Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
Climate change has emerged as the most prominent of the global environmental issues and there is a need to evaluate its impact on the agriculture as the temperature is projected to increase in near future [1]. Furthermore, climate change provides more energy that causes to change liquid to gaseous form as well as occurs more evaporation (E) to which reduces the share of transpiration. Evaporation is the unproductive loss of water and is mainly responsible for the lower land as well as water productivity [2], while transpiration (T) is the desired component as greater the transpiration (T) greater will be nutrient inflow along with the water, resulted in higher grain yields. For occurring E, three things are required, viz. sufficient soil moisture, vapor pressure gradient and energy, to cause the phase change and lack of anyone, E will not be happened [3]. Among different soil water balance components, evapotranspiration (ET) is an important one which further decides the water use efficiency. Furthermore, ET shares in total remain the almost similar [4].
Therefore, without appropriate technologies, farmers will find it extremely difficulties to operate climate-smart agricultural to meet the food demand of increasing population. In the meantime, scientists across the world to regions working on it and tried to invent improved technologies which could partition greater share of the total ET water to T by diverting share of E. The surface water in the region continue to be delivered through old traditional canal and on-farm conveyance networks those have earthen bunds and are unlined resulting in very low water use efficiency (30–50%). Generally, irrigators usually cut off the supply when the advance is complete without considering the additional irrigation water infiltrates at the entrance especially when the soil is opened up with pre-seeding tillage. Thus large non-uniformities in water application in addition to over-irrigation. In our situation, generally plot size of 250 m2 in coarse texture and 500 m2 in medium to fine texture is recommended for wheat [5] for improving the water use efficiency. For cotton furrow irrigation could save 100–150 mm of irrigation water [6] as it cuts down the share of E. Even the broad beds spaced at 1.35 m and planting cotton in furrows in paired rows improved its yield by 44% and saved 40% irrigation water as compared with row spacing of 0.75 m in flatbed system [7]. Micro-irrigation especially drip, mini-sprinklers and sub-irrigation systems designed to apply small and frequent irrigations, are now emerging as ideal technologies which cut off E share and partition greater share of the ET to the T component. As the water is being applied to the root zone rather than entire field and both unproductive losses, viz. evaporation (E) and deep drainage (D) is considerably reduced, irrigation efficiencies as high as 95 and 80% are achieved with drip and sprinklers systems, respectively. The overall water savings with drip systems ranged between 50 and 65% in vegetables [8] along with higher fertilizer use efficiency and better quality of the product. The government has introduced subsidies to the extent of 75%, still, the drip system does not seem to be adopted at the desired levels.
For upland crops, viz. wheat, maize, potato, etc., effects of E demand and rainfall concept for timing irrigation to crops was put forward in 1970s [9, 10]. It is a deficit-irrigation approach that induces deeper rooting for promoting utilization of profile stored water especially the sub-soil water. Heavy pre-sowing irrigation followed by irrigations at IW/PAN-E ratio of 0.75 [11] and last irrigation during mid-March by charging soil profile to 80–100% of water depletion [9, 10] further improves water productivity.
Thus, efforts have also been made to compute crop sensitivity to water stress by relating yield with ET or T. Water deficits mainly damage the crops during meiosis of pollen mother cells or around anthesis. Therefore, sensitive stages in different crops need to be identified to mitigate the adverse effects of limited irrigation. Generally, at present scientists advocate different technologies, viz. mulching, crop diversification, correct T time of rice, bed planting, zero tillage, short duration crop cultivars to partition greater share of the ET water share to the T by depressing E in one or other way. These technologies have a substantial scope in improving irrigation efficiency and reducing energy for groundwater withdrawal. In the present chapter, we tried to understand the concept and consequences of evapotranspiration for sustainable crop production in the era of climate change. A detailed description of evaporation, transpiration and evapotranspiration and their importance for sustainable agriculture are highlighted by the following sub-heading.
2. Concept of evaporation, transpiration, and evapotranspiration and its relation to crop productivity
Evaporation is the physical process through which liquid water is converted to water vapor. The rate of E depends on the saturated vapor pressure of the liquid and increases with increase in temperature until the atmospheric pressure at the boiling point [12].
Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere. Transpiration is principally E of water to the atmosphere from plants roots to small pores on the underside of leaves. Another type of water loss from the uninjured leaf or stem of the plant, mainly by stomata is called guttation [13]. Nearly 10% of the moisture available in the atmosphere is from the T process [14]. The remaining 90% is mainly from the E process from different water bodies [15, 16]. reported that the T is attained by the movement of water, at the vapor phase through the conductor system from the roots to the leaves of the plant, as a function of a water potential gradient from the soil (ψsoil) to the air (ψair) as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the water motion in the soil-plant-atmosphere system under optimal development conditions (adapted from [15, 16]).
In general, ET is the sum of E and T. It is the simultaneous process of water transfer to the atmosphere both by soil water E and plants T. The study found that during a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight. An acre of corn gives off about 11,400–15,100 l of water each day, and a large oak tree can transpire about 1,51,000 l per year [13] (USGS, 2016).
Depending on the vegetation conditions, size of the vegetated area, and soil water supply, different conceptions are to be defined, such as potential, actual, oasis, and crop ET [16]. Such particular terms are described as follows.
2.1 Potential evapotranspiration (ETp)
Potential ET represents the combined loss of water through the plant’s process of T and E of water from the Earth’s surface. Both the processes are influenced by temperature, humidity, sunlight, and wind as well as Earth vegetation. ETp values indicate the amount of water that has been lost, and thus needs to be replaced, through irrigation and/or rainfall [16, 17].
2.2 Actual or real evapotranspiration (ETa)
Actual ET is the amount of water actually utilized by an extensive surface vegetated with grass, at an active growth stage, covering completely the soil surface. ETa is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a surface due to the processes of E and T [17]. There is a relation between potential ET and actual ET. Crop water need can be estimated by the following equation: Crop water needs = potential evapotranspiration − actual evapotranspiration.
2.3 Oasis evapotranspiration (ETo)
Oasis ET is the amount of water consumed by a small irrigated vegetation which is encircled by a widespread dry-area, at which dynamism of water to vapor is come from high temperature in combination with drought [16, 18]. Figure 2 shows the border area necessary for minimizing the lateral transport of energy from the dry to the wet area (irrigated). At such an area, the ET that will take place is the oasis ET.
Figure 2.
Schematic representation of the ETo and ETp (adapted from [16, 18]).
2.4 Evapotranspiration (ETc)
Evapotranspiration is the process by which an amount of water is used by any growth stage of a crop from sowing to harvest, at whatever time there is no water constraint in the soil [13, 16]. ETc is a function of leaf area (transpiring surface), because the bigger the leaf area (LAI), the higher ETc will be for the same atmospheric demand [17].
3. Factors affecting evapotranspiration (ET)
Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are factors affecting E, T, and ET. Details of these factors are as follows:
3.1 Climatic factors that affecting ET
3.1.1 Radiation
Radiation is the main source of energy for the ET process. It depends on the global solar radiation flux density and vegetation albedo. A darker vegetation absorbs more incident solar radiation and evapotranspires more [13, 16]. A thorough understanding of the factors controlling the energy balance of a cropped soil enables making accurate estimates or predictions of ET and irrigation water requirements. It also facilitates more effective irrigation water management [19, 20].
3.1.2 Temperature
Over the course of a day, an increase of the air temperature causes an increase on the saturation deficit triggering a higher evaporative demand in the air, and leading to high ET rates [13, 16].
3.1.3 Relative humidity (%RH)
Air relative humidity acts in conjunction with temperature. The higher relative humidity, the lesser the evaporative demand and, therefore, the lower ET [13, 16].
3.1.4 Wind
Advection represents the horizontal transport of energy from a drier area to another more humid, and such additional energy is utilized in the ET process. Wind also helps remove water vapor near the plants to other regions [13, 16].
3.2 Crop factors that affecting ET
Crop factors such as crop species, radiation reflection coefficient, leaf area index (LAI) in different growth stages of the plant, plant height and root depth (depth of the radicular system) are influenced on the crop ET, which are described details as follows:
3.2.1 Crop species
This factor is related to the foliar architecture (spatial distribution of the leaves), internal resistance of the plant to water transport, and other morphological aspects (number, size, and distribution of stomata, etc.), which exert a direct influence on ET [13, 16].
3.2.2 Radiation reflection coefficient
Radiation reflection influences directly net radiation availability for the ET process. The darker the vegetation, the lower the reflection coefficient and the higher net radiation [13, 16].
3.2.3 Leaf area index (LAI) in different growth stages of plant
LAI in different growth stages of a plant is directly related to the size of the transpiring foliar surface, for the larger leaf area the larger the transpiring surface, and the higher the potential for water use [13, 16].
3.2.4 Plant height
Plant height also influences the ET. Taller and rougher plants interact more efficiently with the atmosphere in motion, extracting more energy from the air and, therefore, increasing ET [13, 16].
3.2.5 Rooting depth of plant (depth of the radicular system)
Rooting depth of plant is directly related to the volume of soil explored by the roots, aiming at meeting the atmospheric hydric demand. A superficial radicular system, for exploring a smaller soil volume, keeps the crop more susceptible to drying periods [13, 16].
3.3 Crop management and growing environmental conditions also influence the ET
The following crop management and growing environmental conditions are influenced the crop ET:
3.3.1 Row to row or plant to plant spacing
Usually, intraspecific competition is found between plants/crops of the same species/types for their essential growth elements. A limited spacing between the plant to plant or row to row of the same species or different species of plants/crops, consequences in an intense competition for water, light, nutrient, etc., causing as a consequence an increase on ET [13, 16].
3.3.2 Crop orientation
Crops oriented perpendicularly to predominant winds tend to extract more energy from the air than those oriented in parallel. For regions with constant winds, a solution to prevent the stomata-closing would be the use of windbreaks. A windbreak reduces wind velocities and decreases the ET rate of the field directly beyond the barrier [13, 16].
3.3.3 Soil properties (structure and texture)
Soil texture and soil structure are both unique properties of the soil that will have a profound effect on the behavior of soils. Both the properties influence the crop ET through influencing the water holding capacity of the soils. Clay soils have higher water holding capacity than sandy soils and are proficient of preserving a more persistent crop ET rate for longer [13, 16].
3.3.4 Chemical/physical impediments
Inhibitions system limit the growth of the radicular system of a plant, affecting the root system of plants to explore a wider volume of soil both in dry and rainy seasons. In the rainy season, soil with any physical obstructions gets soaking wet suffocating the roots. While in the dry season, the volume of available water is reduced from the roots of a plant; as a results root system of a plant is deepening into the soil for searching available water [13, 16].
3.4 Interrelationship atmospheric demand: soil water supply
The soil is a dynamic reservoir for available water for growth and development of plants. It is controlling the rate of water use by the plants and continuously in coincidence with the atmospheric demand. Since the atmospheric demand for water is directing by solar radiation, air humidity, and wind speed (Figure 3). Under situation C, in which ECA (by the evaporation from a Class A pan (ECA)) > 7.5 mm day−1 (high demand); the plants do not manage to extract water at a rate compatible to its needs even under the available soil water, as a result, to avoid drying of the leaves plants temporary close the stomata. Such a condition usually takes place at the hottest hours of the day [13, 16].
Figure 3.
Relationship between corn relative evapotranspiration (ETa/ETc) and soil available water and atmospheric demand expressed by ECA (adapted from [16, 21]).
4. Interrelation between the intervening period of rice-wheat cropping sequence and ET
“Intervening period” is perhaps the most ignored period in the any crop rotation as scientists are trying to analyze the effects of applied treatments on the land and water productivity, which could be exploited for cultivating the intervening crops, viz. moong and other fodder crops [22, 23, 24, 25]. Several investigations were carried out during intervening periods of wheat 2012–2013 and rice 2013; rice 2013 and wheat 2013–2014; wheat 2013–2014 and rice 2014 and rice 2014 and wheat 2014–2015 using time domain reflectometer, electronic tensiometer, soil thermometers (up to 0–10 cm) and mini-lysimeters to delineate soil moisture dynamics as affected by different establishment methods of rice and wheat sequence. Zero tilled wheat plots (ZTW) evaporates 7.6 and 12.8% more, retained 10.3 and 9.4% lower volumetric moisture content at 7.5 cm soil depths and reported to had 28, 18 and 18% and 21, 16 and 17% higher soil tension values at 10, 20 and 30 cm soil depths because of reported 2.2 and 2.1% higher soil temperature than the conventionally tilled (CT) wheat plots during intervening periods after wheat 2012–2013 and wheat 2013–2014. However, after rice 2013, ZT plots reported to conserve 4.0% higher moisture content because of reported 2.3% lesser soil temperature which evaporates 27.6% lesser after rice 2013. On an average, conventional tilled both wheat and direct seeded rice (CTW-DSRCT) plots had 14, 29 and 45% lower SWT values than the zero till wheat and zero till direct seeded rice (ZTW-DSRZT) plots after rice 2013. They also found that after rice in 2014, CTW-DSRZT plots conserved more soil moisture than ZTW-DSRZT, although an exception was found in CTW-DSRCT plots, but were nearly equally and effective for conserving the soil moisture CTW-DSRZT cropping system.
5. Consequences of evapotranspiration for sustainable crop production in the era of climate change
Water moved from the Earth’s surface into the atmosphere by evaporation and T the two distinct mechanisms. Evaporation occurs directly from the water bodies where liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state. Recondition for evaporation to occur is when atmospheric humidity is less than the evaporating surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation). The evaporation process requires large amounts of energy, viz. 600 calories of heat energy for 1 g of water. Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through stomata—a small opening found on the underside of leaves that are connected to vascular plant tissues. In most plants, T is a passive process largely controlled by the humidity of the atmosphere and the moisture content of the soil. Around 1% of total transpired water being used in the growth process as it transports nutrients from the soil into the roots and carries them to the various cells of the plant and is used to keep tissues from becoming overheated. Certain plants of dried environment do have the ability to open and close their stomata which is to limit the loss of water from plant tissues; otherwise, they will not survive.
Generally, differentiate between evaporation and T is difficult. Hence a composite term “ET” is used whose rate at any instant from the Earth’s surface is controlled by four factors: (1) Vapor pressure gradient. (2) Energy availability as about 600 calories of heat energy to change 1 g of liquid water into a water vapor. (3) The wind speed directly above the surface which moves the vapor from the place of evaporation and in clam days when above ground layer got saturated, ET almost stops. (4) Water availability which is a must parameter as at the global scale, most of the ET of water on the Earth’s surface occurs in the subtropical oceans where high quantities of solar radiation convert liquid water into a gas. Further, it is reported that average ET for the northern hemisphere is around 944 mm year−1. Together with the southern hemisphere, with an average ET of 1064 mm year−1, this results in a global ET of 1004 mm year−1. In the Western Pacific and the Indian Ocean values up to 2 m year−1 have been observed. Thus it varied a lot depending on the special variations.
Evapotranspiration (ET) is an important soil water balance component and is playing a major role in determining the potential yields in the agricultural sector. Being affected by a number of factors, viz. soil temperature, soil moisture and vapor pressure gradients, ET remains almost remains similar for a particular soil textural class and agro-climatic conditions. Regarding estimation of ET, in field conditions, evaporation is generally judged by installing the lysimeters in the field which actually represent the true conditions of the field. Mini-lysimeters were quite effective in understanding the fluctuating behavior of evaporation under different treatments [26, 27]. Mini-lysimeters prepared by using PVC pipes of 8-inch length and with 2.5 inches diameter. Mini-lysimeters were filled from a particular treatment with the help of chain pulley arrangement, an end cap fixed on one side and then finally filled and capped mini-lysimeter was placed inside the outer pipe of the bigger diameter which was already fixed in the sampled plot (Figure 4). Daily mini-lysimeters were weighted at field using the digital balance to have an idea of evaporation [29]. After calculating the evaporation T is calculated from the soil water equation where the right-hand side has irrigation and rainfall while left-hand side constituted by seepage, drainage, profile soil moisture and ET.
Figure 4.
Demonstrating filling of lysimeters (a); pulling out filled lysimeters with specially designed chain-pulley arrangement (b); and weighting of filled and capped lysimeter (c) [28].
With this technology, E reduction trends could be very easily monitored because of practiced different resource conservation technologies and thereby for a region the most effective one could also be identified which further be advocated the farmers for improving their livelihoods [30]. Some earlier studies had shown the promising results of some of the technologies, viz. straw mulching caused 70–300 mm of irrigation savings in different crops and benefits of mulching depend upon seasonal rainfall, irrigation regimes and soil texture [31]. These irrigation savings are due to a reduction in soil water evaporation component of ET. However, among the various technologies, zero tillage is emerging as the viable option for planting wheat while retaining surface residues. Earlier there were problems with the direct drilling of wheat seed into combine harvested paddy fields as loose straw accumulates in seed drill furrow openers, seed metering and its placement were non-uniform which is now solved with the Lucky drill directly drilled wheat seeds into anchored and loose rice residues. Major advantages of this technology include about 5–10% increase in yield, 60–70% less weed growth, 30% water saving particularly pre-sowing irrigation and 45 mm reduction in evaporation losses. In spite of these advantages, it solved the problem of straw burning and the leftover paddy straw on the long run improved the soil health and its fertility levels. In the agricultural sector, irrigation efficiency generally is tried to improve by depressing the evaporation share and enhancing the T which further directly linked with the land as well as water productivity.
6. Conclusion
From the above discussion of the chapter, it may be concluded that climate change will adversely affect the sustainable crop production in future that ultimately lead to decrease the food production of increasing population. Different international organizations already projected that water availability in arid and semi-arid regions across the world will decrease, due to lack of rainfall and increase the temperature which leads to increase in the dry areas. Since climate change will impact on soil water balance that leads to change in evaporation and plant transpiration. While, with the increasing temperature, lack of precipitation and soils water unavailability, crop production will likely to decrease through shortening the crop growth cycle. Therefore, it is important to understand evaporation, transpiration as well as evapotranspiration to mitigate their adverse effect under future changing climate. Researchers already revealed that soils with high water holding capacity and crop cultivars which are tolerant to adverse effect as well as the application of improved management strategies will be better to face the impact of drought. Where, if we could increase the irrigated areas, the total crop production could be increased to the food security of increasing population.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Disclaimer
We hereby declare that the book chapter does not have any material which has been accepted to publish any journal, for the award of any degree or diploma in any university/institute, and also to the best of our knowledge, the book chapter contains no copy of any material previously published or written by another person except where due permission and reference is made in the text.
\n',keywords:"evapotranspiration, changing climate, crop production, food security, increasing population",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65724.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65724.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65724",totalDownloads:1432,totalViews:160,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:82,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 20th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 19th 2019",datePublished:"April 3rd 2019",dateFinished:"February 19th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter provides an inclusive information related to the adverse effect of climate change on sustainable crop production through understanding evaporation, transpiration as well as evapotranspiration. It is anticipated that water availability in arid and semi-arid regions across the world will decrease, due to lack of rainfall and increase the temperature which leads to increase in the dry areas. Since climate change will impact on soil water balance that leads to change in evaporation and plant transpiration. While, with the increasing temperature, lack of precipitation and soils water unavailability, crop production will likely to decrease through shortening the crop growth cycle. While soils with high water holding capacity and crop cultivars which are tolerant to adverse effect as well as the application of improved management strategies will be better to reduce the impact of drought. Similarly, if the irrigated areas will be expanded, the total crop production will be increased that ultimately lead to increase the food security of increasing population.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65724",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65724",book:{id:"6973",slug:"advanced-evapotranspiration-methods-and-applications"},signatures:"Rajan Bhatt and Akbar Hossain",authors:[{id:"262523",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatt",fullName:"Rajan Bhatt",slug:"rajan-bhatt",email:"rajansoils@pau.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/262523/images/system/262523.jpeg",institution:null},{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",email:"akbarhossainwrc@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280755/images/system/280755.jpeg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Concept of evaporation, transpiration, and evapotranspiration and its relation to crop productivity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Potential evapotranspiration (ETp)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Actual or real evapotranspiration (ETa)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Oasis evapotranspiration (ETo)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Evapotranspiration (ETc)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Factors affecting evapotranspiration (ET)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Climatic factors that affecting ET",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.1 Radiation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.2 Temperature",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.3 Relative humidity (%RH)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.4 Wind",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.2 Crop factors that affecting ET",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.1 Crop species",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.2.2 Radiation reflection coefficient",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.2.3 Leaf area index (LAI) in different growth stages of plant",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.2.4 Plant height",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.2.5 Rooting depth of plant (depth of the radicular system)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.3 Crop management and growing environmental conditions also influence the ET",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"3.3.1 Row to row or plant to plant spacing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.3.2 Crop orientation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"3.3.3 Soil properties (structure and texture)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.3.4 Chemical/physical impediments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"3.4 Interrelationship atmospheric demand: soil water supply",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"4. Interrelation between the intervening period of rice-wheat cropping sequence and ET",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"5. Consequences of evapotranspiration for sustainable crop production in the era of climate change",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31",title:"Conflicts of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"Disclaimer",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Climate change 2007. Synthesis report. In: Pachauri RK, Reisinger AJ, editors. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC; 2007. p. 104. https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10s10-4-1.html [Accessed: August 15, 2018'},{id:"B2",body:'Bhatt R, Kukal SS, Busari MA, Arora S, Yadav M. Sustainability issues on rice-wheat cropping system. International Soil and Water Conservation Research. 2016;4:68-83. DOI: 10.1016/J.ISWCR.2015.12.001'},{id:"B3",body:'Bhatt R, Khera KL. Effect of tillage and mode of straw mulch application on soil erosion in the sub-montaneous tract of Punjab, India. Soil and Tillage Research. 2006;88:107-115'},{id:"B4",body:'Balwinder-Singh, Eberbach PL, Humphreys E, Kukal SS. The effect of rice straw mulch on evapotranspiration, transpiration and soil evaporation of irrigated wheat in Punjab, India. Agricultural Water Management. 2011;98:1847-1855'},{id:"B5",body:'Singh S, Sharma RK, Gupta RK, Singh SS. Changes in rice-wheat production technologies and how rice-wheat became a success story, lessons from zero-tillage wheat. In: Singh Y, Singh VP, Chauhan B, Orr A, Mortimer AM, Johnson DE, Hardy B, editors. Direct-Seeding of Rice and Weed Management in the Irrigated Rice-Wheat Cropping System of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and Pantnagar, India: Directorate of Experiment Station, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology; 2008. pp. 91-106. http://books.irri.org/9789712202360_content.pdf'},{id:"B6",body:'Aujla MS, Singh CJ, Vashist KK, Sandhu BS. Evaluation of methods for irrigation of cotton in a canal-irrigated area of south-west Punjab. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation. 1991;5:225-234'},{id:"B7",body:'Hira GS. Water management in northern states and the food security of India. Journal of Crop Improvement. 2009;23:136-157'},{id:"B8",body:'Saini AK, Singh KG. Performance evaluation of drip irrigation system for different crop sequences. Journal of Research (Punjab Agricultural University). 2006;43:130-133'},{id:"B9",body:'Prihar SS, Sandhu BS, Khera KL, Jalota SK. Water use and yield of winter wheat as affected by timing and amount of last irrigation. Irrigation Science. 1974;1:39-45'},{id:"B10",body:'Cheema SS, Malhotra OP, Kundra H, Singh M, Singh M. Timing last irrigation to wheat in relation to profile-charging levels. 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Campinas: Fundação Cargill; 1985. 446p'},{id:"B16",body:'Pereira A, Pires L. Evapotranspiration and water management for crop production. In: Evapotranspiration—From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech; 2011. DOI: 10.5772/20081. http://www.intechopen.com/books/evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmentalapplications/evapotranspiration-and-water-management-for-crop-production [Accessed: November 17, 2018]'},{id:"B17",body:'Rind D, Goldberg R, Hansen J, Rosenzweig C, Ruedy R. Potential evapotranspiration and the likelihood of future drought. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. 1990;95(D7):9983-10004'},{id:"B18",body:'Camargo AP, Pereira AR. Prescrição de Regapormétodoclimatológico. Campinas: Fundação Cargill; 1990. 27p'},{id:"B19",body:'Allen RG, Jensen ME, Wright JL, Burman RG. Operational estimates of evapotranspiration. Agronomy Journal. 1989;81:650-662'},{id:"B20",body:'Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M. Crop Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. Rome: FAO; 1998. Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 56'},{id:"B21",body:'Denmead OT, Shaw RH. Availability of soil water to plants as affected by soil moisture content and meteorological conditions 1. Agronomy Journal. 1962;54(5):385-390'},{id:"B22",body:'Bhatt R, Kukal SS. Direct seeded rice in South Asia. In: Lichtfouse E, editor. Sustainable Agricultural Reviews. Vol. 18. 2015. pp. 217-252. http://www. springer.com/series/8380'},{id:"B23",body:'Bhatt R, Kukal SS. Delineating soil moisture dynamics as affected by tillage in wheat, rice and establishment methods during intervening period. Journal of Applied and Natural Sciences. 2015;7(1):364-368'},{id:"B24",body:'Bhatt R, Kukal SS. Soil moisture dynamics during intervening period in rice-wheat sequence as affected by different tillage methods at Ludhiana, Punjab, India. Soil and Environment (Soil Science Society of Pakistan). 2015;34(1):82-88'},{id:"B25",body:'Bhatt R, Kukal SS. Soil temperature, evaporation and water tension dynamics at upper vadose zone during intervening period. Trends in Biosciences. 2015;8(3):795-800'},{id:"B26",body:'Carlos DSS, Francisco ASP, Aureo SO, João FGJ, Lucas MV. Design, installation and calibration of a weighing lysimeter for crop evapotranspiration studies. Water Resource Irrigation Management. 2013;2(2):77-85'},{id:"B27",body:'Zhang XY, Chen SY, Sun HY, Wang Y, Shao L. Root size, distribution and soil water depletion as affected by cultivars and environmental factors. Field Crops Research. 2009;114:75-83'},{id:"B28",body:'Bhatt R, Kukal SS. Soil Water Dynamics and Water Productivity of Rice-Wheat System under Different Establishment Methods. Ludhiana, Punjab: Punja Agricultural University; 2015'},{id:"B29",body:'Bhatt R, Singh P. Evaporation trends on intervening period for different wheat establishments under soils of semi-arid tropics. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 2018;17(1):41-45. DOI: 10.5958/2455-7145.2018.00006.1'},{id:"B30",body:'Chahal GBS, Sood A, Jalota SK, Choudhury BU, Sharma PK. Yield, evapotranspiration and water productivity of rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) system in Punjab (India) as influenced by transplanting date of rice and weather parameters. Agricultural Water Management. 2007;88(1-3):14-22'},{id:"B31",body:'Jalota SK, Khera R, Arora VK, Beri V. Benefits of straw mulching in crop production. Journal of Research (Punjab Agricultural University). 2007;44:104-117'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rajan Bhatt",address:"rajansoils@pau.edu",affiliation:'
Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, Punjab Agricultural University, India
Bangladesh Wheat and Maize Research Institute, Bangladesh
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1. Introduction
Rabies, an RNA virus from the genus Lyssavirus, also known as RABV, is a lethal pathogen to several species [1]. The evolutionary history of the virus suggests that its most recent ancestor likely diverged into two descendants, one infecting bats, the other infecting dogs. Once domesticated dogs became infected in the Old World, humans became the next target. Evolutionary biology tells us that rabies likely did not exist in the New World prior to the settlement of Europeans but was common throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa well before the discovery of the Americas [2].
RABV is transmitted through the saliva of an infected individual into the bloodstream of a healthy individual, typically via a bite, but possible through other wounds or ocular route. Upon infection, there are two ways the virus may manifest: furious and paralytic. Furious rabies often presents itself with bouts of anxiety, irritability, phobias, and many other symptoms that will later be discussed. Paralytic rabies has some common symptoms with furious rabies, however, paralysis is the most notable symptom just prior to death [3].
According to the CDC in 2015, nearly 60,000 human deaths occurred on average each year. Statistically, this can be interpreted as 1 human death every nine minutes [4]. Despite its large impact globally, the virus is relatively diminutive. The rabies virus has evolutionarily reduced its single-stranded RNA genome to only five genes. These genes encode five proteins, three of which make up the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex; the other two form the virus’s envelope [5].
While the rabies virus has been heavily researched, lives continue to be lost. There is a great understanding of the epidemiology of the virus, however little is understood about the pathogenesis. Herein, the findings regarding the diagnosis, clinical course, treatment, and prevention of the rabies virus are summarized as well as data gaps in research and understanding of this pathogen.
2. Diagnostics
Once the patient has become infected, the incubation period can be as short as 5 days or as long as 2 years. However, it is common for symptoms to occur 20–90 days after initial exposure [6]. Nevertheless, there are several techniques for diagnosing a patient during and after the incubation period.
2.1 Physical symptoms
As mentioned previously, the two ways the rabies virus may present itself is paralytic and furious symptoms. A patient with paralytic rabies will show progressive paralysis until death. If infection occurred due to a bite, the paralysis typically starts around the wounded area, spreading outwards. It is also common for patients to have a fever, vomiting, weakness in muscles, and myalgia prior to the paralysis [7].
Furious rabies often presents itself with more obvious symptoms. The infected individual commonly displays mood swings, unregulated consciousness, phobias, especially hydrophobia, as well as spasms of the respiratory system [1, 8]. Other symptoms may include a cough, psychosis, delirium, and difficulties swallowing [9].
2.2 Neuroimaging
For both furious and paralytic rabies, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) will produce the same key diagnostic images. When symptoms first arise in the prodromal phase, progression in hypersignal T2 changes can be seen around the brachial plexus and the spinal nerve roots associated with the extremity of infection origin. The main MRI feature is increased T2 signal (seen on T2 and FLAIR sequences) in the affected parts of the brain and spinal cord, with a predilection for grey matter structures including basal ganglia, thalami, hypothalami, limbic system, and brainstem. The abnormal hypersignal T2 changes will continue to progress as the patient enters a coma. Once in the comatose phase, the contrast will enhance around the spinal cord, nerve roots located at the sine and cranial region, deep grey matter, brain stem, limbic structures, and thalamus (Figure 1) [8].
Figure 1.
Magnetic resonance images with arrows pointing to high focal areas (A. dorsal medulla, B. pons, C. hypothalamus, and D. splenium of corpus callosum) of an infected patient with furious rabies [10].
Another study noted that lesions could be seen throughout different areas of the neuroaxis. They, too, found that paralytic and furious rabies present the same MRI indications, however, they are more noticeable in the paralytic form. The blood–brain barrier often shows no sign of damage until the patient reaches the comatose state. Imaging of the blood–brain barrier has greatly improved as new techniques such as diffusion-weighted and diffusion tensor imaging can capture objective and subjective data [11].
2.3 Testing techniques
There are several techniques used to diagnose a patient with a rabies infection; including reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rtPCR) analysis, fluorescent antibody test (FAT), tissue culturing, and viral antibody neutralization [12, 13]. The FAT assay has long been a microbiological standard for diagnosing rabies (and other viral infections). Fluorescent antibody virus neutralisation (FAVN) test is also used to diagnose rabies [13]. The CDC recommends a direct form of FAT to detect the rabies virus in animals ante-mortem, however, the animal is usually euthanized after detection and brain tissue samples taken to solidify the diagnosis post-mortem. However, diagnosis in humans requires several different types of methods such as direct rapid immunohistochemistry testing, the use of electron microscopy, and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reactions on biological samples (Figure 2) [15].
Figure 2.
These images show the comparison of a positive direct FAT result (left) and a negative direct FAT result (right) [14].
Another test utilizing immunohistochemistry, known as the direct rapid immunohistochemistry test (dRIT) is a specific form of histology because it employs antibodies unique to RABV. While this testing method can give a reliable result in less than an hour, retrieving brain samples is very invasive [16].
Samples can also be viewed using electron microscopy. When Negri bodies are located in samples, electron miscopy can give a clear depiction of the bullet-shaped rabies virus being produced. A colloid can be used to compare the virus size to further interpret the image, however shape and size alone are not enough to identify with confidence [17].
Saliva and skin samples can be used for identifying the presence of RABV. rtPCR can be used to confirm or oppose the results of FAT test results. Because RABV is a single-stranded RNA virus, rtPCR can help transform RNA into DNA through amplification for analysis of a complement to a rabies-specific primer. This is often achieved by inoculating suckling mice and retrieving brain or kidney samples after death [15, 18].
2.4 Patients with psychiatric disorders
Given that the rabies virus significantly impacts the central nervous system, it is not uncommon for hallucinations, manic episodes, anxiety, and bouts of paranoia to be present in an infected patient [19, 20]. However, these are also common symptoms of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. While it is rare, it is possible that correct RABV diagnosis may be complicated by a previous diagnosis of psychiatric disorders. Patients suffering from hypochondriasis could elicit psuedorabies [20]. In several case studies with reports of hypochondriasis, patients did not respond to therapies and often attempt suicide multiple times [20, 21]. While these situations are rare, they should be noted when diagnosing patients with certainty.
3. Clinical course
3.1 Pathophysiology
The most common entry point for RABV is through the bite of an infected individual as rabies resides in saliva [22]. However, transmission from organ transplants and aerosol droplets have also been recorded [23, 24, 25]. Upon entry, an incubation period often takes place in the myocytes, and rarely fibrocytes, where the virus attaches to the G-protein of the cells, enters through pinocytosis or fusion, and replicates in the cytoplasm of the cells [5, 24]. Virions will replicate with little to no immune response until the virus interacts with and infects a nerve cell. The rabies virus gains access to the nervous system by binding to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the postsynaptic membrane at the neuromuscular junction [26]. From the point of nerve cell infection, the virus will travel via axon transport through the nervous system, eventually reaching the brainstem to give rise to either encephalitis or acute flaccid paralysis [7, 27]. The incubation periods are highly variable depending on the dosage of the virus. However, in humans, the incubation period is often >1–3 months. Canine incubation periods are most commonly less than 60 days [26, 28].
Once infection is recognized by the immune system, cytokine, IgM, and IgG antibody production increases [5]. Specific cytokines, Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and TNFα, are thought to be the reason inflammation of the central nervous system occurs post-exposure [29]. The presence of these cytokines initiate a cascade reaction, upregulating proteins necessary for the inflammatory response such as the major histocompatibility complex and adhesion molecules. These proteins then interact with leukocytes to allow the blood brain barrier to become more permeable, thus causing an immune response leading to encephalitis [30]. As for the natural defense against rabies, RABV signals a series of molecular cascades that initiates type I interferon responses that have antiviral properties, decreasing the pathogenicity of rabies [31]. However, to artificially aid the natural response, there is heavy research on the potential to activate dendritic cells which subsequently enhance the activity of interleukin proteins and high mobility group box 1 (HMBG1) to enhance immunogenicity [32, 33].
4. Treatment
Although the rabies disease has been documented for thousands of years, it is still largely considered incurable after the onset of symptoms [34]. This is due to the small window of time during which aggressive treatment is practical and effective. With that knowledge, most often treatment resolves to be mostly palliative with aggressive treatment proving to be essentially ineffective after RABV is established in the patient.
4.1 Aggressive approach
If a patient presents for treatment early in the process of the clinical disease, the choice may be made to apply an aggressive approach. At this point, the patient must be immediately admitted to an intensive care hospital and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) should be administered [26]. PEP consists of immediate washing of the wound with soap and water, a post-exposure vaccination, and injection of an anti-rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) directly into the wound [35].
Active immunization has evolved greatly since the first rabies vaccine was developed and administered in 1885 [36, 37]. Louis Pasteur is credited with this first vaccine that consisted of injecting the patient with homogenates of RABV-infected rabbit spinal cord multiple times over a period of days. The initial injection was believed to be fully inactivated after an extended desiccation period, and each subsequent inoculation was increasingly more virulent as the desiccation period was decreased. While this was found to be somewhat effective, two major issues presented themselves. First, the inactivation of the RABV was inconsistent which led to some patients becoming infected after receiving the vaccine. Second, there was an inequity in the supply of the RABV-infected rabbits and the demand of the human population. These were rectified with the introduction of RABV-infected sheep and goat brain vaccines [36, 37]. These new vaccines were inactivated via chemical agents such as phenol; this proved to be much more consistent. However, soon it was understood that vaccines produced from mature brain material contained an excess of myelin which caused sensitization and ultimately killed the patients [38]. From this discovery emerged the current methodology by which rabies vaccines are created. Chick embryos served the same role as the previous tissues, but they have markedly less myelin due to the young age [39]. The same can be said of the lines of human diploid cells infected with fixed RABV for vaccines [36, 37]. In the United States, there are two CDC-approved vaccines: the human diploid cell culture vaccine (HDCV) and the purified chick embryo cell culture vaccine (PCECV) [15].
The post-exposure vaccine is primarily an intramuscular vaccine that ought to be given on day 0, 3, 7, 14, and 30 [36]. An intradermal vaccine has recently been developed in an attempt to decrease the amount of vaccine needed per injection [40]. While the decreased cost of the vaccine is an attractive option, intradermal injections are generally considered more difficult which could decrease the effectiveness of the vaccine due to improper injections. The World Health Organization (WHO) strongly recommends purified cell culture and embryonated egg-based vaccines [41].
Although the vaccines have been proven to stimulate an appropriate immune response to RABV, this immune response is often too delayed to prevent the virus from entering the nerves [42]. With this knowledge, passive immunization is recommended for all patients that have no previous history with the disease or a pre-exposure vaccination. At this time, two types of rabies immunoglobulin are available – human rabies immunoglobulin (HRIG) and equine rabies immunoglobulin (ERIG). These have been used since the 1970’s to temporarily increase the concentration of rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (RVNA) specifically at the site of exposure [43]. If the patient has multiple bites or wounds, the RIG needs to be applied at each site to be effective [44]. HRIG is to be administered at a dosage or 20 IU/kg while the recommended dosage for ERIG is 40 IU/kg [42, 44]. Due to higher odds of sensitization as well as quicker elimination of the RVNA, HRIG is generally the most preferred option for passive immunization. However, it is approximately five times more expensive than ERIG. This results in a major deficiency in many of the countries most in need of rabies treatment [44].
Because the available RIGs are generally inaccessible to developing countries, WHO encouraged researchers to pursue synthetization of a human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) cocktail that can be used to treat rabies [45]. At this time, there are a number of rabies mAbs products in clinical trials, but none have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration [46]. In 2018, WHO officially adjusted their recommendations for treatment of rabies to include mAbs products in place of RIG if available [46].
A protocol known as the Milwaukee Protocol was presented as a potential cure in the late 20th century, but it has since been proven to be inconsistent and generally ineffective in reverting or curing the patient of the disease [47, 48, 49]. This protocol consisted of an induced coma and one or more antivirals. The coma was soon determined to be ineffective. It is now recommended that sedation should be limited to prevent the use of ventilatory support if possible [48, 49].
Antivirals could serve an important role in the treatment of the rabies virus as they act as inhibitors of viral replication. An effective antiviral could slow the progression of the rabies virus enough for the patient’s innate immune response to develop and react appropriately. However, at this time, there are few antivirals supported for the treatment of RABV. Ribavirin is a purine analogue that acts as an RNA mutagen and has shown to be clinically effective for multiple viruses including Hepatitis C and Lassa fever virus [50, 51]. Despite its inclusion in the sporadically effective Milwaukee Protocol, it has repeatedly proven to be ineffective against the rabies virus. Interferon-α (IFN-α) is a signaling protein used to trigger an immune response which has been shown to limit RABV spreading in mice trials [50, 51]. However, additional trials in which primates were administered intramuscular and intrathecal IFN-α determined the effects of immediate inoculation to be incomplete while the effects of delayed inoculation were nonexistent [52, 53]. Six human patients have been treated with IFN-α on two different dosage schedules and despite evidence of increased IFN in serum and CSF, there was no evidence of a beneficial effect on the disease itself [54]. Another therapy previously included in the Milwaukee Protocol is ketamine [50, 51]. At low concentrations, approximately 1 μM, ketamine works as a non-competitive antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor which causes a state of dissociative anesthesia. A study from 1991 showed that a high concentration of ketamine could induce inhibitory effects on the RABV genome transcription [55]. Since that time, multiple other trials using neuron cultures and infected mice have produced evidence that ketamine is generally ineffective against the disease [56]. With that knowledge, it is believed that ketamine should not be used for treatment of the rabies virus until further studies produce more promising results. Amantadine is the third and final antiviral that was considered in the Milwaukee Protocol [47, 51]. It is a synthetic inhibitor of viral replication by impeding the release of viral genetic material into the host cell. Although amantadine demonstrated some interference in cellular trials, it failed in animal trials [57]. Minocycline, a broad spectrum antimicrobial, was considered for RABV treatment as it has proven benefits for multiple other viruses [58]. However, when applied to rabies-infected animals, Minocycline caused a number of harmful effects causing an increase in mortality [59].
More recently, researchers have addressed the use of favipiravir in treatment of rabies [50]. Available for influenza treatment in some countries, favipiravir has shown some activity against the rabies virus in mice trials [60]. Continued studies are needed to assess the future of this and other antivirals. It ought to be noted that despite variations in the effectiveness of these antivirals, all have shown that an early start of treatment greatly improves the efficacy of these therapies.
4.2 Palliative care
As previously mentioned, there is a small window of effectiveness for an aggressive treatment of RABV; after that window has passed, the focus of treatment is purely one of comfort for the patient. Many patients develop phobias that will likely require seclusion in a calm, quiet room. Although there is little to no evidence of human-to-human transmission, visitors and medical professionals need to be cautious of potential contamination via the patient’s secretion [61]. Dehydration is a major concern as paralytic rabies often inhibits the patient’s ability to swallow and furious rabies can cause intense hydrophobia. Treatment for the dehydration is typically a secured intravenous line. If additional nutrients are needed, they can be administered through the same line.
Rabies typically causes a generalized inflammation that induces a fever, but it can also trigger a neurogenic (central) fever as well [62]. Many antipyretics, such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen, have been successfully used to treat the generalized fever. However, those are generally ineffective towards the central fever. There is some evidence to support the use of baclofen, bromocriptine, chlorpromazine, and morphine in the treatment of a central fever [63]. However, these have not been studied specifically for a rabies-induced central fever and so practitioners should be mindful of potential side effects. Additionally, these drugs are rarely available in the developing countries where RABV is most prevalent [61]. In this case, external, physical means of cooling the patient can be used as needed.
The majority of patients infected with furious RABV develop intense agitation and fear. A variety of sedatives and tranquilizers are used to calm these symptoms. Because benzodiazepines are included on the WHO’s list of essential medicines, they are commonly used to treat rabies-induced agitation as well as many other forms [61]. They can be administered intramuscularly, intravenously, or intrarectally as needed. However, as previously mentioned, it is important to administer any sedative slowly to ensure the patient retains consciousness and does not lose respiratory function [64].
Lastly, clinicians will likely need to address the patient’s pain level. This can be accomplished using opioids such as morphine or other highly effective analgesics. These can be delivered intravenously, intramuscularly, intrarectally, or even transdermally as needed [61]. Although many of these methods of treatment are expensive and generally unlikely to cure a patient once rabies symptoms are present, palliative care is a responsibility of caretakers and clinicians.
5. Prevention
Due to the general ineffectiveness of post-exposure treatment, the rabies virus has a remarkably high mortality rate despite the availability of vaccines that have shown a near perfect success rate when administered prior to infection. This indicates that the main issue with prevention is the lack of accessibility in the impoverished countries of Asia and Africa. In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) with the help of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) set a goal to rid the world of dog-mediated rabies by 2030 (Zero by 30) [65]. After assessing cost and general accessibility, it was decided that the best way to eliminate dog-mediated rabies is to vaccinate dogs rather than humans. Vaccinating at least 70% of dogs should effectively break the cycle of rabies transmission.
To reach this goal, WHO, OIE, FAO and many smaller agencies collaborated to create the Stepwise Approach towards Rabies Elimination (SARE) [66, 67]. A similar stepwise approach proved successful in the elimination of fox RABV from Europe [68]. SARE consists of five stages for each country to work through. Stage 0 is simply the lack of information and data on RABV cases in a country where rabies is believed to be present. Stage 1 is an assessment phase in which data are gathered to determine the extent to which RABV pervades the country of interest. During this phase, the government assesses the current guidelines or structures in place as well as collects and analyzes all available data on previous or existing RABV cases. The beginning of an action plan is usually concocted in Stage 1. Evolution of this plan happens in Stage 2; it is important to develop an understanding of the available funding at this point as that has been the biggest limitation for developing countries in the past. Stage 3 is the implementation of the country’s rabies control strategy. During this phase, the plan will likely need to be adapted to address any challenges that arise; these may include the exposure of wildlife reservoirs of RABV such as the fox rabies previously found in Europe. When reported human cases have decreased to zero, the country will shift into Stage 4 – elimination of dog RABV. This requires the maintenance of the reduced dog-to-human rabies transmission as well as continued implementation of the action plan to continue to reduce dog rabies cases. Lastly, in Stage 5, the country must develop a post-elimination strategy to maintain the freedom from human and dog rabies.
While the SARE tool has been developed to be adaptable enough to succeed worldwide, there are likely to be some setbacks in the different landscapes. Specifically, areas of poverty will be constrained by the financial resources they can acquire. Many parts of Asia have political instability that will greatly challenge the need for nation-wide commitment to this goal. Similarly, Africa’s linguistic and cultural complexity will oppose the need for excellent communication and tracking [66]. Ultimately, it will take a dedicated and educated global population to eliminate rabies as a whole; until then, vaccinating animals and at-risk populations is the most efficient means of prevention.
6. Conclusion
This chapter served to outline the diagnosis, clinical course, treatment, and prevention of the RNA virus RABV. A swift rabies’s diagnosis is imperative to ensure the patient’s greatest chance of survival. Clinicians may utilize many techniques such as MRI, rtPCR, FAT, FAVN, dRIT, and electron microscopy to diagnose patients before physical symptoms arise. The same methods can be used to confirm a diagnosis after the patient presents with symptoms if needed. Rabies can present in patients in the furious or paralytic form. Although these cause very different physical symptoms, the pathophysiology is very similar. Generally initiated by a bite or other wound, the virus will incubate in the myocytes nearest the entry point and replicate undetected for an average of 1–3 months. Eventually, the virus will infect a nerve cell and travel through axon transport to the CNS at which point it will cause encephalitis or paralysis. Once the virus has infiltrated the CNS, it is essentially incurable. However, if detected early, patients can receive PEP - a combination of active and passive immunization most frequently in the form of a cell culture vaccine and a dose of RIG. At this time, there are no antivirals considered to be effective for treating RABV. If the virus becomes established in the patient, the treatment plan is adjusted to ensure the most comfort for the patient and their loved ones. This most often consists of a variety of sedatives, pain management, antipyretics, and fluids. Due to the great lethality of RABV in humans, multiple global organizations have banded together to attempt to eradicate the modern world of the rabies virus. The Zero by 30 movement strives to implement a stepwise method to eliminate dog-mediated rabies cases worldwide by 2030. This is believed to be possible if 70% or more of the dog population is vaccinated against rabies. In combination with the vaccination goal, Zero by 30 also encourages countries to implement educational standards on rabies, bite prevention, and responsible pet ownership.
At this time, the community of RABV researchers need to be working to improve current treatment options in order to decrease the number of RABV-related deaths. This might be done by developing a mAb alternative to the too-expensive RIG options or finding an effective antiviral either currently on the market or newly developed. The release of additional rabies vaccines for humans would also help to lower the price and improve the accessibility in a way that would benefit the highly affected countries.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"rabies virus, RABV, diagnosis, treatment, prevention",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76642.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76642.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76642",totalDownloads:233,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 1st 2021",dateReviewed:"April 12th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 13th 2021",datePublished:"May 11th 2022",dateFinished:"May 7th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Rabies, despite available vaccines, causes approximately 55,000 deaths every year. Diagnosing relies on noting physical behaviors such as hydrophobia, vomiting, fever, behavior changes, paralysis, and consciousness, as well as, using several methodologies to molecularly detect the presence of the virus. RABV often enters through a bite wound given that it is transmissible through saliva. Infection spreads from muscle fibers into the peripheral nervous system traveling to the central nervous system. Infection of the central nervous system can lead to encephalitis (furious rabies) or acute flaccid paralysis (paralytic rabies). Treatment relies heavily on the time of exposure. If the patient is diagnosed prior to being symptomatic, post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) can be administered. However, once the patient has begun displaying symptoms, therapy success rates sharply decline. Prevention includes vaccinating during both pre- and post-exposures, as well as utilizing Stepwise Approach towards Rabies Elimination (SARE) to aid impoverished countries in declining their rabies mortality rates.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76642",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76642",signatures:"Jaida Hopkins, Samantha Sweck and Sean Richards",book:{id:"8737",type:"book",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-230-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-229-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-231-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"44936",title:"Dr.",name:"Sean",middleName:"M.",surname:"Richards",fullName:"Sean Richards",slug:"sean-richards",email:"seanrichards.utc@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"346309",title:"Ms.",name:"Jaida",middleName:null,surname:"Hopkins",fullName:"Jaida Hopkins",slug:"jaida-hopkins",email:"dtp414@mocs.utc.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Chattanooga",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"346310",title:"BSc.",name:"Samantha",middleName:null,surname:"Sweck",fullName:"Samantha Sweck",slug:"samantha-sweck",email:"szg752@mocs.utc.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Chattanooga",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Diagnostics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Physical symptoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Neuroimaging",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Testing techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Patients with psychiatric disorders",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Clinical course",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Pathophysiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Aggressive approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Palliative care",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Prevention",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Jackson AC. Human Rabies: a 2016 Update. Current Infectious Disease Reports. 2016;18(11):38'},{id:"B2",body:'Velasco-Villa A, Mauldin MR, Shi M, Escobar LE, Gallardo-Romero NF, Damon I, et al. The history of rabies in the Western Hemisphere. 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Safety and efficacy results of simulated post-exposure prophylaxis with human immune globulin (HRIG; KEDRAB) co-administered with active vaccine in healthy subjects: a comparative phase 2/3 trial. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 2020;16(2):452-459'},{id:"B43",body:'Aoki FY, Rubin Me Fau - Friesen AD, Friesen Ad Fau - Bowman JM, Bowman Jm Fau - Saunders JR, Saunders JR. Intravenous human rabies immunoglobulin for post-exposure prophylaxis: serum rabies neutralizing antibody concentrations and side-effects. (0092-1157 (Print))'},{id:"B44",body:'Bharti OK, Madhusudana SN, Wilde H. Injecting rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) into wounds only: A significant saving of lives and costly RIG. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics. 2017;13(4):762-765'},{id:"B45",body:'Goudsmit J, Marissen We Fau - Weldon WC, Weldon Wc Fau - Niezgoda M, Niezgoda M Fau - Hanlon CA, Hanlon Ca Fau - Rice AB, Rice Ab Fau - Kruif Jd, et al. Comparison of an anti-rabies human monoclonal antibody combination with human polyclonal anti-rabies immune globulin. (0022-1899 (Print))'},{id:"B46",body:'Sparrow E, Torvaldsen S, Newall AT, Wood JG, Sheikh M, Kieny MP, et al. Recent advances in the development of monoclonal antibodies for rabies post exposure prophylaxis: A review of the current status of the clinical development pipeline. Vaccine. 2019;37:A132-A1A9'},{id:"B47",body:'Willoughby RE, Tieves KS, Hoffman GM, Ghanayem NS, Amlie-Lefond CM, Schwabe MJ, et al. Survival after Treatment of Rabies with Induction of Coma. New England Journal of Medicine. 2005;352(24):2508-2514'},{id:"B48",body:'van Thiel P-PAM, de Bie RMA, Eftimov F, Tepaske R, Zaaijer HL, van Doornum GJJ, et al. Fatal Human Rabies due to Duvenhage Virus from a Bat in Kenya: Failure of Treatment with Coma-Induction, Ketamine, and Antiviral Drugs. 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(1872-9096 (Electronic))'},{id:"B59",body:'Jackson AC, Scott CA, Owen J, Weli SC, Rossiter JP. Therapy with minocycline aggravates experimental rabies in mice. Journal of virology. 2007;81(12):6248-6253'},{id:"B60",body:'Yamada K, Noguchi K, Komeno T, Furuta Y, Nishizono A. Efficacy of Favipiravir (T-705) in Rabies Postexposure Prophylaxis. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2016;213(8):1253-1261'},{id:"B61",body:'Warrell M, Warrell DA, Tarantola A. The Imperative of Palliation in the Management of Rabies Encephalomyelitis. Tropical medicine and infectious disease. 2017;2(4):52'},{id:"B62",body:'Warrell DA. The clinical picture of rabies in man. Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 1976;70(3):188-195'},{id:"B63",body:'Goyal K, Garg N, Bithal P. Central fever: a challenging clinical entity in neurocritical care. J Neurocrit Care. 2020;13(1):19-31'},{id:"B64",body:'Tarantola A, Crabol Y, Mahendra BJ, In S, Barennes H, Bourhy H, et al. Caring for patients with rabies in developing countries - the neglected importance of palliative care. (1365-3156 (Electronic))'},{id:"B65",body:'World Health O, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United N, World Organisation for Animal H. Zero by 30: the global strategic plan to end human deaths from dog-mediated rabies by 2030. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018 2018'},{id:"B66",body:'Organization PAH, Center PAF-a-MD, Unit VPH. 14th Meeting of Directors of National Programs for Rabies Control in Latin America (REDIPRA). Lima, Peru; 2013'},{id:"B67",body:'Nations FaAOotU, Control GAfR, Organization WH. The Stepwise Approach towards Rabies Elimination: A Planning and Evaluation Tool: Partners for Rabies Prevention; 2017 [Available from: https://caninerabiesblueprint.org/IMG/pdf/sare_outline_2017_f.pdf'},{id:"B68",body:'Freuling CM, Hampson K, Selhorst T, Schröder R, Meslin FX, Mettenleiter TC, et al. 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These forest types include i) Moist temperate forests ii) Mixed coniferous forests and iii) Sub-tropical broad leaved forests. Moist temperate forest mostly consists of evergreen conifers with some of oaks and deciduous trees. Subtropical pine forest are mostly dominated by Pinus roxburghii. These forest type are mostly mixed by Pinus roxburghii and other coniferous species like Pinus wallichiana at the upper ranges in Dewal, Angoori, Nambal, Aucha and Khanitak etc. The broad-leaved subtropical forests are recorded on the hills and in the lower slopes of Himalaya near Islamabad and Rawalpindi. The high quantity of vegetation index were observed in winter season as compared to summer. The Landsat satellite images of years 1988, 1998, 2008 and 2018 were classified into land-cover units. Vegetation land decreased in the total area whereas the bare land class increased in the total. 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',metaTitle:"Authorship Policy",metaDescription:"IN TECH's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, one must:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/authorship-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
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Substantially contribute to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
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Participate in drafting or revising the work
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Approve the final version of the work to be published.
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All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
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Conversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
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CHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
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If it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
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AFFILIATION
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Authors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
Substantially contribute to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
\n\t
Participate in drafting or revising the work
\n\t
Approve the final version of the work to be published.
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\n\n
All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
\n\n
Conversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
\n\n
CHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
\n\n
If it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
\n\n
AFFILIATION
\n\n
Authors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
\n\n
Policy last updated: 2017-05-29
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Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. 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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. 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Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
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\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
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\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
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\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
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\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
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\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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