\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8081",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Trichoderma - The Most Widely Used Fungicide",title:"Trichoderma",subtitle:"The Most Widely Used Fungicide",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Trichoderma is a genus of fungi that are present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. 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\r\n\tPlants are dependent on temperature, light, moisture, and carbon dioxide to produce grains and other plant products to satisfy basic human needs. Climate change is very likely to affect food security at the global, regional, and local levels. Climate change can disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect food quality. Increases in temperature, changes in precipitation patterns, changes in extreme weather events, and reductions in water availability may all result in reduced agricultural productivity. To meet the food demands of the ever-increasing global population, new technologies and management practices are being adopted to boost yield and maintain productivity under both normal and adverse conditions.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book highlights state-of-the-art research and practices for adaptation to climate change in food production systems. The main topics covered include production technologies, management practices, and stress tolerance of agronomic plants in a single source, current scientific understanding of observed and projected climate change impacts on agronomic plant production and quality, modeling of autonomous and planned adaptation, and development of early warning and/or support systems for climate-related decision-making.
",isbn:"978-1-83881-062-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-055-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-063-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4d0b0a5b0d55843e704d38d55206b91",bookSignature:"Dr. Shah Fahad, Dr. Shah Saud, Prof. Yajun Chen, Dr. Chao Wu and Dr. Depeng Wang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10363.jpg",keywords:"Climate, Growth Characteristics, Physiological Attributes, Wheat, Rice, Maize, Cotton, Cereals, Growth Regulators, Cereal Plants, Abiotic Stress, Water Availability",numberOfDownloads:2992,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fahad is an editor and reviewer for more than 10 peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the Publons Peer Review Award 2019, also he has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in different fields like research and education and received the Young Rice Scientist Award in 2014 and Distinguish Ph.D. Scholar of Huazhong Agricultural University in 2015.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"194771",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Fahad",slug:"shah-fahad",fullName:"Shah Fahad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194771/images/system/194771.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Shah Fahad is currently working as Assistant professor in Agriculture department, the University of Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. He studied in Pakistan at Agricultural University Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Quiad-I-Azam University Islamabad where he successfully completed two degrees: a BSC (HONS) in Agronomy and Mphil. In Plant Physiology. As a scholar he continued for another degree, in graduate studies at Huazhong Agricultural University Wuhan, China pursuing Ph.D. in Agronomy which was achieved with honors in 2015. Mr. Shah Fahad did his Post Doctorate at Huazhong Agricultural University in 2017. He is a contributor to many international journals with focuses on global warming and their influences on rice crop attributes in his articles. He is a member of the Editorial Board and a Critic of ten international journals.",institutionString:"University of Swabi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Swabi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"320321",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Saud",slug:"shah-saud",fullName:"Shah Saud",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320321/images/system/320321.jpg",biography:"The co-editor\\'s short CV, as specified on the book preparation formDr. Shah Saud is currently working as a Post Doctorate researcher at the Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China. He received his PhD in 2017 from the Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China. He has completed several national and international research projects. Dr. Shah Saud has published 135 articles and chapters related to horticulture, climate change, landscaping, plant physiology and environmental stresses with Springer, Elsevier, and Wiley, etc. According to Scopus®, Dr. Shah Saud publications have received roughly 3200 citations with an h-index of 29. He is an editor and reviewer for more than 23 peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:"Northeast Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Northeast Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"320323",title:"Prof.",name:"Yajun",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yajun-chen",fullName:"Yajun Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320323/images/system/320323.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yajun Chen has completed a Ph.D. in 2005 in the field of Crop Cultivation and Farming System from Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China. Later, she completed her postdoctoral research in the field of biology in Northeast forestry university, Harbin, China. Currently, she is a professor working in Horticulture College of Northeast Agricultural University. Over the course of a dozen years, she had studied in Australia (2003-2004), the United States (2010-2011) and Norway (2015-2016) as a visiting scholar that was funded by the Chinese government. Her research work encompasses ornamental plant adverse physiology and ecology, coping with ecological environment adaptation and restoration of garden plants. Dr. Yajun Chen has published over 110 research papers in peer-reviewed journals in her field at home and abroad. She as a chief editor has edited more than 20 books on important aspects of local flora, turf and flower culture, plant stress physiology. She has also trained more than 80 masters and 5 PhDs in these fields. Her outstanding work was recognized and won 8 awards for scientific and technological progress in Heilongjiang province, China. Dr. Yajun Chen has won 2 international and 13 national projects.",institutionString:"Northeast Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Northeast Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"320324",title:"Dr.",name:"Chao",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"chao-wu",fullName:"Chao Wu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320324/images/system/320324.jpg",biography:"Dr. Chao Wu engages in the field crop cultivation and physiology, and plant phenomics. He has completed his Ph.D during 2013-2016 from Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China, and completed his post Ph.D during 2017-2019 from Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China. Now, he is associate research fellow in Guangxi Institute of Botany, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guilin, China. He chairs a Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, and two Postdoctoral Science Foundation researches, and focus mainly on physiological mechanisms of abiotic-stress tolerance (heat, drought) in crops and medicinal plants. He has published over 20 papers in international journals, such as field crops research, the crop journal, and frontiers in plant science.",institutionString:"Guangxi Institute of Botany",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Guangxi Institute of Botany",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorFour:{id:"320325",title:"Dr.",name:"Depeng",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"depeng-wang",fullName:"Depeng Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320325/images/system/320325.jpg",biography:"Dr. Depeng Wang has completed Ph.D. in 2016 in the field of Agronomy and Crop Physiology from Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, China. Presently he is serving as a professor in College of Life Science, Linyi University, Linyi, China. He is the principal investigator of Crop Genetic Improvement, Physiology & Ecology Center in Linyi University. His current research focus on crop ecology and physiology, agronomy. Such as the key characteristics associated with high yielding crop, the effect of temperature on crop grain yield and solar radiation utilization, morphological plasticity to agronomic manipulation in leaf dispersion and orientation, optimal integrated crop management practices for maximizing crop grain yield. Dr. Depeng Wang has published over 36 papers in reputed journals. He has edited 1 book and witten 4 book chapters on important aspects of crop physiology, environmental stress, and crop quality formation. According to Google Scholar Citation, his publications have received about 100 citations. He is a reviewer for 5 peer-reviewed international journals. Dr. Depeng Wang is a provincial crop expert in green, high quality and efficient technology, has participated 6 National projects with more than 4 million research fundings.",institutionString:"Linyi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Linyi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"73771",title:"Morphophysiological Traits, Biochemical Characteristic and Productivity of Wheat under Water and Nitrogen-Colimitation: Pathways to Improve Water and N Uptake",slug:"morphophysiological-traits-biochemical-characteristic-and-productivity-of-wheat-under-water-and-nitr",totalDownloads:121,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73824",title:"Advances in Developing Multigene Abiotic and Biotic Stress-Tolerant Rice 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It is a second most common primary brain neoplasm and the most common from malignant brain tumors. This tumor arises from neural stem cells (NSCs), progenitor cells, dedifferentiated mature neural cells or neuroepithelial stem cells that transform into cancer stem cells (CSCs) or glioblastoma stem (GSC) or stem-like cells [1]. Stem cells have a high potential of self-renewal and differentiation. GBM is a tumor with highest degree of anaplasia within gliomas. It is classified as grade IV according to the WHO classification of brain tumors from 2007. This lesion has a rapid growth, is unbounded, infiltrates surrounding brain tissue, but rarely metastasizes. When metastases occur, it is usually within the central nervous system. Typical histopathological features of this tumor are cells of recognizably astrocyte origin, but displaying cellular pleomorphism with multinucleation, frequent mitoses, and areas of necrosis surrounded by palisading nuclei (increased tumor cell density) and endothelial proliferation as a manifestation of cellular hyperplasia with numerous clusters of blood vessels forming so-called glomeruloid formations. GBM cells spread along tracts in white matter infiltrate cerebrospinal fluid and vessels between meningeal layers. Invasion of GBM cells begins with the degradation of surrounding matrix proteins by proteases and proteinases. Movement of tumor cells through surrounding brain tissue requires receptor turnover, formation and degradation of focal adhesion molecules and rearrangement of cytoskeleton components. These changes are consequences of genetic alterations, such as overexpression, amplification, deletion or mutation in focal adhesion kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways [2] and mainly caused by activation of growth factors and their receptors (integrins and protein deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC), hyaluron receptors CD44, RHAMM, BEHAB, ontogenetic protein SPARC, receptors for platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), transforming growth factor (TGF)-α, epidermal growth factor (EGF), and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF)). Some components of extracellular matrix such as laminin or fibronectin are overexpressed in GBM and their silencing reduces invasiveness of GBM cells [3]. Besides microscopic characteristics, GBM is connected with a huge amount of genetic alterations causing higher proliferation, migration, and invasiveness of tumor cells. The intrinsic ability of GBM cells to invade normal brain tissue impedes complete surgical resection and predictably results in early local recurrence and mortality. Thoroughgoing explanation of GBM genetic pathways with their gene alterations is necessary for choosing of more suitable therapy and in predicting patient prognosis. This chapter offers an overview of the most common genetic alterations occurring in GBM.
\nAccording to the WHO classification of brain tumors based on histopathological origin, GBM is a primary brain tumor of neuroepithelial, glial origin. Ranking of GBM in clinical and prognostic significance is within the highest grade IV. GBM could also be classified according to mode of occurrence, as it could be a result of progression from less malignant glial tumor (so-called secondary type) or it could occur de novo (primary type). Another specific type is pediatric GBM. The most common is primary type. Primary, secondary, and pediatric GBMs have their own specific genetic and epigenetic alterations occurring in their gliomagenesis (see Figure 1). As diagnosis of GBM presents with heterogeneity of altered genetic pathways evidenced by The Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network’s study, classification based on gene expression profile distinguishes a classical, mesenchymal, proneural, and neural type of GBM. Classical type typically harbors no TP53 mutations, but very high rate of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations. This type has a slightly better survival. Mesenchymal type displays frequent mutations of neurofibromatosis gene 1 (NF1), TP53, and PTEN genes and aggressive anticancer therapy brings a significant increase in survival of these patients. Third, proneural subtype presents with highest mutation rate of TP53, PDGFRA, and isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) and usually affects younger adults. Last, neural type occurs more often in older population and contains several gene mutations at an average rate [4]. These classifications show high heterogeneity of genetic profile, aggressiveness, clinical characteristics, and expected prognosis of GBM patients with a strong need of definite uniform classification of subtypes leading to more specific treatment for each GBM subtype.
\nGenes involved in genesis of primary, secondary, and pediatric glioblastoma. *Gain of function through amplification or mutation; ǂhomozygous deletion or mutation.
As mentioned above, alterations of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes could deflect cell from normal cell cycle. Accumulation of genetic alterations of these genes initiates oncogenesis. In oncogenes, lesion of one allele is sufficient to cause mutation. Activation of oncogene causes avoidance of apoptosis and cell further proliferates. Amplification and activating mutation are the most common genetic alteration of oncogenes. On the other hand, lesion of both alleles is required to evoke mutation in tumor suppressor genes. These genes and their protein products when activated inhibit cell proliferation. Frequently observed alterations are deletion and inhibitory mutation.
\nDuring years of genetic research, there have been established three critical genetic pathways whose alterations lead to the formation of GBM: inactivation of p53 and retinoblastoma (RB) pathways (see Figure 2), activation of the PI3K pathway, and deregulation of growth factor (receptor tyrosine kinase—RTK) signaling (see Figure 3). TP53 signaling pathway is altered in 87% of GBMs, mostly affecting p53, murine double minute-2 (MDM2), MDM4, and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)N2A genes. Approximately 78% of GBMs harbor RB signaling disruption with most frequently altered genes: RB1, CDK4, CDK6, CCND2, and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2 (CDKN2) family. Finally, RTK/RAS/PI3K activation was found in 88% of tumors, affecting usually NF1, PIK3R1, and PIK3CA genes.
\np53 and RB cell cycle and cell death signaling pathway. Proteins marked with full color are most frequently altered in glioblastoma.
RTK/RAS/PI3K pathway. Proteins marked with full color are most frequently altered in glioblastoma.
GBM is classified as primary or secondary according to altered genes. Primary GBM is a tumor with de novo formation. On the other hand, GBM as a result of malignant transformation of lower-grade glial tumor is called secondary [1]. Also, clinical manifestation and age of diagnosis vary within these two types. Typical for primary GBM is very short anamnesis and age over 50. On the contrary, patients with secondary GBM usually have previous anamnesis of lower grade glioma and younger age depending on the age at the time of diagnosis of preexisting lower grade glioma. Both – primary and secondary GBM – have their own specific gene alterations occurring in their gliomagenesis (see Figure 1). Typical alterations for primary GBM are homozygous deletion or mutation of
Gene
Oncogene
Gene
On 9p21 are located genes
Protein
Genes
Gene phosphatase and tensin homology –
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 –
Oncogene
Paternally expressed gene 3 –
Vascular endothelial growth factor –
Proto-oncogene
Gene
The B-Raf proto-oncogene serine/threonine kinase –
H3 histone, family 3A –
Telomerase reverse transcriptase –
Tumor suppressor
GBM is the most aggressive and devastating primary brain tumor with very grim prognosis. The patient’s survival rarely exceeds a year and a half with all accessible therapy used. Only 3% of GBM patients have survival over 5 years. This fact makes this tumor a very severe diagnosis directly affecting life expectancy of the patient and quality of his/her life. Explanation of its genesis could bring us closer to invention of effective treatment and genetic profile of concrete GBM tissue would help to design the individualized therapy management for each patient. Understanding the genetic and epigenetic characterization could help to distinguish various GBM subgroups, indistinguishable by histological appearance, but classified according to molecular and genetic alterations. This could lead to establishment of GBM classification with clinical impact, subgroup-specific treatment, and better design of future trials. The aim was to achieve prolonged progression-free interval and overall survival with maintaining satisfactory quality of life. It is very important if concrete genetic alteration is connected to tumor formation or if it is prognostic factor. Other factors influencing prognosis are histological type and tumor grade, age of patient, Karnofsky performance score at the time of diagnosis, extend of surgical resection, tumor localization, and appropriate therapeutic management. Tumor localization and extend of its surgical resection influence progression-free interval as well as overall survival. Detailed and complete explanation and discovery of altered genes and whole genetic pathways of GBM is the basis for new distinctive GBM classification. Such a new tumor division could bring us closer to routine genetic examination of frequently altered genetic pathways from tumor sample and aiming of therapy directly against specific genetic and epigenetic targets. Such individualized therapy could decrease the number of adverse effects, but first of all, hopefully, would finally ameliorate survival and life quality of patients, suffering from this severe disease.
\nThis work was supported by projects: Competence Center for Research and Development in the diagnosis and therapy of oncological diseases, ITMS 26220220153 and The application of PACS (Picture Archiving and Communication System) in the reasearch and development, ITMS 26210120004.
\nInteractive media are means of communication in which the output values depend on inputs. This means that the user is actively involved in the communication. The media still has the same purpose, but entries or inputs made by user create the interaction and some interesting options when it comes to the output of the system. Interactive media is referred to conceptual design of interaction, new media, interactivity, interaction between people and computers, graphical user interface, digital culture, interactive design, and virtual reality. One of the most important characteristics of interactivity is the interaction between user and machine, where each of them has an active role.
\nInteractive multimedia allows the user to control, combine, and manipulate a variety of media types, such as text, computer graphics, audio and video materials, as well as animation. Interactive multimedia integrates computer, storage, data, phone, TV, and other information technologies. The most common interactive multimedia applications include education and training programs, video games, electronic encyclopedias, and travel guides. The user or participant in an interactive multimedia application changes their role—for the viewer becomes an active participant. It is expected that interactive multimedia systems become the next generation of electronic information systems. It should be mentioned that another name for interactive multimedia is hybrid technology, because it is able to combine the possibilities for storage capacities of computers and a digital database with an advanced tool for viewing and manipulating these materials.
\nNowadays, the fastest-changing area is dedicated to the development of teaching materials based on usage of computers, particularly interactive multimedia programs that run on personal computers. These new computer and information technologies offer students and teachers access to materials like never before. Through the storage capacity of the computer, multimedia can “deliver” enormous amounts of data to users in more useful and accessible ways [1, 2].
\nThe interaction itself involves at least two parties—the user and the system. The previously mentioned participants are complex and completely different in the way of communication and perception of task. The interface must be a link between them in order to have successful interaction. This transcription can fail in a great number of cases for several reasons. The usage of interaction models can help better understand what is happening in the interaction and to identify possible problems. Models allow, together with developing environment, to compare the different styles of interaction and to discuss issues of interaction as well [3].
\nTraditionally, the purpose of an interactive system is to assist the user in achieving the goals from the application domain.
Task analysis includes the identification of problems in terms of domains, objectives, intentions, and tasks. It can use human knowledge about tasks and objectives, in order to assess an interactive system that is designed to support them. The terms (concepts) which are used in the design of a system and a customer description are separated, so that they can be treated as separate components—the system and the user, respectively [3, 4, 5].
\nThe term
Besides cognitive aspects of design, physical aspects are also important. Sets of controls and display components should be grouped logically, in order to allow faster access to the user. This is not so important when only one user is active. But, when we take controls in power plants, aircrafts, and air traffic into consideration, it becomes vital. In each of these cases, users are under pressure, and they are faced with a huge range of displays and controls, so their appropriate physical appearance is significant.
\nThe importance of a logical grouping of controls has already been mentioned, as well as the fact that the controls should not be separated. The exact manner of organization (which will be presented) will depend on the domain of application itself. Possible ways of organizations can include the following things:
Apart from setting up the controls and displays, the whole interface system should be properly distributed according to the position of the user himself. Thus, for example, a user should be able to reach all necessary controls and to see all the displays without excessive body movement. The most important displays should be at eye level, and controls should be adjusted for space maneuvering. Display reflections should be avoided as well [3, 6].
\nErgonomics deals with solving physical problems in the interface schedule and arrangement and takes into account the design of work environment as well. Where will the system be used? Who will use it? Will people sit, stand, or move around? Again, this will depend on the domain in a great extent, and it will be critical when it comes to specific controls and operational settings. However, the physical environment in which the system is used can affect the health and safety of its users. This should be taken into account in any design [2].
\nWork on computer should not be considered as a dangerous activity, but one should bear in mind the possible implications of design on the health and safety of users. Factors in the physical environment directly affect the quality of interaction and user’s performances:
The interaction can be observed as a dialog between the user and the computer. The choice of interface style can have a profound effect on the nature of a dialog. There is a great number of common interface styles including:
\nSome of the interactions between humans and computers (or machines or technology) focus on understanding, which means that the attention is paid to the way how people interact with technology. However, a great deal of interaction between man and computer refers to how things work and how they are created. The credits for these features go to
In this part, attention will be paid to the
When someone is asked what design is, simple definition might be that the design is related to the achievement of objectives within the constraints. This definition does not say everything about the design, but it helps users to focus on the following elements:
It is impossible to accomplish all of the user’s objectives within constraints, but in life, everything is a matter of compromise, even in such cases. The best designs are created in areas where the designer understands the compromises and the factors affecting them.
\nThe most important part of interaction design or interactivity is user. It is necessary to set up a user in the first place and to keep the user in the central place [3, 6, 8].
\nHere is a brief overview of the simplified view of the four major phases focused on interaction design and interactivity, as well as supporting iteration loop:
One man cannot read and look at all the required techniques. Time is limited and there is no link between the period of design and quality of the final design. This means that a design should be accepted as final, even if it is not perfect; it is often better to have a product which is acceptable, is done on time, and costs less than to have one that has perfect interaction but was not done on time and was over a budget. For example, if a user encounters a system that appears to be perfect, one can be pretty sure that it is a poorly designed system; the system is poorly designed, not because the design is bad but because a lot of effort has been spent for the design process and designing [7, 8].
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