Number of goats in southern African countries from [34].
\r\n\tSynthetic zeolites can be formed from different raw materials and among these many wastes represent some interesting sources due to their chemical and mineralogical composition. Today, a large number of different types of waste resulting from many human activities are produced in the world (e.g. industrial, municipal, agricultural waste) and most of them are deposed of in landfills thus determining a great environmental problem.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art on the possibility to transform the different types of waste materials into useful products, zeolites, through conventional processes and innovative methods. The aim is to demonstrate that waste can be a problem or a resource depending on how it is managed.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-426-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-425-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-427-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",keywords:"Structure, Properties, Natural Material, Synthetic Product, Type, Composition, Production, Disposal, Hydrothermal Method, Pre-fusion Process, Sonication, Multiple Steps",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Since 2002, Dr. Claudia Belviso has been carrying out research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources which has allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61457/images/system/61457.jpg",biography:"Claudia Belviso is a researcher at the Institute of Methodologies of Environmental Analysis (IMAA) of CNR. After graduating in Geological Sciences and qualifying as a professional geologist, she earned a Ph.D. in Earth Sciences. Since 2002 has been carrying out her research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources as well as their application to solving environmental problems and as new raw material. These research activities have allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, participate in national and international conferences, take part in the organization of international congresses, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5306",title:"Zeolites",subtitle:"Useful Minerals",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eec7f864baf093058440c0f56072a7cf",slug:"zeolites-useful-minerals",bookSignature:"Claudia Belviso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5306.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"46254",title:"Treatment Methods for Radioactive Wastes and Its Electrochemical Applications",doi:"10.5772/57445",slug:"treatment-methods-for-radioactive-wastes-and-its-electrochemical-applications",body:'There are many uses of radioactive materials which improve or facilitate human activities or quality of life of people. These uses are given in different fields of technology, ranging from power generation to supply entire cities or areas, to medical and industrial uses, even the smoke detectors in buildings. All these applications generate radioactive waste that may represent risks to the environment or to human beings, but it is necessary to have special attention to the management of radioactive waste.
In this chapter there are information about the generalities of radioactive wastes, such as its definition, origin, classification and stages of radioactive waste management. In addition, there are information about the current state of research and technologies which have been proposed for the treatment of radioactive waste, with their advantages and disadvantages, in special case of the electrochemical techniques to treat radioactive waste with theoretical considerations and cases of study. At the end of this chapter, there is information about the risk assessment and development of future strategies.
Radioactive waste are created from all activities that radioactive materials are used, either as part of the process or the use of such materials as a constituent of equipment or instruments that allow the realization of a practice. Due to large differences in the characteristics of the waste generated in the different areas and to a better understanding of these origins, is convenient to differentiate the activities coming from nuclear fuel cycle of applications coming from medical, research activities and industrial uses (Radiation Safety General Regulations, 1988; Méndez de Vigo, 2000).
Classification of radioactive waste is in order of any stage from its origin just to their collection, segregation, treatment, conditioning, storage, transportation and final disposal. In this case, in the Figure 1 is the physical classification of radioactive waste (IAEA, 1970 and 1994).
Classification of radioactive waste (own creation).
Quantitative values of allowable activity content for each significant radionuclide will be specified on the basis of safety assessments for individual disposal sites, and the radiological classification of radioactive waste is (IAEA, 2009):
The ultimate goal of waste management lies in its restraint and seclusion of the human environment, for a period of time and under conditions such that any release of radionuclides does not pose unacceptable radiological risk to people or the environment. Management should ensure that all charges are minimal for future generations.
A responsible management of radioactive waste requires the implementation of measures aimed at protecting human health and the environment. The basic steps for effective management of radioactive waste are part of a global system, ranging from waste generation to final disposal are: minimization of radioactive waste, pretreatment, characterization, treatment, conditioning, transport, storage and disposal (IAEA, 1970; Figure 2).
Steps for managing radioactive wastes (IAEA, 2001).
A management system should to be applied in all steps of radioactive waste management, in order to ensure that activities, facilities, equipment and waste products in meeting the overall safety, health, environmental, security, quality and economic requirements, with safety and environmental protection being of primary importance (IAEA-2008, IAEA 2006a, 2006b).
Management system has to contain a description of the processes and supporting information that explain how work is to be prepared, reviewed, carried out, recorded, assessed and improved. In the design of work processes, a detailed sequence of steps in the activities for pretreatment, treatment, conditioning and disposal wastes should be considered, such as: (i) characterization of waste at each step in the overall waste management program, (i) analytical methods such as sampling protocols for waste characterization or process control; (iii) monitoring of discharges; (iv) monitoring for clearance purposes; (v) non-destructive examination and testing; (v) heat treatment, (vi) use of special handling tools and techniques, protective clothing or facilities for radiation protection, etc.
Identification of items should be established and documented on the basis of the importance to safety and environmental protection or waste isolation. Records shall specify: (a) the origin of the waste and the processes that generated it; (b) pretreatment of the waste; (c) clearance of the waste; (d) discharge of the waste; (e) characterization of the waste; (f) treatment of the waste; (g) design of the containers and/or packages and of equipment, structures, systems and components for the pretreatment, treatment of the waste.
Additionally, assessments must perform on work processes used in the waste management. Inspections and measurements have to being performed and the associated records maintained. Consequently, controls to activities, facilities, equipment and waste products will have to be designed, considering factors such as: (a) the quantities and potential hazards (radiological and non-radiological, for example chemical) of the waste, and the necessary degree of isolation; (b) the dispersibility and mobility of the waste forms involved and the necessary degree of containment; (c) the interval before disposal; (d) experience with, and maturity of, the technology and the potential for future advances; (e) the reliability of equipment and its function in relation to safety and environmental protection; (f) the complexity and degree of standardization of the activities; (g) the novelty and maturity of the activities; (h) ease of operation, maintenance of equipment and eventual decommissioning of the facility, etc.
Quality assurance requirements should be established for all phases of the waste management process to ensure that each waste is correctly processed and the final waste form has the required properties. This requires quality assurance parameters to be specified. Performance data must be documented for each parameter in order to demonstrate compliance. The quality assurance program should cover the following aspects: (1) waste characterization, (2) waste management process specification, (3) processing conditions, (4) product specification and (5) storage or disposal (HSEEA 2007; IAEA 2008, IAEA 2006).
Safety is a top priority in radioactive waste management, because of this, the purpose of this section is to present a brief guideline of recommended procedures for working with radioactive wastes. The safety aspects and environmental protection which need to be considered in the handling and processing of radioactive wastes are mainly associated with: flammability, toxicity, explosion and radioactivity.
Some of the most important aspects to consider regarding safety and environmental protection in the radioactive waste management are (IAEA 2008, IAEA 2006a,2006b):
The handling, processing and storage radioactive wastes require a permit which is authorized by a local regulatory agency.
The wastes must be adequately characterized; chemically, physically, and radiological as a precursor to waste management. The composition of waste should be known with sufficient accuracy that nuclear and conventional safety and environmental protection are not compromised. Toxic or hazardous constituents should be characterized by analytical means or from knowledge of the processes, so that hazards associated with treatment methods of waste can be identified. The reachability of radionuclides, toxic materials and the generation rates for volatile organic compounds or powders and other hazardous gases should be determined. It is important to know the chemical stability of radioactive waste: flammability, corrosively, reactivity, pyrophoricity, rapid oxidation promotion, biodegradability and the chemically incompatible waste forms should be carefully controlled. The amount of mobilizing agents such as chelating compounds, particularly stable ones, should be kept to a minimum. Waste containing hazardous constituents that are mobile in the environment, or constituents that enhance the mobility of radionuclides should avoid.
Several possible process options have to be identified for treating radioactive wastes and before selecting it should include a safety analyses. To prefer processes the cheapest and simplest to procure and operate. The best practical environmental options should be selected, with radiation doses and discharges as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
Radioactive liquid and gaseous discharges should be as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) and meet regulatory and environmental restrictions.
It is suggested that cheap simple structures will be adequate for installation.
Personnel protection should be used in installation: protective clothing, rubber gloves, face mask, visors and personal dosimeters.
It is necessary to assess the radiation exposure of the operators on the site and to estimate the frequency and consequences of possible accidents related to the facility and the materials which it handles;
The waste processing area must to have suitable fire protection systems, adequate ventilation, and for the waste contains liquids a collection sump.
To ensure that radiation exposure to the workforce is as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
It is recommended having a central waste management facility.
Details of the safety methodology will be given in a planned technical document.
The aim of the radioactive waste treatment is to minimize the volume of waste requiring management. Treatment process selection for waste depends upon its radiological and physicochemical properties and the quantity (IAEA, 2001; Adenot et al, 2005; Chang, 2001). The objective of this section is to provide a brief overview of usually techniques applied for the treatment of radioactive waste as Figure 3 shows.
Classification of the treatment process applied to radioactive wastes (authors own creation).
The processes available for treating aqueous radioactive waste are mainly: ion exchange/sorption, chemical precipitation, evaporation or ultrafiltration/reverse osmosis. However, liquid containing suspended matter must be treated to remove the particulates before primary treatment or after it. Sedimentation, decantation, filtration or centrifugation are treatments used commonly to clear the effluent wastes or to remove miscellaneous debris or insoluble particles (IAEA, 2001; Adenot et al, 2005; Abdel et al, 2011).
Chemical precipitation processes are regularly used for removing radioactivity from low and intermediate level aqueous wastes at fuel reprocessing facilities, research laboratories and power stations. Precipitation processes are greatly versatile, relatively low investment and operational costs; and may treat from large volumes of liquid effluents containing relatively low concentrations of active species to those containing large amounts of particulates or high concentrations of inactive salts. However, in some cases, a pretreatment stage, such as oxidization of organic contaminants, decomposition of complexed species, pH adjustment, change of the valency state or adjust the ionic species, should be applied prior to the formation of precipitate in order to improve the process. Radionuclides can be removed by precipitation, co-precipitation with a carrier or sorption on to particulates present in the waste (IAEA, 2001; Adenot et al, 2005).
Ion exchange methods have extensive applications to remove soluble radionuclides from liquid waste produced in nuclear fuel cycle operations, radioisotope production and research facilities. It is very effective at transferring the radioactive content of a large volume of liquid into a small volume of solid.
Ion exchange process involves the replacement of cations or anions between an insoluble solid matrix containing ionizable polar groups and a liquid solution. When the ionic groups are negatives the exchange will involve cations and when they are positively charged they involve anions. The process is selective, stoichiometric and, as a rule, reversible; therefore ion exchangers can be “regenerated” and radioactive liquid waste recovered with high activity content or if the exchangers become “exhausted” they are removed and treated as radioactive wastes.
A wide range of materials is available for the ion exchange treatment of radioactive liquids: (a) natural ion exchangers (clays, zeolites, cellulose, charcoals, collagen) and (b) synthetic materials such as zeolites, hydrous oxide gels of metals or organic resins formed by highly polymerized cross-linked hydrocarbons containing ionic groups (sulfonic acid, carboxylic acid, amino groups, etc.).
Ion exchange processes can be operated in batch or continuous modes and if the wastes contain high concentrations of salts, suspended solids, organic contaminants or the radionuclide ionic form not suitable, the liquid wastes will have to be pre-treated before exchange process (IAEA, 2001 and 2002; Adenot et al, 2005).
Evaporation process is effective for concentrating or removing salts, heavy metals and a variety of hazardous materials from waste effluent, reducing large volumes of liquid wastes with high factor decontaminations. The process is commonly used for the treatment of high, intermediate and low level waste effluents; in particular for the treatment of small volumes of highly active effluents and may be carried out through the use of commercially available evaporation equipment. However, evaporation has some important limitations: unsuitable for waste effluents containing large concentrations of inactive salts, expensive because its large energy requirement and the presence of some organic compounds can produce explosions during evaporation (IAEA, 2001; Adenot et al, 2005).
Liquid scintillation, solvents, oils and diverse biological fluids, generated in nuclear research centers, medical centers or industries are considered as radioactive organic liquid wastes. These wastes may present radioactive and chemical or biochemical hazards requiring treatments to remove or destroy chemically or biochemically hazardous components. The objective is to reduce the volume of radioactive waste which requires storage, transport, conditioning and land disposal, eliminating the organic components to enhance compatibility of the treated waste with secondary conditioning processes.
Processes such as incineration, wet oxidation, acid digestion, electrochemical oxidation and distillation, can be applied for treating radioactive organic liquid (IAEA, 1992 and 2001).
Incineration is used for reduction of solid and liquid radioactive waste volume, downscaling land requirements for disposal. Incineration combusts or oxidizes wastes at high temperatures, generating as end products of the complete incineration: CO2, H2O, SO2, NO, and HCl gases. Emission control equipments for particulates, SO2, NOx and products of incomplete oxidation are needed to control emissions of regulated air pollutants.
The disadvantages of radioactive waste treatment with incineration are: off-gas filtering system are required to control radioactive discharges, thickening and dewatering wastes pretreatment may be required, is not economical for small solid waste plants and secondary waste volumes may be large (Chang, 2001; IAEA, 1992, 2001 and 2006; NEA, 1999).
The organic components of radioactive wastes such as ion exchange resins, foams, cellulosic waste and liquid scintillation can be transformed, degraded, or immobilized using wet oxidation.
Wet oxidation remedial process involves injecting an oxidizing agent, such as hydrogen peroxide, activated sodium persulfate, ozone, Fenton’s Reagent (hydrogen peroxide with an iron catalyst) or other oxidant into the subsurface to destroy organic compounds.
The complete mineralization of carbon-based compound wastes by most chemical oxidizers produces carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen as well as minor concentrations of nontoxic ions, salts, and acids. Wet oxidation is thus a process analogous to incineration, with the advantage of using low temperatures (Twissel and Holt, 1996; IAEA, 1992; Chang, 2001).
Acid digestion is an oxidative destruction technology for some liquid organic wastes (hexane, TBP) and organic constituents of mixed waste such as cellulose (paper), polyethylene, latex rubber, Tyvek™, neoprene, polyvinylchloride, polystyrene ion exchange resins, filters, plastics, and/or chlorinated cutting oils organic, that may reduce the waste volume of 20 to 100 times. Acid digestion process uses a mixed of nitric acid in a phosphoric acid carrier solution at temperatures below 200°C and at atmospheric or moderate pressures (< 20 psig). The principal organic portion of the waste is broken down and mineralized by the acid solution producing: inorganic constituents in solution, which can be immobilized easily in a glass or ceramic, and gases (CO2, CO, O2 and NOx) that can be treated in an off-gas scrubbing system, to convert NOx to reusable nitric acid (Report OST, 1999; IAEA, 1992 and 2001; Adenot et al, 2005).
Distillation is a radioactive waste volume reduction technique used for pretreating liquid scintillation and miscellaneous solvent waste in conventional equipment. The process is simple, known, and cost effective if the valuable solvent is recycled or reused. The active residue could be either immobilized or destroyed by incineration (IAEA, 2001).
Solid wastes are produced by all applications and uses of radioactive materials, in normal operations and maintenance activities. Solid, low and intermediate level wastes are generally segregated into combustible, compactible and non-compactible forms.
Treatments for solid waste are used to reduce the waste volume and/or convert the waste into a form suitable for handling, storage and disposal (IAEA, 2001 and 2002; Chang, 2001; Adenot et al, 2005; NEA, 1999).
Decontamination is defined as the removal of contamination from areas or surfaces of facilities or equipment by washing, heating, chemical or electrochemical action, mechanical cleaning or by other means. The decontamination objectives are mainly: to reduce the volume of equipment and materials requiring storage and disposal in licensed disposal facilities, to remove contamination from components or systems, to reduce dose levels in the installations and to restore sites and facilities to an unconditional-use condition. Decontamination processes may divide into chemical, electrochemical and mechanical processes:
A wet abrasive-blasting system uses a combination of water, abrasive media and compressed air, and is normally applied in 24 a self-contained, leaktight, stainless steel enclosure. The dry abrasive-blasting technique, commonly called sandblasting or abrasive jetting, uses abrasive materials suspended in a medium that is projected onto the surface being treated, resulting in a uniform removal of surface contamination. The scarification process removes the top layers of a contaminated surface down to the depth of the sound, uncontaminated surface.
There are two basic disadvantages with the mechanical methods: the surface of the workpiece has to be accessible and many methods may produce airborne dust (IAEA, 2001 and 2002; Chang, 2001; Adenot et al, 2005; NEA, 1999).
Compaction is performed in order to reduce the waste volume and concentrates the radionuclides. Plastics, paper, absorbent material, and cloth are compatible in conventional compactors. Metal pipe, valves, conduit, wood, and other like items are compatible in super compactors. Compactors can range from low-force compaction systems (~5 tons or more) through to presses with a compaction force over 1000 tons (super compactors). Volume reduction factors are typically between 3 and 10, depending on the waste material being treated (IAEA, 2001 and 2002).
Cutting and sawing operations are carried out mainly on large items which consist usually of metals or plastics. This waste has to be reduced in size to make it fit into packaging containers or to submit it to treatment such as incineration. The cutting is carried out either in the dry state in cells, using remote control when necessary and with conventional tools, or underwater. The cutting may also be done with plasma-jets, laser torches, or explosive fuses.
Crushing techniques may be used for size reduction of friable solids (glass, concrete, ceramics). In principle, all types of mill, grinder, and crushing machines of conventional technology can be used.
Shredding reduces void space and is particularly effective when plastics are compacted. Air, which is trapped between the folds of bulk plastic and in plastic bags and sleeving, takes up storage space. When the plastic is shredded, better use is made of the waste container space.
The size reduction, mixing and blending of the solid wastes is necessary for successful combustion operation.
The electrochemical treatment, electroremediation, also known as electrokinetic remediation (EKR) process is classified as a physicochemical technology by the electrochemical transformation or destruction of organic and inorganic wastes, which offers many advantages such as the capacity to remove organic and inorganic pollutants by applying direct electric current into the soil. The EKR is easy to operate and involves the installation of electrodes into the organic or inorganic waste and the application of a low voltage gradient or direct current through them (Vazquez et al, 2007). This process is capable of mineralizing the organics into carbon dioxide and water completely, without emission of any toxic materials like dioxins. Several metal oxidizing agents like Ag(II)/Ag(I), Ce(IV)/Ce(III), Co(III)/Co(II), etc., have been tested with this process in pilot and commercial scale systems (Adenot et al, 2005; Chang, 2001; Prabhakaran et al, 2009; Farmer et al, 1991).
This technology requires having humid waste into which electrodes are inserted, the electrodes’ terminals are connected to a power supply, and an electric current or potential gradient is applied to generate an electrical field. During this process, electrode reactions take place on its surface, generating protons (H+) and hydroxyl (-OH) at the anode and the cathode, respectively. The concentration of these ions near the electrodes creates an acid front that moves from anode to cathode and a basic front that moves from cathode to anode. These species interact with the soil to carry pollutants out into the pore solution. Some transport phenomena occur in the liquid phase of soil when direct current or voltage gradient is passed through the electrodes, such as ion migration (electromigration), electroosmosis and electrophoresis (Murillo – Rivera et al, 2009; Alcántara et al, 2008), inducing complex and coupled electrochemical and properties of matrix. In this case, the transport phenomenon depends on the chemistry of the pollutant (Pamuku and White, 1992; Reddy and Chinthamreddy, 2003; Braud et al, 1998).
If the pollutant is inorganic, as metals, these can be removed by electromigration, because the compounds are dissociated in ions. If the ions have negative charge (anions) they will move toward the anode, and if they have positive charge (cations) they will move toward the cathode, an important characteristic which can determine where the metal, in ionic form, can be recovered (Virkutytea et al, 2002; Figure 4). Non-polar pollutants or organic pollutants can be removed by electroosmosis, attributed to the excess charges on the soil surface. There occurs the net ionic migration that represents the bulk movement along pore fluid through the electrical double layer of charge at the solid–liquid interface (Al-Shahrani and Roberts, 2005). And finally, electrophoresis is the movement of charged solid particles, including clay particles and bacterial cells with size less than 20 m, in response to the electrostatic potential gradient. As in electromigration, positively charged particles migrate towards the cathode, and negatively charged particles migrate towards the anode, or they both simply move by a mechanical transport (Hamed et al, 1991; Méndez et al, 2012).
On other hand, many different soil remediation technologies are available to clean polluted waste, and most of them remove pollutants from the soil–water complex for further treatment or disposal in a more concentrated form. However, when the pollutants are persistent, toxic or simply have low solubility and a strong adsorption to soil surfaces and organic matter, the traditional remediation technologies are used, such as washing, and land-farming, amongst others. In these cases, electroremediation, also known as electrokinetic remediation (EKR) process is classified as a physicochemical technology, which offers many advantages such as the capacity to remove organic and inorganic pollutants by applying direct electric current into the soil, even in clays (Virkutytea et al, 2002). The EKR is easy to operate and involves the installation of electrodes into the soil or waste and the application of a low voltage gradient or direct current through them. This technology has the capacity to removed heavy metals (Pb°, Hg°, Cd°, Ni°, Cu°, Zn°, Cr°); toxic anions (NO3−, SO42−); mixtures of organic and ionic pollutants; cyanide; explosive compounds; hydrocarbons (gasoline, diesel, oil, BTEX: benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene); polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and radioactive species (137Cs, 90Sr, 60Co, 238Ur); from both saturated and unsaturated soils, sludges and sediments (Virkutytea et al, 2002; Hamed et al, 1991).
Electromigration of ions in an electrochemical arrangement to remove pollutant from the matrix (authors own creation).
Some researchers have published (Pamuku et al, 1990 and 1992; Reddy et al, 2003; Hamed and Bhadra, 1997; Reed et al, 1999; Khan and Alam, 1994) that the EKR application was better in clayed soils that had low concentration of heavy metal than even expensive regular mining procedures. However, a disadvantage was the time required to achieve over 90 % metal removal.
In order to improve the EKR process and diminish the removal time, some efforts have been focused on changing some operational parameters. For example, some researcher have modified the pH and the current density, introducing chemical compounds on electrolyte chambers (Yeung et al, 1996; Cox et al, 1996), or have added complexing and chelating agents to desorb the pollutant from soils (Cundy and Hopkinson, 2005; Ruiz et al, 2011; Colleta et al, 1997), or have modified the system, placing reactive barriers into the soil matrix (Ribeiro et al, 2005; Gómez et al, 2009) or simply they have tested different electrode material.
Thus, the efficiency of pollutant removal using EKR depends of many factors. However, it is important to select a good electrode material, especially when electrochemical technologies are used. Their selection can be according the thermodynamic and kinetic reactions carried out on their surfaces or by their mechanical, thermal and corrosion resistance.
In that sense, some materials, as the case of titanium (Vázquez et al, 2004), platinum, gold, silver, stainless steel, among others used in EKR, suffer a kind of passivation, generating an oxide film on their surfaces which cover the active sites. This behavior occurs during the experimental conditions, which increases the electrical resistances in the system. For that reason, it is necessary to pre-treat or pre-activate the material before using, to increase roughness or surface active sites. Also, carbon electrodes have been used in EKR processes because of their low cost and accessibility (Saichek and Reddy, 2003; Hu et al, 2002) and because they are inert. However, these kinds of materials commonly form bonds with the species in solution or form oxide film. As well, they can adsorb some species on their surface.
In order to increase the active sites, eliminate the passivation phenomenon, increase electrode life and improve the oxidant activity, it is necessary to modify electrode surfaces to obtain high overpotentials. Consequently, some electrode materials have been modified with metallic oxide, forming a thin layer on a base metal (usually titanium), i.e. Ti|SnO2–Sb2O3, Ti|IrO2–Ta2O5, Ti|IrO2, Ti|RuO2, and carbon|TiO2, among others (Hu et al, 2002; Méndez et al, 2012). These kinds of electrodes can be used as anodes in order to promote electrochemical oxidation. For that reason, the name “Dimensionally Stable Anodes” (DSA) was proposed by Comninellis and Pulgarin (Comninellis and Pulgarin, 1991) who demonstrated the high reactive surface of iridium DSA. These are able to degrade organic compounds by the presence of hydroxyl radicals on their surface, while being mechanically resistant to this reactive species and to pH changes (Comninellis, 1994).
Furthermore, most conventional
In the last three decades, different research groups have been working in the electrokinetic treatment at different levels: laboratory, pilot system and directly in the site pursuing to remove organic pollutants (Gilbon, 2001), inorganic pollutants and radioactive wastes, among others (Hamed et al, 1991). Also, there are reports about the successful implementation of electrokinetic treatment
Previous research has been focused on maximize electrokinetic extraction efficiency. Most laboratory or pilot electroremediation studies have been carried out in one dimension (1D) array, having only one anode (+) and one cathode (-), separated by the polluted soil. For field applications, the system must be effective and efficient; therefore it is required an appropriate electrode configuration, in order to accomplish this goal EKR treatment should be implemented in a bidimensional system (2D), this means that electrode array must be set up in respect to the
In addition, several flushing solutions have been investigated, such as water, acids, bases, chelating agents, alcohol, and other additives (Chaiyaraksa and Sriwiriyanuphap, 2004). In practice, acid washing and chelator soil washing are the two most prevalent removal methods (Giannis et al, 2007; Rampley and Ogden, 1988). Also, most of the electrokinetic equipment has been manufactured as a horizontal type. Laboratory-scale electrokinetic remediation has performed for TRIGA soil during the past 5 years, but in this time, a study related to pilot-scale electrokinetic remediation was performed (Kim et al, 2002 and 2003).
The process developed for the removal of organic contaminants from bulk water using graphite based adsorbents with electrochemical regeneration at the University of Manchester (Brown and Roberts, 2007), was adjusted for the destruction of radioactive organic wastes, specifically oils contaminated with alpha radioactivity produced at Magnox Ltd nuclear decommissioning site in UK (Wickenden, 2001). This approach comprises four stages:
The treatment of radioactive oils by adsorption and electrochemical regeneration systems has been achieved at pilot scale 200 L. The latter consisted of three bipolar stacks of six electrochemical cells of each with an electrode area of 2 500 cm2. Graphite plate bipolar electrodes were used and a micro-porous polyethylene membrane (Daramic, Grace GMBH) separated the adsorbent bed from the cathode. The catholyte solution, 0.3 wt % NaCl solution acidified to a pH of less than 2, was stored in a small tank and pumped through the cathode compartments of the six cells. The distribution of the radioactivity after the process was examined in the samples of the adsorbent and electrolyte after each regeneration cycle or after each destruction cycle for 1.5 L of contaminated oil using high-resolution gamma spectrometry for 241Am, 154Eu, 155Eu, 137Cs and 60Co, liquid beta scintillation counting for 3H,14C, 55Fe, 63Ni, 90Sr, 241Pu and 36Cl, and alpha spectrometry for plutonium isotopes (239/240Pu, Pu) and 241Am (Brown et al, 2013).
The process was achieved with a specific treatment rate of 0.63 μL cm−2 h−1 using a current density of 10 mA cm−2. Regeneration was carried out a current of 1 A (20 mA cm−2) for 25 h L−1 of oil with a regeneration energy of 48 kWh L−1 of oil. And the oil loading on the adsorbent was less than 25 wt % on the adsorbent to avoid excessive cell voltage.
The process of adsorption coupled with electrochemical regeneration can remove and destroy around 95 % radioactive oils in the first cycle, and over 99 % of the emulsified oil. Around 80 – 90 % of the majority of the radioactive species are transferred to the aqueous phase with a negligible discharges of tritium gaseous; hence no off-gas treatment before direct discharge to atmosphere is necessary (Brown et al, 2013).
Electrochemical oxidation using a boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode coupled with sonication is a promising method to oxidise (Low Level Waste) LLW or Intermediate Level Wastes (ILW) oils to carbon dioxide and water. The boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes contain non-aggressive and non-corrosive chemicals, are ease of disposal of the spent electrolyte and allow simple electrochemical cell configuration. Electro-oxidation tests were performed into an electrochemical cell which comprised a 250 mL beaker fitted with a rubber bung that held a BDD (DIAFILM PE TM) anode and a stainless steel cathode applied 0.1 A, a cell potential of 5 – 15 V and sonication. The electrolyte contained oil, sodium sulphate and sodium hydroxide added at the start of the test to maintain an alkaline pH in order to trap the carbon dioxide as carbonate. The method was effective for unused hydraulic oil, vacuum pump oil and a waste used machine tool oil (Taylor et al, 2009).
Mediated Electrochemical Oxidation (MEO) process has been used by destroying the organic components of combustible mixed wastes and for dissolving radioactive materials, such as transuranic oxides (PuO2). The radioactive components of the wastes dissolved in the electrolyte, can be recovered or immobilized for disposal (Chiba et al, 1995). The destroying organic process is accomplished via a mediator (oxidizing agent).
Several metal oxidizing agents like Ag(II)/Ag(I), Ce(IV)/Ce(III), Co(III)/Co(II),Fe(IV)/Fe(III) etc., in nitric or sulfuric acids have been tested (Chiba et al, 1995; Farmer et al, 1995). In particular, the Ag(II)/Ag(I) based MEO system is capable of destroying cutting oil, cellulose (paper and cloth), rubber (latex), plastics (Tyvek, polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride), biomass (bacteria) and ion exchange resins, attaining high destruction efficiencies at reasonable coulombic efficiencies (Chiba et al, 1995).
Ag(II) in a nitric acid solution produces highly reactive OH and NO3 radicals which attack organic compounds converting most of them to CO2, water, and inorganic ions. The resulting Ag(I) is recycled to Ag(II) at the anode of an electrochemical cell to maintain a supply of oxidant and minimize consumption of Ag. The Ag(II) migrates back into the bulk electrolyte to continue the oxidation process. A microporous membrane is usually placed between the electrodes to prevent the oxidizer produced at the anode from being reduced at the cathode. Ag(II) is a very effective oxidizing agent for the destruction of nonhalogenates organic compounds. Unfortunately, halide ions liberated during the destruction of halogenated organics react with Ag(II) to form insoluble precipitates. Therefore systems tolerant to halide anions such as Ce(IV)/Ce(III), Co(III)/Co(II) and Fe(IV)/Fe(III) have been tested. Tests at Pacific Northwest Laboratory with the Cerium/HNO3 system has shown that cerium provides the same or better oxidation rates for cutting oils that silver system (Schwinkendorf and Hart, 1995).
Combustible waste contaminated with 137Cs and 134Cs, generated by the tsunami within Fukushima, was incinerated, producing a large quantity of radioactive ash. A washing–electrokinetic decontamination method was developed by Kim and collaborators to decontaminate these radioactive ashes (Kim et al, 2002 y 2003). The process consists in a washing of contaminated ash with HNO3 in three cycles using pH of 0 and ash (1g) – nitric acid (1 mL) mixture; the waste solution generated is precipitated with CaO and reused only those produced in the third washing. If the residual radioactivity of the washed ash is higher than the clearance concentration level, the washed ash is treated by electrokinetic equipment for decontamination. The removal efficiency of 137Cs from radioactive ash is inversely proportional to an increase in the mixing ratio of ash weight (g) / solution volume (mL) and directly proportional to the increase in the concentration of HNO3.
A pilot-sized washing–electrokinetic equipment was manufactured to remove cesium from lots of radioactive ash. The equipment consisted of 200 L washing equipment, 50 L electrokinetic equipment, and 150 L precipitation equipment. The electrokinetic equipment consisted of a couple of anode rooms, electrokinetic ash cells, cathode rooms and metal oxide separators. Cesium from radioactive ashes moves to the cathode room through electro-migration and electro-osmosis. 87 – 89 % of 134Cs and 137Cs in the radioactive ashes were removed in three washings and around 98 – 100 % from the waste solution after precipitation with CaO. If the radioactive ashes contain more than 30 – 40 Bq g-1 of 134Cs and 137Cs the electrokinetic process requires between 8 – 10 days after three washings to reach below 2.0 Bq g-1 (Kim et al, 2013).
An electrochemical salt-splitting process has been developed to recover and recycle NaOH from radioactive wastes containing large amounts of sodium salts. Sodium separation process can save costs by reducing the disposal volume of wastes and by producing NaOH for recycle into waste treatment processes such as sludge leaching, regenerating ion exchange resins, inhibiting corrosion in carbon-steel tanks, or retrieving tank wastes (Fontain et al, 2009). The process is based on a two-compartment cell separated by a cation selective membrane. The waste enters into the anolyte electrodes, sodium ions migrate across membrane into the catholyte, under the influence of an applied electrical potential. Hydroxides form at the cathode by the reduction of water producing thus a sodium hydroxide solution (Kurath et al, 1997; Hobbs, 1999; Ambashta and Sillanpää, 2012; Fountain et al, 2009).
Platinized titanium (Pt/Ti) anodes and cathodes, and a Ceramatec® NASD membrane were tested by Hobb, applying a current density of 300 A m-2 and a voltage of 5 - 5.6 V during a run time of 70 - 104 h. This approach allows retain anionic species such as nitrate, aluminate or sulfate in the compartment anolyte of the electrochemical cell, and can produce caustic from radioactive wastes with low levels of gamma radioactivity, which could be released for off-site use without further treatment (Hobbs, 1999).
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and Ceramatec Inc. tested a NaSelect® (sodium super ionic conductor) ceramic membrane to separate sodium from Low Activity Waste (LAW) streams at Hanford site (Fountain et al, 2009; Pendleton et al, 2011). A pilot scale system was designed, built and operated to process 7 L h-1 of LAW. The process selectively removed up to 80 % of sodium hydroxide from LAW and produced up to 50 % concentrated caustic for reuse in removal aluminum during sludge washing as a pretreatment step in the vitrification of radioactive waste; reducing about 39 % the waste volume. NaSelect® ceramic membrane prevents migration of mono valent and multi valent elements and other radionuclides to the sodium hydroxide stream (Pendletonet al, 2011; Figure 5).
Electrochemical cell for the recovery of sodium hydroxide from alkaline salt solutions (
Electrolytic decontamination is accomplished by applying a low dc voltage through an electrolyte to induce a chemical reaction. Contamination is removed at the anode the working electrode and goes into solution. The cathode (counter electrode) can be constructed from stainless steel. Electrolyte solutions such as phosphoric or sulfuric acid, used normally in electropolished, have to be changed after a few articles decontaminated, resulting in large quantities of radioactive toxic waste that must be treated and/or disposed. Due to this, electrolytes with a very low toxicity from which the radioactive materials can be easily separated and recycled, are investigated and applied. Sodium nitrate has been chosen as electrolyte to decontaminate metals contained Pu and Am (Wedman et al, 1996). In this medium, both actinides can be precipitated or entrained in the ferric hydroxide formed as surface metal is removed, resulting a clean surface, free of contamination, and the separation of the radioactive waste from the solution. Thus, the electrolyte solution can be recycled, greatly reducing waste.
For this process, the appropriate current densities appear to be in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 A cm-2. Higher current densities result in higher metal removal rates, but adversely affect the surface morphology by causing roughening, pitting, or burning. Optimum situation for the electrolytic decontamination process is the treatment of metal surfaces that have been electropolished before contamination (Wedman et al, 1996).
NaOH solutions have been used as electrolytes to decontaminate metal surface contaminated by tritium. In this approach, the metal to be decontaminated is submerse in the electrolyte, connected to the negative pole, and the anode (polytetrafluoroethylene wax-impregnated graphite), to positive pole; applying a current densities in the range of 10 - 50 mA cm-2. The tritium adsorbed on the cathode surface is replaced by the hydrogen and ejected to the electrolytic solution. This process is proper to small metallic parts of complex geometry or large pieces with simple geometry; and does not modify the surface metal, thus the objet can be reused (Bellanger, 1992).
Other decontamination process for contaminated stainless steel equipment is accomplished by dissolution of the metal surface that is being decontaminated when it is in contact with a solution composed by an inorganic reduction-oxidation systems such as Ce(IV)/Ce(III), Cr(Vl)-Cr(III, Ag(II)-Ag(l) or Co(III)-Co(II) in nitric acid. This solution is subsequently reoxidized by electrolysis (Lerch et al, 1980).
The thick-target PIXE analysis was successfully applied at least to the analysis of the electrokinetic behavior of cesium mixed with the soil as CsBr. By using cesium as a test pollutant, we could clearly observe the effect of the electrolysis without taking into account complicated interactions between the contaminant and the soil, such as dissolution of soil particles and adsorption phenomena.
The water supply to the anode well was effective to enhance the removal rate. From the observed fast migration of the pore water, as well as from the result of a simple calculation on the electrophoretic flow velocity, it was concluded that the migration of cesium observed was due mainly to the electroosmotic flow. Remediation performance by increasing the electric conductivity of the soil by mixing NaCl was possible. This result was consistent with the reduction of the electroosmotic flow velocity due to the elevated ionic strength. It was found that the addition of NaCl makes no sense also from the viewpoint of the potential hazard due to toxic gas emission as well as the cost of electricity. Owing to the interference by major metallic elements in the soil, the detection sensitivity of the present method based on the simple LX-ray measurement was not enough to investigate behavior of the trace level Cs contaminants. In order to attenuate only Ti-Kα but to allow high transmission of Cs-Lα radiation, a thin foil of a single element having an absorption edge at an appropriate energy.
The pilot-scale electrokinetic remediation equipment suitable for the geological characteristics of a South Korean nuclear facility site was developed for the remediation of radioactive soil. The optimal experimental conditions were obtained with 50 L electrokinetic remediation equipment and the results are as follows: the removal efficiencies Co2+ and Cs+ from the artificially contaminated soil after 15 days were 98.4 % and 94.9 % respectively, and the generated effluent volume was 3.4 mL g-1. The removal efficiencies of 60Co and 137Cs by nitric acid were increased by 3.1 % and 2.0 % more than those by acetic acid. The removal efficiencies of 60Co and 137Cs from the soil of high concentrations (1 320 Bq kg-1 and 1 720 Bq kg-1) were increased by 14.4 % and 3.8 % more than those from the soil of low concentrations (110 Bq kg-1 and 120 Bq kg-1).
The removal efficiency of 137Cs from the soil of average 1.4 mm particle size was increased by about 2.3 % more than that from the soil of an average 0.7 mm particle size. The removal efficiencies of 60Co and 137Cs by the application of an electric current of 15 mA cm-2 were increased by 1.4 % and 4.4 % more than those by the application of 10 mA cm-2. A total removal efficiency of 60Co and 137Cs from the radioactive soil of about 2 000 Bq kg-1 was 95.8 % during electrokinetic remediation by the application of an electric current of 15 mA cm-2 for 55 days (Gye – Nam et al, 2013).
On other hand, a soil washing system with a hydro-cyclone was very effective for decontaminating the radionuclides in the TRIGA (Training, Research, Isotope, General Atomic) soil in Korea. The size of the contaminated TRIGA soil ranged from very fine to more than 1.0 mm. The volume of soil particles larger than 1.0 mm was 28 - 52 %, and the volume of soil particles smaller than 0.06 mm was less than 4 - 10.5 %, but the volume of medium-sized soil particle was 43 - 61 %. The radioactive concentration was strongest in the soil particle smaller than 0.063 mm, as predicted. Oxalic acid was the best chemical agent for washing, especially for cobalt. A scrubbing time of 4 h was the optimum time to obtain a removal efficiency of more than 75 % for 137Cs and 60Co. A mixing ratio of the soil weight to the volume of the oxalic acid solution of 1:10 was the best for washing; two scrubbing cycles with 1.0 M oxalic acid avoided the generation of a considerable amount of waste solution. The removal efficiency with a hydro-cyclone was 30 % higher than that without. Vertical plates and alum had important roles in reducing the sedimentation time. The waste solution could be reused up to five times after passage through a column of a strong acid resin (Gye – Nam et al, 2007).
Experimental study seems to demonstrate that the feasibility of electrokinetic soil remediation for the removal of radionuclide contaminants from soils. The experimental results indicate that the technique is effective in radionuclide contaminants from soils with a relatively small amount of energy. Uranium and strontium were efficiently removed from kaolinite by electrokinetic remediation. In the case of cesium, the removal rate may be significantly slower than those of uranium and strontium. This is due to the lower ionic mobility and the affinity of cesium onto kaolinite. Acetic acid was effective as enhancing agent for buffering hydroxide ions produced by the cathode reaction, and prevented the precipitation of uranium ions in the cathode region.
Accordingly, the acetic acid increased the removal efficiency and decreased energy consumption. The use of citric acid was not efficient in removing uranium from kaolinite, because the direction of electromigration was opposite to that of electroosmosis. Since most metal–citrate chelates were negatively charged, they were transported toward the anode by electromigration while electroosmosis flowed toward the cathode. Therefore, removal efficiency significantly decreased. This result indicates that the selection of enhancement agent should be considered with respect to contaminant type and site characteristics. The electrokinetic removal of uranium from the soil weathered from uraniferous black shale was not efficient. This was due to the low proportion of the mobile fraction, since most uranium exists as residual fractions derived from enriched uraniferous parent rocks (Kyeong-Hee et al, 2003).
Nuclear site operations and successful site restoration depend on the availability of suitable waste management routes and facilities. Effective management of both radioactive and non-radioactive waste is essential to the delivery is a significant part of the process.
Strategic decisions about waste management are informed by the following key principles: risk reduction is a priority, centralised and multi-site approaches should be considered where it may be advantageous, waste should be minimised and the waste hierarchy should be used as a framework for waste management decision making and enables an effective balance of priorities including value for money, affordability, technical maturity and the protection of health, safety, security and the environment.
For Low Level Waste, disposal will be in fit for purpose facilities that reflect the nature of the wastes to be managed. Within this overall framework our priority is to achieve risk reduction by dealing with waste in ageing storage facilities and placing it into safer modern storage conditions. Diverse radioactive waste management and disposal solutions will be pursued where these offer benefits over previous arrangements. New waste management approaches will often require different transport arrangements and will be a matter of great interest to planning authorities and people living close to the sites involved.
Some general ideas about the underpinning strategies are showed in Figure 2, the basic steps for effective management of radioactive waste are part of a global system, ranging from waste generation to final disposal are: minimization of radioactive waste, pretreatment, characterization, treatment, conditioning, transport, storage and disposal (IAEA, 1970). All of these ideas with the intention to reduce the volume of radioactive wastes.
Radioactive materials are extensively used in industrial and research activities into medical, agricultural and environmental applications, and in various other areas. During the production and use of these materials, radioactive waste will inevitably arise; this must be managed with particular care owing to its inherent radiological, biological, chemical and physical hazards.
Producers and users of radioactive materials must be sure that a waste management strategy exists prior to the start of waste generation. A well-developed waste management strategy should consider the entire sequence of waste management operations, from the waste’s production until its final disposal, including the various regulatory, sociopolitical and economic issues. The identified goal of radioactive waste management can be met with reasonable cost and resource use by implementing a carefully planned waste management strategy using appropriate technologies.
Waste containing long lived radionuclides must be treated, conditioned, stored and disposed of at a repository specifically designed for this purpose. Sample storage capacity is needed for the decay of short lived radionuclides and for storing long lived waste prior to, and after, the treatment and conditioning steps. Decay is the only natural way of reducing radioactivity (the process of transmutation of some long lived radionuclides is not considered viable at this time).
Since radionuclides have decay rates ranging from days to thousands of years, proper segregation of wastes depending on their half-lives, and separate treatment and conditioning of these wastes, is an important factor in the overall scheme of radioactive waste management. Treatment of waste involves operations intended to benefit safety and/or economy by changing the characteristics of the waste. There are different procedures to the treatment of radioactive waste, like:
In the case of electroremediation treatment of radioactive wastes offers many advantages such as the capacity to remove organic and inorganic pollutants by applying direct electric current into the soil, even in clays, it is easy to operate and involves the installation of electrodes into the soil or waste and the application of a low voltage gradient or direct current through them. In consequence, the EKR is a very good technological alternative to remove radioactive species as 22Na, 137Cs, 134Cs, 85Sr, 90Sr, 60Co and 238Ur from both saturated and unsaturated radioactive soils, sludges, ash and sediments, with less time and high efficiencies of removal in comparison of the other alternatives to remove radioactive wastes.
The authors would like to thank to Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (CONACyT) with the project 193883 of projects and thematic networks strengthening research, L’Oreal, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Academia Mexicana de Ciencias (AMC), Fundación México – Estados Unidos para la Ciencia (FUMEC). V. Valdovinos is grateful to CONACyT for her scholarship.
In Africa, goats are deeply entrenched in almost every African culture [1], particularly within communities that are not able to keep large livestock. Goats offer advantages in animal production as they have a relatively high productivity in harsh environments, use inexpensive feed resources, have a short reproductive cycle and have higher prolificacy when compared to cows [1, 2].
The global goat population has seen a sharp increase over the past decade, and the worlwide population is currently estimated at more than 1 billion animals [3]. Approximately 96% of these animals are meat goats and are found in developing countries in Asia and Africa [4]. Following the global trend, the African goat population has also increased over the last five years to represent 41% of the world’s population, and currently approaches 423 million goats. Approximately 35 million of these goats are part of the Southern African population.
Goats have been an important part of humanity since their domestication 10 000 years ago and they have since spread across the globe [5, 6]. Their roles and relative importance are not static but vary according to the agro-ecological zone, production system and socio-cultural context in which they are found [7]. Goats are one of the most important livestock species in developing countries [8, 9]. Their importance hinges on the fact that they provide meat, hides, fibre, and can be milked for home consumption [1, 10, 11]. Goats are also used for socio-economic purposes, such as festive, religious and ceremonial occasions [7, 12, 13]. They play an important economic role, providing cash-flow and being an accessible source of credit in order to meet immediate social and financial obligations [9]. Goats are therefore often described as the “village bank” [9, 14].
Goats and sheep are the preferred livestock species in dry areas due to their ability to convert poor quality pasture into good quality protein for human consumption [15]. Additionally, because of their small size, goats allow the slaughter and consumption of the entire carcass by a family in few days, without the risk of deterioration due to the absence of conserving/cooling facilities in villages of developing countries [1, 16, 17].
Goats have the potential to decrease poverty in Africa due to the role they play in food security. Through the exchange of goats for agricultural labor, they could potentially increase food security for many people in rural areas where crop production is their main activity and source of food [18]. Goat meat can significantly contribute to food security in terms of preserved (dried) protein, as their meat is of high nutritional value, with superior lean characteristics [19]. Furthermore, food security can be increased through exploiting synergies between crops and livestock, using manure and conversion of crop by-products by livestock [20, 21, 22]. Livestock plays an important role in the production of staple foods, such as cereals. They provide fertiliser (via manure) and contribute to land preparation by means of draught power. Additionally, they can be sold to generate cash necessary to buy resources for farming practices [20]. Therefore, livestock can contribute to an increase in both the area of land cultivated, as well as the productivity and efficiency with which crops are produced, resulting in the sustainability of farming systems [20]. It is estimated that worldwide livestock manure supplies up to 23% of gross nitrogen input in mixed crop–livestock systems and approximately 12% for cropping in developing countries [23]. Despite these well-known arguments, the real contribution of goats at household level has not been quantified, as most valuation systems depend on monetary standards which only take the financial contribution into account, and frequently neglect the non-monetary contribution of goats. Thus the real contribution of goats to improved livelihoods due to increased food security, especially for poor-resource communities, is unknown [13].
This chapter aims to review smallholder goat production in Southern Africa. A literature review was performed to discuss the importance of the main indigenous goat breeds and the production systems in which they are kept, as well as the constraints faced by goat farmers.
This review aims to provide background information on the current smallholder management practices of goat keepers in Southern Africa. For this, relevant information from scientific works (literature reviews, original articles, scientific reports, proceedings, and systematic reviews) related to the topic of interest and related keywords (e.g., “smallholder”, “communal”, “goats”, “reproduction”, and “extensive”) were searched. The review provides a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the findings, strengths, and limitations of the compiled studies.
Goats play a vital role in the cultural, social and economic life of rural communities. Indigenous goat breeds contribute significantly to both food security and to improved livelihoods for various resource-poor communities, especially those in rural and hard-to-reach areas [11, 24, 25]. Althought the information on the real contribution of goats to human food security and livelihoods is scarce [26], their role and relative importance varies noticeably across regions and cultural groups. The role of goats is socioeconomic well-being of people in terms of nutrition, income, savings, insurance against emergencies, cultural and ceremonial purposes [7]. Goats are used to help family members, conduct ceremonies and rituals, make linkages with ancestors, pay bride wealth (
A survey by Mataveia
According to FAOSTAT [34], during the last decade there was an increase in goat production globally and currently there are more than 1 billion goats, with Africa contributing 36.2%, Asia 58.2%, Americas 3.5%, Europe 1.7% and Oceania 0.4%. In Southern Africa, goats are the second most important livestock species after cattle [13]. Approximately 96% of the world’s goat population is kept in developing countries, of which 64% are found in rural arid (38%) and semi-arid (26%) agro-ecological zones [13]. The top-ten countries producing goat meat are all from Asia and Africa; indicating the importance of goat meat to people in resource-poor areas [5]. In Africa, goat meat production has increased from 1.1 million tons in 2008 to 1.3 million tons in 2017 [4]; of which the majority is produced and consumed locally (within households) [5, 35].
The Southern African goat population currently consists of approximately 38 million goats [36]. There are various goat breeds in Southern Africa, of which the Mashona, Matabele, Tswana, Nguni, Landim [13] and Pafuri [29] are the dominant ones. The goat populations in Southern Africa vary between countries: these variations in goats population are summarised in Table 1. Tanzania has the highest number with 18.9 million goats while Botswana has the smallest goat population (1.4 m) in Southern Africa [34].
Country | Population (in millions) |
---|---|
Angola | 4.7 |
Botswana | 1.4 |
Malawi | 8.9 |
Mozambique | 3.7 |
Namibia | 1.9 |
South Africa | 5.2 |
Eswatini | 2.4 |
Tanzania | 18.9 |
Zambia | 2.9 |
Zimbabwe | 4.7 |
Number of goats in southern African countries from [34].
FAO [37] reported that there is approximately 576 goat breeds currently distributed across the world, with 17% of these in Africa. Although goats are found in all types of ecological zones, they are mainly concentrated in tropical, dry zones. As a result of natural selection, goats exhibit a wide range of physiological diversity which results in an ability to adapt to different environments [35]. The main breeds of indigenous goats breed in Southern Africa are shown in Table 2 (Figure 1).
Country | Breed | Sources |
---|---|---|
Angola | Angola dwarf | [38] |
Botswana | Tswana | [38, 39, 40, 41] |
Malawi | Malawi goats | [38, 42, 43] |
Mozambique | Pafuri, Tete, Cabo Delgado and Landim | [12, 38, 41, 42] |
Namibia | Capriviti, Ovambo | [44] |
South Africa | Boer*, Kalahari Red*, Savanna*, Nguni, Tswana, Venda, xhosa, Swazi Zulu and Tankwa | [32, 38, 45, 46, 47] |
Eswatini | Nguni and Swazi | [13, 38, 45] |
Tanzania | Maasai, Gogo, Small East African, Sukuma, Sonjo, Pare, Kunene and Kavango | [48, 49] |
Zambia | Tswanaand Matabele | [38] |
Zimbabwe | Matabele, Binga, Chipinge, Matopo, Tswane, Shurugwi and Tsholotsho | [13, 38, 41, 50] |
Main indigenous goat breeds found in southern Africa.
The Boer, Kalahari Red and Savanna are commercial meat-type goat breeds that were locally developed.
Some of the indigenous goat breeds found in southern Africa region [
Table 3 shows the production parameters of some indigenous goats in Southern Africa under communal conditions. Because of their small physical size and superior adaptation traits, indigenous breeds are still preferred in the harsh environments of Southern Africa [10]. According to Sebei et al. [57], the major constraints to goat production are the high mortality rates among kids and slow growth among those that survive. The high disease and parasite challenge and low levels of nutrition contribute to the commonly observed poor growth performance resulting in lower production and reproduction performance [58].
Breed | Birth | Kid mortality (%) | Body Weight (Kg) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Months | |||||||||||
3 | 5–6 | 12 | Mature | ||||||||
Boer [10, 59, 60] | 4.0 | 3.5 | 40.6 | 30–33 | 22.3 | 40–50 | No | 92.0 | No | 120–140 | 70–90 |
Landim [10, 60, 61, 62] | 2.5 | 2.3 | 37.0 | 9.6 | 8.2 | 14.3 | 12.3 | 22.0 | 21.6 | 50.0 | 35.40 |
Swazi [63] | 2.0 | 1.8 | 30.0 | No | No | 8.0 | No | 14.5 | No | 35.2 | 30.0 |
Matabele [8, 13, 64] | 2.5 | 2.5 | 30.0 | No | No | 11.3 | 10.2 | 18.4 | 17.5 | 50–55 | 39.0 |
Malawi [13, 43] | 2.0 | 1.8 | 16.7 | 9.0 | 8.9 | 25.0 | No | No | No | 29.0 | 21.0 |
Pafuri [13, 56] | 3.0 | 2.4 | No | 8,0 | No | 10.1 | No | 16.7 | No | 60.0 | 43.0 |
Tswana [13, 65, 66, 67] | 4.3 | 3.6 | 33.3 | 13.4 | 11.4 | 17.8 | 16.2 | 25.39 | 24.14 | 44.0 | 40.0 |
Kalahari red [68, 69] | 2.7 | 2.0 | 19.7 | 9.8 | 8.3 | 15.6 | 12.8 | No | No | 115 | 75.0 |
Savanna [68, 70] | No | No | 17.5 | 30 | 25 | No | No | No | No | No | 60.0 |
Main production parameters of some indigenous goats in southern Africa under communal conditions.
The reproductive performance (age at first kidding and kidding interval) of some indigenous goats in Southern Africa are shown in Table 4. Gracinda et al. [62] suggested that supplementing goats with highly nutritive alternative feed sources has a positive effect on physiological functions. Supplementation with lupin grain [71] and soybean meal or corn grain [72], can improve reproduction efficiency by reducing the age at puberty and increasing ovulation rates. Energy deficiency decreases kid growth, and has an adverse effect on reproduction [73, 74]. There is a need to supplement the goats utilising the selected species with energy, protein, and phosphorus to meet the nutrient requirement for maintenance and reproduction [75].
Breed | Age at first kidding (months) | Kidding interval (d) |
---|---|---|
Boer [59, 76, 77] | 15–18.0 | 234–238 |
Landim [13, 78, 79] | 15–20.0 | 243–394 |
Pafuri [78] | 15.6 | — |
Matabele [13, 80, 81] | 14–23.0 | 240 |
Malawi [13, 82] | 15.6–16 | 330–365 |
Swazi [63] | 11.5 | 248 |
Tswana [65] | 10.0 | 365 |
Doe fertility of indigenous goats in southern Africa under communal conditions.
In Southern Africa, small ruminant production systems are classified as traditional (communal) or commercial (intensive) production systems. Most local and indigenous goats are kept in small-scale production systems in communal and resource-poor areas [75]. These systems depend on the exploitation of resources in dry-land areas, and a balance between the livestock’s requirements and the environment’al resources [83]. Kaufmann et al. [83], also classifies this system as a “social-ecologogical system”.
The traditional production system is characterised by informal labour (mostly from a family member), commonly with low livestock numbers per unit area and minimal use of technology and other inputs [84, 85]. The system is often hindered by land and water shortages, infections and predators [29]. The smallholders generally do not have the skills or resources available for animal recording and there is uncontrolled breeding, often resulting in inbreeding. The traditional production system is further divided into two main production systems, namely the mixed crop-livestock system and the pastoral production system [1, 86, 87].
The mixed crop-livestock system is used in most member states of the Southern African Development Communities Countries (SADC), including Mozambique [13]. This system is characterised by raising a small number of goats together with other livestock, such as cattle, pigs and poultry. Livestock and crop cultivation are maintained as complementary ventures; e.g. animals provide manure that will be available for fertilising the soil for crop production while livestock in return benefit by feeding on crop residues during the time of feed shortages [87, 88]. This system is characterised by low managerial and financial inputs [89]. It is an extensive farming system, with free-ranging, herding and tethering as the main management systems. This system is used by almost all pastoralists in Africa, where goats are frequently kept in mixed flocks with sheep. Children commonly herd goats, while the day-to-day management and care of young stock usually fall to women [1]. Under this system, animals graze communal land and animal herds owned by different families or individuals move from one area to another for grazing and water [87, 90, 91]. The goats graze over large areas of unwanted or marginal lands which are usually ill-suited for agricultural use [87, 92, 93].
In this system, low-skilled labour (often family members and children) are used as the primary goat handlers. They usually herd goats, sheep and cattle (as well as camels) together to graze wayside or waste vegetation. Management is limited to letting the goats out to graze during the day and confining them at night in enclosures, which are constructed using thorn bushes or wooden poles to protect them from theft and predation [92, 93]. There is no controlled breeding and no supplementary feeding or veterinary care for the animals, except for the extension services provided through government institutions [13]. Due to a shortage of water and forage, malnutrition is the primary limiting factor for profitable production of small ruminants, particularly during the dry season [13]. Goat productivity and offtake rates from these systems are typically low. Shortages in nutrients and exposure to diseases, parasites, as well as challenging climatic conditions with frequent and prolonged droughts are responsible for slow growth, which leads to low productivity [94, 95].
The semi-intensive or agropastoral production system is typically encountered in urban and peri-urban areas [88]. In this system, the goats usually graze two to four hours daily and then return to their paddocks. Usually, the farmers returning with the flock at night supply tree leaves and/or grass to feed them until the following morning, when they can graze again [93].
Tethering is a widespread practice of small ruminant management by smallholders in Southern African countries such as Mozambique [29], Zambia [13] and South Africa [59]. This system is used to protect animals from theft and to prevent them from destroying crops and also allows farmers to conduct other activities [13]. Goats are often tethered in the morning and herded in the afternoon when children have returned from school. In this management system, water is provided when the goats are moved to shelter at night and supplementation is limited (i.e. salt or mineral bricks), or absent. The only supplements, (which are provided infrequently) are household scraps, small quantities of grains or their by-products [62].
Both these traditional systems make use of a high degree of variability – in terms of composition and nutritional value of forage, quantity and quality of the water supply, accessibility of supplements, veterinary care and any other resources. The variability is almost seen as an advantage and is used to keep production costs low by strategically selecting available resources at specific time points.
Approximately 70% of Southern African goats are kept under traditional management systems where the farm structure comprises of about twenty goats [33]. The resultant goat productivity is relatively low due to minimal inputs, poor infrastructure, undefined marketing channels and multiple breeding objectives [29, 96]. Goats are popular and most preferred by smallholder due to their ability to deal with a range of climatic condition including disease challenges, inadequate feed resources and low management [3, 97]. Devendra [98], pointed out the important criteria in Southern African region for the selection of the suitable type of animal to be grown. In the criteria were included the environments (semi-arid and tropical), limited feed resources, differences in energy requirement and digestive efficiency among ruminants.
Goats are resistant to heat stress, droughts, food and water scarcity as well as diseases; they can maintain production and reproduction performance under harsh environmental conditions. This is in part due to their smaller body size which enables efficient utilisation of low-quality forage and their tolerance to water scarcity and ability to retain superior thermoregulation [38, 99, 100]. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency, intensity and length of droughts with a negative impact on rural areas, especially in sub-Saharan Africa where the human population is mostly dependent on rain for crop and livestock production [101]. However, indigenous goats have developed mechanisms, which allow them to adapt to high environmental temperatures and to achieve thermo-tolerance in extremely challenging environments [38, 102]. These mechanisms include physical, physiological and biochemical changes, such as a reduced feed intake and metabolic heat production [99, 103].
There is ample evidence that livestock and indigenous breeds that evolved in stressful tropical environments have a range of unique adaptive traits that enable them to survive and be productive and reproductive [102, 104, 105]. These goats feed primarily from browsing fodder, as potential sources of affordable feed for ruminants in developing countries. This is especially true during dry seasons, due to the ability of the available foliage to remain green and maintain its protein content, making these fodder potential sources of energy and protein to the goats [39].
Heat stress is an element that negatively affects livestock production and reproduction performance [99]. However, goats are considered less susceptible to heat stress than cattle because of their small metabolic size and their capacity to conserve water [106, 107]. Indigenous breeds of small ruminants in arid zones, such as the black Bedouin goats and Barmer goats herded in the deserts of Sinai (Middle East) and Rajasthan (India), can survive without drinking water for several days, often only drinking water once every four days [107, 108]. Desert goats have been reported to have a superior ability to withstand dehydration, and are considered among the most efficient ruminants in this regard [109]. The biological mechanisms that enables desert goats to cope with droughts depend on their ability to withstand dehydration and to minimise water losses via urine and faeces [99, 108].
Most indigenous goat breeds are physically small which help them to regulate water loss and heat gain in scorching environments [103, 110]. Their colour adaptation of the integumentary system also helps them to reflect heat [103]. Various morphological traits, such as body size and shape [108], coat and skin colour, hair type, and fat storage aid goats in their superior adaptation to harsh environments [103, 106, 111]. Typically, dark-coated animals have higher heat loads than light-coloured ones [112] and the light-coloured coat is deemed superior in tropical regions [113]. Additionally, skin pigmentation provides protection for deep tissues against solar short-wave radiation in tropical regions [114].
Reducing feed intake is another way to decrease heat stress in warm environments as the heat increment due to feeding, especially in ruminants, is a significant source of heat production [115, 116]. Goats are one of the ruminant browsers that suffer least during droughts [117]. This is due to their ability to survive on a diet constituted normally of browsing, which is least affected by the drought [102]. If the drought persists, the carrying capacity of the veld will inevitably fall but it will still be able to support goats longer than other herbivores, such as sheep and cattle, due to the goats’ capacity to reduce their metabolism and to maintain this low metabolic requirement [38, 102]. The ability of goats to survive prolonged periods of water deprivation also allows them to graze far from watering sites and to exploit available pastures optimally.
The adaptation of goats during periods of feed shortage can be via the following processes: low metabolic requirements, their capability to decrease their metabolism, increased digestive efficiency, an ability to utilise high-fibre feed and the deposition of nutrients in the form of fat as feed reserve [102].
Goats have low metabolic requirements during a period of shortage of natural pasture [38]. They can adjust to a low energy intake by reducing their energy metabolism [108, 118] and are thus able to maintain their body weight in times when food is scarce. A low metabolic requirement is an advantage if the quantity and quality of vegetation are inadequate. The improved temperate breeds are more productive than indigenous tropical breeds if ample high-quality feed is available; however, they lose weight and have increased mortalities when the environment becomes challenging and they must graze on poor quality veld. Under the same circumstances, adapted indigenous animals still grow and other physiological processes continue, such as reproduction and milk yield [102]. The adapted tropical animals recycle nutrients more efficiently than improved temperate breeds and their metabolism is reduced when the animal is losing weight [107].
The ability to reduce their metabolism permits goats to survive even after prolonged periods of severely restricted food availability [38, 102]. Their selective browsing behaviour [108] and an efficient digestive system allow the goats to maximise food intake and scarce nutrients [118]. Adejoro and Hassen [119] showed that the intake and digestibility of low quality foods could be increased by adding urea to that diet. Therefore, there is a favourable association between the improved reutilising rate of urea and better digestion of such food in desert goats.
Silanikove [108] reported the digestive efficiency of indigenous goats and their ability to utilise high-fibre feed. Goats have superior digestive efficiency compared to sheep and cattle when using high-fibre low-quality forages because of the longer mean retention time in the rumen [98, 120]. They can also eat more tannin-rich material and can thus utilise plant species that cannot be consumed by sheep [100, 108]. Goat breeds that are indigenous to semi-arid and arid areas can utilise low-quality high-fibre feed more efficiently than their exotic equivalents and also outperform indigenous sheep and cattle breeds [121]. For instance, indigenous desert black Bedouin goats outperformed Swiss Saanen goats in terms of digestive efficiency when fed on roughage diets in both controlled environments [121] and under natural conditions in a harsh environment [122].
Ruminants accumulate energy in adipose tissues when the quality and quantity of feed is sufficient, and mobilise it to meet energy requirements during periods of shortage [123, 124]. In a tropical environment, the rainy seasons alternate with dry seasons. The capacity to accumulate fat during the rainy seasons for its subsequent use for maintenance and biological functions (like pregnancy and lactation) in the dry season is an essential strategy for survival [124]. The typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the dry and rainy in Southern Africa are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively.
A typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the dry season. Source: the figure developed by the authors.
A typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the rainy season. Source: the figure developed by the authors.
In Southern Africa, the veld quantity and quality are highly variable and represent the main limitation of livestock production [125]. In addition, the grassland is affected by seasonality, where the dry seasons are generally long and characterised with low quantity and quality veld [74]. A herd of veld goats are shown in Figure 4.
A herd of veld goats during dry season. Source: the figure developed by the authors.
Most indigenous and locally developed goats in Southern Africa are kept in small-scale production system in communal areas. The goat keepers exploit the severe variability of these systems (in terms of nutrition, water availability, environmental factors and livestock resources) to make strategic choices to keep production costs as low as possible.
Due to their ability to adapt to harsh environmental conditions and different foods, goats can maintain sufficient levels of production and reproduction performance in adverse climates. Goat keepers need to strike a careful balance between human-animal-environment interactions to ensure that goats maintain their essential contribution to the livelihoods of limited-resource populations in developing countries.
The authors are gratefully to the Fundo Nacional de Investigação – Projecto No 164 - Inv/FNI and Fundo para a Investigação Aplicada e Multissectorial (FIAM)- Project No 5.2.4.-Inv/FIAM for their financial support.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Subtle changes that occur over time in periodontal tissues that are below the detection limit of visual examination or periodontal probing can be found and tracked accurately over time using 3D imaging, fluorescence spectroscopy, and optical coherence tomography. During debridement of teeth and dental implants, the effective removal of subgingival microbial biofilms and dental calculus deposits can be enhanced using magnifying loupes and operating microscopes and by novel methods based on the interactions of light with bacterial deposits, such as differential reflectometry and light-induced fluorescence. While such techniques can also be used using initial case assessment, their primary purpose is for checking debridement procedures, since the point when bacterial deposits are no longer present represents an endpoint for treatment. The concept of real-time feedback has been developed, using fluorescence readings to control the removal of deposits. Overall, optical methods can support traditional periodontal diagnosis and improve treatment planning and clinical periodontal care.",book:{id:"7244",slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fardad Shakibaie and Laurence Walsh",authors:[{id:"179467",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",slug:"laurence-walsh",fullName:"Laurence Walsh"},{id:"235443",title:"Dr.",name:"Fardad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakibaie",slug:"fardad-shakibaie",fullName:"Fardad Shakibaie"}]},{id:"24363",title:"Biomechanics of Tooth-Movement: Current Look at Orthodontic Fundamental",slug:"biomechanics-of-tooth-movement-current-look-at-orthodontic-fundamental",totalDownloads:26816,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"277",slug:"principles-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Joanna Antoszewska and Nazan Küçükkeles",authors:[{id:"50158",title:"Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Antoszewska",slug:"joanna-antoszewska",fullName:"Joanna Antoszewska"}]},{id:"71271",title:"Flap Techniques in Dentoalveolar Surgery",slug:"flap-techniques-in-dentoalveolar-surgery",totalDownloads:2628,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most dentoalveolar procedures involve the reflection of mucosal flaps. This step is crucial for exposure or removal of impacted teeth, implant bed preparation, exposure of the alveolar bone for augmentation, periodontal surgeries, and repair of mucosal soft tissue defects, such as oroantral fistula. Because of the rich vascularity of the oral mucosa, great freedom is allowed for flap design, but it tends to result in carelessness and lack of thoughtful planning, which may lead to uneventful outcomes or/and complications. In this chapter, we review oral anatomy, classification, indications, and complications of common oral flap techniques; common flap designs are illustrated, and their fundamental principles are highlighted. The review has covered various flap designs based on their indications. Yet the common flap’s principles are fundamental for all types of flaps regardless of their application, namely, it should provide wide exposure, clear vision, good access, and assure rich vascularity and good final aesthetic outcome.",book:{id:"9387",slug:"oral-diseases",title:"Oral Diseases",fullTitle:"Oral Diseases"},signatures:"Randa Abdulmoein AlFotawi",authors:[{id:"308701",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",middleName:"Abdulmoein",surname:"Alfotawi",slug:"randa-alfotawi",fullName:"Randa Alfotawi"}]},{id:"65088",title:"Evaluation and Management of Mandibular Fracture",slug:"evaluation-and-management-of-mandibular-fracture",totalDownloads:2903,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The mandibular bone is an important component of the facial bone, which has a unique role in digestive system, speech, and facial esthetics. For these important functions of mandibular bone, it is vital that surgeons should not only treat function but also consider the esthetics together. Mandibular fractures are among the most common traumatic injuries of the maxillofacial region. Even though treatment modalities are well established and being practiced for a long time, untreated and postoperative complications still decrease the patient’s quality of life. This chapter aims to describe the cause, clinical presentations, diagnoses, and current treatment methods on the basis of resent literature.",book:{id:"7572",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry"},signatures:"Guhan Dergin, Yusuf Emes and Buket Aybar",authors:[{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin"},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes"},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar"}]},{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2715,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The permanent incisors are the front teeth that erupt between 6 and 8 years of age. They are eight in number, four upper and four lower, two centrals and two laterals. They have sharp biting surfaces designed for shearing and cutting of food materials into small chewable pieces. They are the teeth most visible to the others during eating, smiling and talking, and thus, they have high aesthetic value for the individuals. The unique characteristics, arch position, function, development and chronological age of each tooth will be highlighted. In addition, the different aspects with their geometric outlines, outlines and surface anatomy of these teeth will be described. A brief explanation about the pulp cavity, tooth socket and normal occlusion for each tooth will be included.",book:{id:"5814",slug:"dental-anatomy",title:"Dental Anatomy",fullTitle:"Dental Anatomy"},signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. Grawish",authors:[{id:"82989",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:"E",surname:"Grawish",slug:"mohammed-grawish",fullName:"Mohammed Grawish"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"174",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",abstract:"Breathing is essential for life in all of its stages. Cellular, mitochondrial respiration requires an adequate supply of oxygen, provided by the air we breathe, after airway conduction, treatment by the lungs, and transport to tissues. At different stages of life, pediatric dentists and orthodontists can intervene in the upper airway, expanding it, which helps with ventilation. The greater airway space, if used, contributes in different ways to the child’s development and the recovery of respiratory problems and should always be present as a weapon that physicians and the population should know. The value of the techniques becomes even more important when applied to children and young people with disabilities who can significantly improve their development and performance. Rapid Maxillary Expansion and Extraoral Traction Appliances are two important pediatric resources to treat these children. Clinical practice of the authors, is discussed, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and the need for multi and interdisciplinary collaboration in the follow-up of disabled people.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman"},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",abstract:"This study compared the perception of pain experienced by patients undergoing orthodontic treatment with conventional, self-ligating brackets and aligners, and investigated the impact that pain had on their daily lives. 346 consecutive patients were included in the study: 115 patients treated with conventional brackets, 112 Patients treated with self-ligating brackets, and 119 patients treated with aligners. The quantitative aspect of pain was assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale, while the qualitative aspect of pain was evaluated using the Moroccan Short Form of McGILL Pain questionnaire. In all three groups experienced pain after activation tended to decrease in the following week. This pain was greater in patients with conventional braces and less in patients with aligners. Using the M-SF-MPQ to describe the qualitative aspect of the pain revealed that the “cramping مزير,” “aching تيألم ” aspect was most accentuated in the 3 groups. Medication intake was correlated with the intensity of pain experienced in all 3 systems. As for the impact of pain on daily activities, patients in groups of conventional and self-ligating braces showed more pain than those in the aligners group. Overall, aligners were less painful than conventional and self-ligating appliances. Patients did not suffer from an alteration in their quality of life due to orthodontic treatment.",book:{id:"10780",title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg"},signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani"},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",slug:"herbs-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:69,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",abstract:"Herbal medicine has long been used to prevent and control disease, and it can minimize the potential side effects of chemical products. However, side effects from herbs do exist. Most of the challenges with herbal medicine revolves around inadequate information about the effect of herbs in the oral cavity, the mechanism of action, and potential side effects. There are several herbs described in this chapter have anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal in oral micro-organisms. It includes aloe vera, ginger, clove, cinnamon, garlic, neem, miswak, turmeric, tulsi, green tea, chamomile, fenugreek, anise plant, peppermint, bloodroot, caraway, eucalyptus, phyllanthus emblica, black seed, myrrh, rosemary, sage, and thyme; some may act as an alternative management option to current treatments for oral conditions such as caries prevention, gingivitis, periodontitis, oral burn, ulcers and inflammation, after extraction, dry mouth, pain reduction, anesthesia, intracanal medications, ill-fitting dentures, peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis. It can be used in several forms such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, topical agents or local drug delivery devices. However, more research is needed to understand their mechanisms and potential side effects.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Zuhair S. Natto"},{id:"80441",title:"Periodontitis and Heart Disease: Current Perspectives on the Associative Relationships and Preventive Impact",slug:"periodontitis-and-heart-disease-current-perspectives-on-the-associative-relationships-and-preventive",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102669",abstract:"Due to the important advancement and the accumulation of new evidence on the periodontitis-cardiovascular disease (CVD) relationship as well as the major medical, economic and social burden caused by both diseases this chapter aims to review existing epidemiological and pathogenetic links related to this topic. Also, this chapter aims to highlight the impact of the periodontitis-CVD relationships on clinical practice and on the preventive approaches targeting to decrease the impact of periodontitis on CVD. Periodontitis is an infectious disease eliciting local and general inflammation, which leads to periodontal destruction and systemic involvement. Several pathways could explain the link between periodontitis and CVD such as bacteraemia, chronic persistent systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. The first step in the treatment of periodontitis addresses the elimination of microbial components, which lead to a decrease in local and systemic inflammation. Periodontal therapy seems to positively impact CVD. Specialists should inform patients with CVD on the negative impact of periodontitis on their systemic status and refer patients to the periodontist for an extensive examination as routine management of CVD. Some possible risks of periodontal therapy should be considered in patients undergoing antithrombotic medication.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandra Roman, Andrada Soancă, Bogdan Caloian, Alexandru Bucur, Gabriela Valentina Caracostea, Andreia Paraschiva Preda, Dora Maria Popescu, Iulia Cristina Micu, Petra Șurlin, Andreea Ciurea, Diana Oneț, Mircea Viorel Ciurea, Dragoș Alexandru Țermure and Marius Negucioiu"},{id:"79498",title:"Oral Aspects and Dental Management of Special Needs Patient",slug:"oral-aspects-and-dental-management-of-special-needs-patient",totalDownloads:113,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101067",abstract:"Individuals with special needs are the most underserved regarding healthcare needs in almost all populations. Special needs patients with intellectual disability have muscle coordination disorder, impaired oral motor function, drooling, weak muscles that cause chewing and swallowing problems. Also, soft diet consumption makes this population more prone to dental disease. They have more caries, missing teeth, orthodontic and periodontal problems. Besides more difficulties obtaining professional dental care than other segments of the population. Though many countries developed community-based systems to improve oral health for people with special needs, providing good oral health mainly depends on the effort of the families. Therefore the education of the caregiver about oral hygiene provision is also critical for the special needs patient to enjoy a lifetime of oral health the same as other members of the society.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Pinar Kiymet Karataban"},{id:"79699",title:"Metabolomics Distinction of Cigarette Smokers from Non-Smokers Using Non-Stationary Benchtop Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis of Human Saliva",slug:"metabolomics-distinction-of-cigarette-smokers-from-non-smokers-using-non-stationary-benchtop-nuclear",totalDownloads:56,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101414",abstract:"Implementations of high-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) facilities into metabolomics studies are unfortunately restricted by their large dimensions, high costings, and specialist technical staff requirements. Therefore, here the application and practical advantages offered by low-field (60 MHz), compact NMR spectrometers for probing the metabolic profiles of human saliva was explored, as was their value in salivary metabolomics studies. Saliva samples were collected from cigarette smoking (n = 11) and non-smoking (n = 31) human participants. 1H NMR spectra were acquired on both low-field (60 MHz) and medium-field (400 MHz) spectrometers. Metabolomics analyses were employed to evaluate the consistencies of salivary metabolite levels determined, and their abilities to distinguish between smokers and non-smokers. Low-field 1H NMR analysis detected up to 15, albeit permitted the reliable quantification of 5, potentially key diagnostic biomolecules simultaneously (LLOQ values 250–400 μmol/L), although these were limited to those with the most prominent resonances. Such low-field profiles were also found to be suitable for salivary metabolomics investigations, which confirmed the successful discrimination between smoking and non-smoking participant sample donors. Differences observed between these groups were largely ascribable to upregulated salivary levels of methanol, and its metabolite formate, in the smoking group, but higher smoking-mediated concentrations of acetate, propionate and glycine may arise from a diminished salivary flow-rate in these participants. In conclusion, determination of salivary biomolecules using low-field, benchtop 1H NMR analysis techniques were found to be valuable for bioanalytical and metabolomics investigations. Future perspectives for the applications of this non-stationary NMR technique, for example for the on-site ‘point-of-care’ testing of saliva samples for diagnostic oral disease screening purposes at dental surgeries and community pharmacies, are considered.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Benita C. Percival, Angela Wann, Sophie Taylor, Mark Edgar, Miles Gibson and Martin Grootveld"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:36},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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