontal etiopathogenesis.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Genetics, Periodontal disease, Hereditary influence, Polymorphism, Syndromes, Genetic study design",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77787.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77787.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77787",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77787",totalDownloads:124,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 5th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 6th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 2nd 2021",datePublished:"February 16th 2022",dateFinished:"August 2nd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"A branch of Biology which deals with the science of hereditary influences on living organisms is termed as Genetics. There has been a broad study related to hereditary influence on human tissue linking to health and disease conditions. A vital role is played by genetics in the proper functioning, adaptive repair, regeneration and remodelling of hard and soft tissue. A major segment of genes are related to periodontal disease. Periodontal disease, being multifactorial in origin is directly or indirectly known to be caused by genetic factors also. A study on human and animals validates the concept that genetics could have influenced periodontal disorders and also plays a key role in the predisposition and progressiveness of the condition. The role played by genetics to damage the inflammatory and immune response system of the host tissues during periodontal conditions has been proved and this section will give a clear insight on the influence of genetics in this condition.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77787",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77787",signatures:"Santo Grace Umesh, Lakshmi Ramachandran, Janani Karthikeyan and Anitha Mani",book:{id:"9493",type:"book",title:"Periodontology",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Clinical Features",fullTitle:"Periodontology - Fundamentals and Clinical Features",slug:"periodontology-fundamentals-and-clinical-features",publishedDate:"February 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Petra Surlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9493.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-679-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-678-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-680-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"171921",title:"Prof.",name:"Petra",middleName:null,surname:"Surlin",slug:"petra-surlin",fullName:"Petra Surlin"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",email:"grace.santo@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"342170",title:"Dr.",name:"Lakshmi",middleName:null,surname:"Ramachandran",fullName:"Lakshmi Ramachandran",slug:"lakshmi-ramachandran",email:"drlak.84@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",email:"janjohn14@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",email:"anithha@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Terminologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_1_3",title:"1.1.1 Allele",level:"3"},{id:"sec_1_4",title:"1.1.1.1 Chromosomes",level:"4"},{id:"sec_2_4",title:"1.1.1.2 Genes",level:"4"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"1.1.1.3 Genetics",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"1.1.1.4 Genotype",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"1.1.1.5 Monozygotic twins",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"1.1.1.6 Dizygotic twins",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"1.1.1.7 Mutation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"1.1.1.8 Phenotype",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"1.1.1.9 Epigenetics",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"1.1.1.10 Polymorphism (genetic)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"1.1.1.11 Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"1.1.1.12 Linkage",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"1.1.1.13 Linkage disequilibrium",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"1.1.1.14 Linkage equilibrium",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"1.1.1.15 Segregational analysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"1.1.1.16 Histone modification",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"1.1.1.17 Linkage analysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_4",title:"1.1.1.18 Concordance",level:"4"},{id:"sec_19_4",title:"1.1.1.19 Discordance",level:"4"},{id:"sec_23",title:"2. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"3. Genetic study designs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"3.1 Family studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"3.2 Segregation analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"3.2.1 Advantages",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"3.2.2 Limitations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"3.3 Twin studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"3.4 Population studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"3.5 Linkage studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"3.5.1 Drawbacks",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"3.6 Association studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"3.6.1 Advantages",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_3",title:"3.6.2 Disadvantages",level:"3"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"3.7 Evidence for the role of genetic variants in periodontitis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_37",title:"4. Genetic polymorphisms and periodontal disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_37_2",title:"4.1 Inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_37_3",title:"4.1.1 Interleukin-1",level:"3"},{id:"sec_38_3",title:"4.1.2 Interleukin-2",level:"3"},{id:"sec_39_3",title:"4.1.3 Interleukin-4",level:"3"},{id:"sec_40_3",title:"4.1.4 Interleukin 6",level:"3"},{id:"sec_41_3",title:"4.1.5 Tumour necrosis factor-α",level:"3"},{id:"sec_42_3",title:"4.1.6 Interleukin-10",level:"3"},{id:"sec_43_3",title:"4.1.7 Interleukin 18",level:"3"},{id:"sec_45_2",title:"4.2 Immunoreceptor related polymorphism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_45_3",title:"4.2.1 Fcγ receptor polymorphisms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_46_3",title:"4.2.2 Toll-like receptors (TLR-2,-4) gene polymorphism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_47_3",title:"4.2.3 CD14 gene polymorphism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_48_3",title:"4.2.4 CARD 15 gene polymorphisms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_49_3",title:"4.2.5 Polymorphism of RANK gene",level:"3"},{id:"sec_50_3",title:"4.2.6 N-formyl peptide receptor polymorphism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_51_3",title:"4.2.7 Vitamin D receptor (VDR) polymorphisms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_53_2",title:"4.3 Antigen–antibody gene polymorphism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_53_3",title:"4.3.1 HLA genetics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_54_3",title:"4.3.2 Immunoglobulin g2 variations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_56_2",title:"4.4 Polymorphism in genes encoding enzymes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_56_3",title:"4.4.1 Cathepsin C gene polymorphism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_57_3",title:"4.4.2 Matrix metalloproteinases(MMP) polymorphisms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_58_3",title:"4.4.3 Polymorphisms in cyclogenase −2 gene",level:"3"},{id:"sec_59_3",title:"4.4.4 Polymorphisms in genes encoding myeloperoxidase (MPO) and N-acetyl transferase (NAT-2)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_60_3",title:"4.4.5 Polymorphisms in genes encoding vasoactive enzymes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_63",title:"5. Periodontal diseases as a manifestation of systemic genetic disorders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_63_2",title:"5.1 Unleashing the underlying mechanism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_64_2",title:"5.2 Systemic and periodontal manifestations of common genetic disorders",level:"2"},{id:"sec_64_3",title:"5.2.1 Connective tissue deformities",level:"3"},{id:"sec_64_4",title:"5.2.1.1 Marfan syndrome",level:"4"},{id:"sec_65_4",title:"5.2.1.2 Ehler-Danlos syndrome",level:"4"},{id:"sec_67_3",title:"5.2.2 Immune related conditions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_67_4",title:"5.2.2.1 Chediak-Higiashi syndrome",level:"4"},{id:"sec_68_4",title:"5.2.2.2 Down syndrome",level:"4"},{id:"sec_69_4",title:"5.2.2.3 Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome",level:"4"},{id:"sec_72_2",title:"5.3 Periodontal manifestations of immune related disorders",level:"2"},{id:"sec_72_3",title:"5.3.1 Chediak-Higiashi syndrome",level:"3"},{id:"sec_73_3",title:"5.3.2 Down syndrome",level:"3"},{id:"sec_74_3",title:"5.3.3 Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome",level:"3"},{id:"sec_75_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_78",title:"6. Future perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_79",title:"7. Concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_83",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Fernández PB, Portillo GM. Tratamiento odontológico en pacientes especiales. Laboratorios Normon; 2004'},{id:"B2",body:'Wilton JM, Griffiths GS, Curtis MA, Maiden MF, Gillett IR, Wilson DT, Sterne JA, Johnson NW. Detection of high-risk groups and individuals for periodontal diseases: Systemic predisposition and markers of general health. Journal of clinical Periodontology. 1988 Jul;15(6):339-46'},{id:"B3",body:'Tarannum F, Faizuddin M. Effect of gene polymorphisms on periodontal diseases. Indian journal of human genetics. 2012 Jan;18(1):9'},{id:"B4",body:'Taba Jr M, Souza SL, Mariguela VC. Periodontal disease: a genetic perspective. Brazilian oral research. 2012;26(spe1):32-8'},{id:"B5",body:'Masamatti DS, Kumar A, Dodwad V. Role of Genetics in Periodontal Diseases. 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In Genco R et al, editors: Molecular pathogenesis of periodontal disease, Washington, DC, 1994, American Society for Microbiology'},{id:"B36",body:'Corey LA, Nance WE, Hofstede P. Self-reported periodontal disease in a Virginia twin population. J Periodontal 1992; 64: 1205'},{id:"B37",body:'Li Y, Xu L, Hasturk H. Localized aggressive periodontitis is linked to chromosome 1q25. Hum Genet 2004; 114: 291'},{id:"B38",body:'Tabeta K, Shimada Y, Tai H, Ishihara Y, Noguchi T, Soga Y, Yoshie H. Assessment of Chromosome 19 for Genetic Association in Severe Chronic Periodontitis. Journal of Periodontology 2009; 80(4): 663-671'},{id:"B39",body:'Kornman KS, Di Giovine FS. Genetic variations in cytokine expression: A risk factor for severity of adult periodontitis. Ann Periodontol 1998; 3: 327'},{id:"B40",body:'Gore EA, Sanders JJ, Pandey JP. Interleukin-1beta +3953 allele 2: association with disease status in adult periodontitis. J Clin Periodontol 1998; 25: 781'},{id:"B41",body:'Kobayashi T. et al Relevance of immunoglobulin G Fc receptor polymorphism to recurrence of adult periodontitis in Japanese patients. Infect Immun 1997: 65: 3556-3560'},{id:"B42",body:'Engebretson SP, Lamster IB, Herra-Abreu M. The influence of interleukin polymorphisms on expression of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor a in periodontal tissue and gingival crevicular fluid. J Periodontol 1999; 70: 567'},{id:"B43",body:'Galbraith GM, Steed RB, Sanders JJ. Tumor necrosis factor alpha production by oral leukocytes: influence of tumor necrosis factor genotype. J Periodontol 1998; 69: 428'},{id:"B44",body:'Sofaer JA. Genetic approaches in the study of periodontal diseases. J Clin periodontal 1990; 17: 401'},{id:"B45",body:'Terasaki PI, Kaslick RS, Westl TL. Low HL-A2 frequency and periodontitis. Tissue Antigens 1975; 5: 286'},{id:"B46",body:'Katz J, Goultschin J, Benoliel R. Human leukocyte antigen DLR4: Positive association with rapidly progressing periodontitis. J Periodontol 1987; 58: 607'},{id:"B47",body:'Babour S. Tobacco and smoking: environmental factors that modify the host response (immune system). Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1997;8:437-60'},{id:"B48",body:'Aldred M.J. and Bartold P .M. Genetic disorders of the gingival and periodontium. Periodontol 2000 1998; 18:7-20'},{id:"B49",body:'Kornman K.S., Crane A. and Wang H.Y. et al. The interleukin-1 genotype as a severity factor in adult periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol 1997; 24:72-77'},{id:"B50",body:'Genetics in Dentistry. GP Pal, NK Mahato, Jaypeepublications,2010'},{id:"B51",body:'Periodontics revisited, Shalu Bathla, Jaypee 20. Publications,2011'},{id:"B52",body:'Gandhi M, Kothiwale S. Association of periodontal diseases with genetic polymorphisms. International Journal of Genetic Engineering. 2012;2(3):19-27'},{id:"B53",body:'Kinane DF, Hart TC. Genes and gene polymorphisms associated with periodontal disease. Critical Reviews in Oral Biology & Medicine. 2003 Nov;14(6):430-49'},{id:"B54",body:'Greenstein G, Hart TC. A critical assessment of interleukin-1 (IL-1) genotyping when used in a genetic susceptibility test for severe chronic periodontitis. Journal of periodontology. 2002 Feb;73(2):231-47'},{id:"B55",body:'Rogers et al. Do interleukin 1 polymorphisms predict the development of peridodonitis or the success of dental implants? J Periodont Res 2002; 37; 37-41'},{id:"B56",body:'Huynh-Ba G., Lang N.P., Tonetti M.S. and Salvi G.E. The association of the composite IL-1 genotype with periodontitis progression and/or treatment outcomes: a systematic review. J Clin Periodontol 2007; 34(4):305-17'},{id:"B57",body:'Nibali L, Ready DR, Parkar M, Brett PM, Wilson M, Tonetti MS, Griffiths GS. Gene polymorphisms and the prevalence of key periodontal pathogens. Journal of dental research. 2007 May;86(5):416-20'},{id:"B58",body:'Vijayalakshmi R, Geetha A, Ramakrishnan T, Emmadi P. Genetic polymorphisms in periodontal diseases: an overview. Indian Journal of Dental Research. 2010 Oct 1;21(4):568'},{id:"B59",body:'Schröder NW, Meister D, Wolff V, Christan C, Kaner D, Haban VA, Purucker P, Hermann C, Moter A, Göbel UB, Schumann RR. Chronic periodontal disease is associated with single-nucleotide polymorphisms of the human TLR-4 gene. Genes & Immunity. 2005 Aug;6(5):448-51'},{id:"B60",body:'Kocher T, Sawaf H, Fanghänel J, Timm R, Meisel P. Association between bone loss in periodontal disease and polymorphism of N-acetyltransferase (NAT2). Journal of clinical periodontology. 2002 Jan;29(1):21-7'},{id:"B61",body:'Newman,Takei, Klokkevold, Carranza. Carranza’s Clinical Periodontology-11th ed. 2013'},{id:"B62",body:'Wilton JMA, Griffiths GS, Curtis MA, Maiden MFJ, Gillett IR, Wilson DT, et al. Detection of high-risk groups and individuals for periodontal diseases. J Clin Periodontol 1988;15:339-46'},{id:"B63",body:'Nualart Grollmus ZC, Morales Chávez MC, Silvestre Donat FJ. Periodontal disease associated to systemic genetic disorders. Medicina Oral, Patología Oral y Cirugía Bucal (Internet). 2007 May;12(3):211-5'},{id:"B64",body:'Straub AM, Grahame R, Scully C, Tonetti MS. Severe periodontitis in Marfan’s Syndrome: A Case Report. J Periodontol 2002;73:823-6'},{id:"B65",body:'Castori M. Pain in Ehlers-Danlos syndromes: manifestations, therapeutic strategies and future perspectives. Expert Opin Orphan Drugs. 2016;4(11):1145-1158.(ehler)'},{id:"B66",body:'Perez LA, Al-Shammari KF, Giannobile WV, Wang H. Treatment of periodontal disease in a patient with Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome. A Case Report and literature review. J Periodontol 2002;73:564-70'},{id:"B67",body:'Hakki SS, Aprikyan AAG, Yildirim S, Aydinbelge M, Gokalp A, Ucar C, et al. Periodontal status in two siblings with Severe Congenital Neutropenia: Diagnosis and Mutacional Analisis of the Cases. J Periodontol 2005;76:837-44'},{id:"B68",body:'Saglam F, Atamer T, Oman U, Soidinç M, Kiraç K. Infantile Genetic Agranulocitosis (Kostmann Type). A Case Report. J Periodontol 1995; 66:808-10'},{id:"B69",body:'Delcourt-Debruyne EMC, Boutigny HRA, Hildebrand HF. Features of severe periodontal disease in a teenager with Chediak-Higashi Syndrome. J Periodontol 2000;71:816-24'},{id:"B70",body:'Izumi Y, Sugiyama S, Shinozuka O, Yamazaki T, Ohyama T, Ishikawa I. Defective neutrophil chemotaxis in Down’s Syndrome patients and its relationship to periodontal destruction. J Periodontol 1989;60:238-41'},{id:"B71",body:'Zaldivar-Chiapa RM, Arce-Mendoza AY, De La Rosa-Ramírez M, Caffesse RG, Solis-Soto JM. Evaluation of surgical and non-surgical periodontal therapies, and immunological status, of young Down’s Síndrome patients. J Periodontol 2005;76:1061-5'},{id:"B72",body:'Ullbro C, Brown A, Twetman S. Preventive periodontal regimen in Papillon-Lefevre Syndrome. Pediatr Dent 2005;27:226-32'},{id:"B73",body:'Tsang P, Derkson G, Priddy R, Junker AK, Slots J, Larjava H. Severe periodontitis in a 5-years-old girl with hyperimmunoglobulin E Syndrome. Pediatr Dent 2005;27:68-73'},{id:"B74",body:'Carlsson G, Wahlin YB, Johansson A, Olsson A, Eriksson T, Claesson R et al. Periodontal disease in patients from the original Kostmann family with severe congenital neutropenia. J Periodontol 2006;77:744-51'},{id:"B75",body:'Borea G, Magi M, Mingarelli R, Zamboni C. The oral cavity in Down syndrome. J Pedodont 1990;14:139-40'},{id:"B76",body:'Amanao A, Kishima T, Akiyama S, Nakagama I, Hamada S, Morisaki I. Relationship of periodontopathic bacteria with early-onset periodontitis in Down’s Syndrome. J Periodontol 2001;72:368-73'},{id:"B77",body:'Amanao A, Kishima T, Akiyama S, Nakagama I, Hamada S, Morisaki I. Periodontopathic bacteria in children with Down Syndrome. J Periodontol 2000;71:249-55'},{id:"B78",body:'Periodontics revisited, Shalu Bathla, Jaypee publications,2011'},{id:"B79",body:'Hassell TM, Harris EL. Genetic influences in caries and periodontal diseases. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 1995; 6(4): 319-342'},{id:"B80",body:'Novak MJ, Novak KF. Early-onset periodontitis. Curr Opin Periodontol. 1996; 3: 45-58'},{id:"B81",body:'Govindaraj P, Khan NA, Gopalakrishna P, Chandra RV, Vanniarajan A, Reddy AA et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction and genetic heterogeneity in chronic periodontitis. Mitochondrion. 2011; 11(3): 504-512'},{id:"B82",body:'Taba Jr M, Jin Q, Sugai JV, Giannobile WV. Current concepts in periodontal bioengineering. Orthod Craniofac Res. 2005; 8(4): 292-302'},{id:"B83",body:'Cirelli JA, Park CH, MacKool K, Taba Jr M, Lustig KH, Burstein H, et al. AAV2/1-TNFR:Fc gene delivery prevents periodontal disease progression. Gene Ther 2009; 16(3): 426- 436'},{id:"B84",body:'Jin Q, Cirelli JA, Park CH, Sugai JV, Taba Jr M, Kostenuik PJ et al. RANKL inhibition through osteoprotegerin blocks bone loss in experimental periodontitis. J Periodontol 2007; 78(7): 1300-1308'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",address:"grace.santo@gmail.com",affiliation:'
SRM Dental College, Ramapuram, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
SRM Dental College, Ramapuram, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
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An important theoretical issue is whether the acquisition of distinct script systems affects face processing in an identical way, or, if not, how this acquisition may exert differential impacts on face processing. By reviewing the existing literature, we propose that Asian participants with the logographic script system differ from Western counterparts with the alphabetic script system in viewing faces. The contribution of the chapter is to identify the possible role of types of script systems in face processing mechanisms and to put forward the research direction in the future with several new methodological efforts.",signatures:"Qi Yang, Xiaohua Cao and Xiaoming Jiang",authors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",email:"xmjiang1983@gmail.com"},{id:"415621",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Qi",surname:"Yang",fullName:"Qi Yang",slug:"qi-yang",email:"yangqpsy@163.com"},{id:"425199",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaohua",surname:"Cao",fullName:"Xiaohua Cao",slug:"xiaohua-cao",email:"caoxh@zjnu.cn"}],book:{id:"10658",title:"Multilingualism",slug:"multilingualism-interdisciplinary-topics",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"164384",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paschal",surname:"Kum Awah",slug:"paschal-kum-awah",fullName:"Paschal Kum Awah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164384/images/17395_n.jpg",biography:"Paschal Kum Awah holds a PhD in Medical Anthropology from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom (2006) and a Postdoctorate Fellowship in Global and Biomedical Ethics from the Western Institutional Review Board Olympia, WA and the University of Washington in Seattle, WA (2008), USA. He is an Associate Professor of Anthropology, specialized in Medical Anthropology and Biomedical Ethics at the University of Yaounde I. He is current Chair (Head of Department) of Anthropology at the University of Yaounde I. Prior to this recruitment at the University of Yaounde I, he was Senior Research and Evaluation Advisor for the African Region in Ipas, Chapel Hill in North Carolina, USA for four years. He had also held an associate position with the Newcastle University School of Clinical Medical Sciences and School of Population and Health Sciences at the Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne. He holds a consultancy positions with Ipas in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA, AmplifyChange at the United Kingdom and IDinsight USA, the World Health Organization and FAIRMED Switzerland. He has done extensive research and published in Reproductive Health, Diabetes and Cardiovascular diseases, Neglected Tropical Diseases and Biomedical Ethics. He has developed and field tested a Community of Practice of Stakeholders Model for the care of Buruli Ulcers, Neglected Tropical Diseases at Bankim-Cameroon and thinks this model can be used to rapidly respond to emerging epidemics, pandemics and challenging health problems in Africa. Some of his recent peer reviewed articles have been published in Practicing Anthropology: Journal of Applied Anthropology; Journal of Refugees, Plos-Neglected Tropical Diseases; Lancet; Journal of Anthropology and Ethnology; BMC-Health Services Research; International journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics; Africa: The Journal of the International African Institute; and Endocrine Disorders, Journal of Archeological History and Anthropology, Oxford Journals Health Services and Research, Conflict and Health, etc... He is a member of the University of Yaounde Senate, a member of the University of Yaounde I COVID-19 Scientific Committee. Internationally he is a Board Member of the WIRB-WCG Copernicus, USA and Board Member of the Pan-African Bioethics Initiative. He is a member of the African Union Scientific Research and Innovation Taskforce for Transrelational Research and the African Union Socio-economic Working Group for COVID-19. He is an education and is founder and CEO of Christ The Messiah School Complex (CTMSC) at Nkolbisson-Yaounde and the Centre for Population Studies and Health Promotion in Yaounde, Cameroon.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Université de Yaoundé I",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cameroon"}}},{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189844/images/system/189844.jpg",biography:"Dr. Xiaoming Jiang is a professor at the Institute of Linguistics, Shanghai International Studies University, China. He obtained a BS in Psychology from East China Normal University and a Ph.D. in Cognitive Neuroscience from Peking University. He served as a research fellow at the School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and as a senior speech scientist in nuance communication. His research utilizes experimental methodologies to uncover social and interpersonal aspects of human communicative processes in both monolingual and multilingual contexts. 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Al Aqad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"352080",title:"Prof.",name:"Meihua",surname:"Liu",slug:"meihua-liu",fullName:"Meihua Liu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"352081",title:"Mr.",name:"Lianqi",surname:"Dong",slug:"lianqi-dong",fullName:"Lianqi Dong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tsinghua University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"353229",title:"M.A.",name:"Delphine",surname:"Nkahmenyuy Veranso",slug:"delphine-nkahmenyuy-veranso",fullName:"Delphine Nkahmenyuy Veranso",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"353785",title:"Dr.",name:"Pouria",surname:"Mahzoun",slug:"pouria-mahzoun",fullName:"Pouria Mahzoun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"425199",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaohua",surname:"Cao",slug:"xiaohua-cao",fullName:"Xiaohua Cao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
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Cabanelas"}]},{id:"53973",doi:"10.5772/66927",title:"Phenolic Compounds in Water: Sources, Reactivity, Toxicity and Treatment Methods",slug:"phenolic-compounds-in-water-sources-reactivity-toxicity-and-treatment-methods",totalDownloads:7209,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:"Phenolic compounds exist in water bodies due to the discharge of polluted wastewater from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities into water bodies. They also occur as a result of natural phenomena. These compounds are known to be toxic and inflict both severe and long‐lasting effects on both humans and animals. They act as carcinogens and cause damage to the red blood cells and the liver, even at low concentrations. Interaction of these compounds with microorganisms, inorganic and other organic compounds in water can produce substituted compounds or other moieties, which may be as toxic as the original phenolic compounds. This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. 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In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12288,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6777,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:2888,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4454,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:7865,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81908",title:"Behaviors of Multi-Droplets Impacting on a Flat Wall",slug:"behaviors-of-multi-droplets-impacting-on-a-flat-wall",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105007",abstract:"Microscopic characteristics of fuel spray are very important for atomization and mixture formation. The droplet size, number density, velocity distribution as well as minimum distance reveal the quality of spray and atomization, which affects the subsequent combustion and emissions for different engines such as vehicle, marine and aircraft. Moreover, in the internal combustion engine, the spray-wall impingement is difficult to avoid, which is the main source for soot emissions. Nowadays, regulations for emissions become straight by governments. Therefore, it is urgent for us to alleviate the energy and emissions crisis. In this study, the droplets behaviors will be characterized under the related engine working state. Firstly, the experimental setup and measurement were explained in detail. Then, images process method was induced to calculate the droplet size, velocity and distance among them. Finally, results of the impinging spray were presented. One thing should be noted, as the dense region is not available to detect the droplets by the observation. Therefore, a spray “slicer” was designed and applied to cut the spray slim. Finally, multi-droplets were generated, and the results can be concluded as well. All the results could provide insights into the impacting behaviors for better understanding the droplet dynamics.",book:{id:"11205",title:"Droplet Dynamics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11205.jpg"},signatures:"Hongliang Luo and Feixiang Chang"},{id:"81902",title:"Green Methods of Chemical Analysis and Pollutant Removal",slug:"green-methods-of-chemical-analysis-and-pollutant-removal",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104829",abstract:"This chapter deals with chemical analysis and pollutant removal methods that follow some of the 12 principles of Green Chemistry. In this chapter, the 12 principles of the Green Chemistry along with the short description are highlighted. Several chemical analysis methods are presented, that are both used for chemical identification and concentration determination, whether conventionally or instrumentally. The conventional chemical analysis methods evaluated in this chapter include volumetric and gravimetric, while the instrumental ones presented are limited to atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for determination of the analyte concentration, and Infrared spectrometry (IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) for chemical identification. Additionally, the pollutant removal methods involving conventional and advanced processes, are reviewed. The conventional chemical removal methods such as precipitation, coagulation, and adsorption are illustrated. The advanced methods in removing chemical pollutants discussed in this chapter are photocatalytic degradation, photo-oxidation/reduction, Fenton and Photo-Fenton, and ozonation. In the description of the chemical analysis and the chemical pollutant removal methods, the evaluation of the unsuitableness or suitableness toward some of the Green Chemistry principles are also accompanied. In addition, the ways to make the less green methods to be greener are also proposed.",book:{id:"11211",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg"},signatures:"Endang Tri Wahyuni and Eko Sri Kunarti"},{id:"81907",title:"Fundamental Principles to Address Green Chemistry & Green Engineering for Sustainable Future",slug:"fundamental-principles-to-address-green-chemistry-green-engineering-for-sustainable-future",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104717",abstract:"The background of green chemistry represents the dramatic module of a new millennium, the substantiable chemical process steam for evaluation in designing phase to incorporate the principles of GC (Green Chemistry) in 1990s. there has been a tremendous success in developing a new product and process which are more compatible with biological, zoological and botanical perspective to illuminate the sustainability goal, this chapter represents the simplified way to lookout different approach adopted in GC-research, the methodology enhance the chemical process economics, concomitant which deduct the environmental burden. This review merely focusing on eco-friendly protocol which replace the traditional method of synthesis followed in chemistry to synthesize lifesaving drugs, with prevention outgoing waste from industries. GC and chemical engineering or green engineering (GE) should produce eco-friendly chemical process for drug design which likely to be spread rapidly in next few decades. This chapter explains in-depth and compact with detailed glimpse of environment friendly-protocol and principle bridging continent and scientific discipline to create new solution.",book:{id:"11211",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg"},signatures:"Nikhat Farhana, Mohammed Gulzar Ahmed, Mohammed Asif Iqbal, Natasha Naval Aggarwal, Prajitha Biju, Ashwini Somayaji, Abdul Rahamanulla, Nishmitha Gretta D’Souza, Sudhina Makuttan, Tahreen Taj, Abdullah Khan and Roshan Sayeed"},{id:"80825",title:"Contribution to the Calculation of Physical Properties of BeSe Semiconductor",slug:"contribution-to-the-calculation-of-physical-properties-of-bese-semiconductor",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102888",abstract:"We expose various physical parameters of binary compound BeSe in the stable zinc blend and NiAs structures using the functional HSE hybrid, GGA-PBE, and LDA. We deduce elastic constants, mechanical parameters, and wave velocities according to different orientations. BeSe semiconductor has Γ-X (2.852 eV) and Γ-K (0.536 eV) bandgap in zinc blend and NiAs structures. Electrons transit from Se-p site to the Be-s state and show covalent bonding. Optical absorption peaks result from electronic transitions under ultraviolet light irradiation.",book:{id:"11210",title:"Chalcogens",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11210.jpg"},signatures:"Mohamed Amine Ghebouli and Brahim Ghebouli"},{id:"80910",title:"Calorimetry to Quantify Protein-Ligand Binding",slug:"calorimetry-to-quantify-protein-ligand-binding",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102959",abstract:"Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is the preferred method used to study biochemical reactions like protein-ligand binding due to its sensitivity, accuracy, and precision. ITC measures directly the heat absorbed or released (∆H) associated with a given binding process. A typical ITC experiment allows the dissection of the binding energy of a reaction into ligand-enzyme association constant (Ka), change in enthalpy (∆H), change in entropy (∆S), change in Gibbs-free energy (∆G), and the stoichiometry of association (N). The change in heat capacity (∆Cp) is obtained from the measurements of binding enthalpy over a range of temperatures. The magnitude and signs of the thermodynamic parameters that were obtained provide insight into the nature of interactions involved in the binding process. The strength of interaction is thermodynamically favorable is determined by the Gibbs free energy. ∆G is an important thermodynamic descriptor of a binding reaction since it dictates the binding affinity and is in turn defined by the enthalpy and entropy changes expressed in the following equation: ∆G = ∆H–T∆S. Up-close, this reflects the contradistinctions of two thermodynamic effects at a molecular level—the propensity to drop to lower energy (bond formation, negative ∆H), counterbalanced by the innate thermal Brownian motion’s destructive characteristic (bond breakage, positive ∆S).",book:{id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg"},signatures:"Salerwe Mosebi"},{id:"81713",title:"Transition Metals-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks, Synthesis, and Environmental Applications",slug:"transition-metals-based-metal-organic-frameworks-synthesis-and-environmental-applications",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104294",abstract:"This work illustrates examples of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) derived from transition metals and their environmental applications in areas of catalysis, sorption, and hydrogen evolution. Explanation of some of the techniques employed for their synthesis has been discussed. On the other hand, the advantages of the use of hybrid materials such as the metal-organic frameworks are exposed in this book as well a detailed description of the different linkers and metals used for the synthesis of this kind of porous materials going through the methodologies and techniques utilized by different authors to obtain good-quality crystalline applicable materials. Adjustments of linker geometry, length, ratio, and the functional group can tune the size, shape, and internal surface property of an MOF for a targeted application. The uses of MOFs are exploring new different areas of chemistry such as catalysis, adsorption, carrier systems, hydrogen evolution, photocatalysis, and more. Different examples of MOFs from Scandium to Zinc are well described in this book, and finally, a brief description of some common environmental applications such as metals and azo dyes sorption, hydrogen evolution, and catalyst in the transesterification process of vegetable oils to produce biodiesel is explored and commented.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Lidia E. Chiñas-Rojas, Guadalupe Vivar-Vera, Yafeth F. Cruz-Martínez, Seth Limón Colohua, José María Rivera and Eric Houbron"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:86},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81566",title:"New and Emerging Technologies for Integrative Ambulatory Autonomic Assessment and Intervention as a Catalyst in the Synergy of Remote Geocoded Biosensing, Algorithmic Networked Cloud Computing, Deep Learning, and Regenerative/Biomic Medicine: Further Real",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104092",signatures:"Robert L. 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Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",biography:"Dr. Emad Shalaby is a professor of biochemistry on the Biochemistry Department Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University. He\nreceived a short-term scholarship to carry out his post-doctoral\nstudies abroad, from Japan International Cooperation Agency\n(JICA), in coordination with the Egyptian government. Dr.\nShalaby speaks fluent English and his native Arabic. He has 77\ninternationally published research papers, has attended 15 international conferences, and has contributed to 18 international books and chapters.\nDr. Shalaby works as a reviewer on over one hundred international journals and is\non the editorial board of more than twenty-five international journals. He is a member of seven international specialized scientific societies, besides his local one, and\nhe has won seven prizes.",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:617,paginationItems:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. Neiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213786/images/system/213786.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Beira Interior",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"39275",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Marini",slug:"herbert-ryan-marini",fullName:"Herbert Ryan Marini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39275/images/9459_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/415621",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"415621"},fullPath:"/profiles/415621",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()