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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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There is evidence that Leonardo da Vinci first observed macroscopic changes in the arteries corresponding to atherosclerosis, noting that such lesions were later discovered on Egyptian mummies’ aortic wall and large blood vessels. The presence of cholesterol in atherosclerotic plaque was first indicated by Vogel in 1847 [1].
An association between elevated blood cholesterol levels and atheroma was observed early this century. The credit goes to Alexander Ivanovsky, who in 1908 published a paper proving that high-energy and high-protein diets in rabbits lead to the development of atherosclerosis. Anichkov found that this resulted in increased fat infiltration into the arterial wall. The significance of this animal model was in the morphological and histochemical similarity of these changes with human atherosclerosis [2].
The landmark advances in lipidology were marked in 1985 by Michael Brown and Joseph Goldstein for the pioneering work on the role of LDL receptors, intracellular cholesterol metabolism, and its homeostasis in the body [3].
Undoubtedly of great importance for the better knowledge of the structure and metabolism of lipoprotein particles in the blood have been the great advances in the domain of learning about their protein component—apolipoprotein [4].
In recent years, hypertriglyceridemia has been found to be a risk factor for coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis [5].
From the pioneering work of Ignatovsky and Anickov at the beginning of this century, a huge journey has been made, and great discoveries have been made that have expanded our knowledge of lipid and lipoprotein metabolism to unprecedented limits [6].
The term lipids refers to a group of organic chemicals that are found in all animal and plant organisms.
There are several types of lipids present in the human body, the most important of which are fatty acids, cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids [7].
They are an integral part of all complex lipids (cholesterol esters, triglycerides, and phospholipids) and are present in the body in the form of the so-called free fatty acids (SMK), unbound for other lipids. The 7SMKs are composed of a straight chain of carbon atoms, the number of which is, as a rule, even and the molecule ends with a carboxyl group. According to the number of carbon atoms, they are divided into fatty acids of short (up to 8 carbon atoms), medium (8–12 carbon atoms), and long chain (more than 12 carbon atoms) [8].
Based on the presence or absence of double bonds, the fatty acids are divided into saturated and unsaturated. The unsaturated fatty acids by the number of double bonds are divided into monosaturated (having only one bond) and polyunsaturated, having from two to six double bonds. They can occur in two isomeric forms, the so-called cis and trans forms [9].
Fatty acids are present in the blood in two forms, either free or nonesterified (SMK, FFA) and esterified. Esterified fatty acids account for the largest part in the circulation of about 95%, while 5% of free fatty acids are found in the blood [10].
Plasma free fatty acids are reversibly bound to proteins, primarily to albumins, and to a lesser extent to globulins and lipoproteins. They are present in a very low concentration (about 0.5 mmol/l) but have an extremely fast turnover, with a half-life of 1–3 minutes. Metabolically, the most active are the plasma lipids, and their oxidation is the main source of energy in the fasting state. The esterified fatty acids are esterically bound in the composition of triglycerides (45%), cholesterol esters (15%), and phospholipids (35%) [8].
A large number of fatty acids have been discovered in nature, many of which are present in the human body. Some of the fatty acids can be created in our body, and those fatty acids that the human body is unable to synthesize must be ingested through food and are called essential fatty acids. It has already been mentioned that most of the fatty acids are in bound form, in the composition of phospholipids, triglycerides, and cholesterol esters, and only 5% of free fatty acids are in free or unbound form (free fatty acids). It should be borne in mind that many properties of triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids depend significantly on the type of fatty acids that make up their composition. It is also of great importance whether the fats in the diet are dominated by saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated fatty acids [11].
Cholesterol is best known among lipid fractions and plays the most important role in the formation of atherosclerosis. It is a special type of lipid, which differs significantly from other lipid substances in its chemical structure. In pure form, the whitish soft waxy substance is insoluble in water [11]. It is present in the body in free, nonesterified, and esterified form bound to a single fatty acid in the form of cholesterol esters [12].
Cholesterol esterification occurs in the plasma under the action of the enzyme lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT). Plasma contains about 75% of the cholesterol in the esterified state and most often esterifies with polyunsaturated linoleic fatty acid about 55% [13].
Most of the free (nonsterified) cholesterol is found in tissues. Cholesterol is a necessary component of the body. It is a structural element of all cellular and intracellular membranes and has specific roles in specific organs (e.g., in hepatocytes where it participates in the synthesis of bile acids, in the cortex, and in the synthesis of steroid hormones, and it plays the role of transporters of liposoluble vitamins A, D, E, and K).
The origin of cholesterol in the body is twofold (endogenous and exogenous). Most cells have the ability to synthesize it themselves, and its other source is the food it feeds on. It has been found that 2/3 of cholesterol is produced by synthesis in the body (in adults about 800–900 mg/day) and only 1/3 is ingested by food. Considering the ability of the organism to produce it in large quantities, it is quite sufficient to feed 150–300 mg daily with food. Excess cholesterol from the body is eliminated through the bile (by conversion to bile acids) and by skin peeling, and a very small amount is lost by urine. Breastfeeding women also lose some cholesterol through milk. From all of the above, it is obvious that cholesterol is essential to the body and is of great importance for the normal functioning of each cell. Its adverse effects are manifested when it is present in much higher concentrations in the blood [14].
Triglycerides are esters of glycerol, a trihydroxy alcohol with fatty acids. It is possible to esterify only one, two, or all three hydroxyl groups of fatty acid glycerol to produce mono-, di-, or triglycerides. Triglycerides are most prevalent in the body, while diglycerides, and especially monoglycerides, are present in significant amounts only in the intestinal mucosa during fat absorption [12].
Their basic role in the body is the creation of energy depots from which, when necessary, they release fatty acids, whose oxidation provides the energy necessary for the life of all cells. The highest amount of triglyceride is found in the composition of adipose tissue (about 95%), while insignificant amounts are present in the blood. Triglycerides have also been reliably found today to have an increased amount in the blood in the process of atherosclerosis [15].
The chemical structure of phospholipids is very complex. It is an ester-bound two-fatty acid molecule for one alcohol, which contains phosphoric acid as an integral part of its molecule. Depending on the alcohol they contain, they are divided into two groups, glycerophospholipids (containing glycerol) and sphingophospholipids (containing sphingosine). With the exception of fatty tissue dominated by triglycerides, phospholipids are the basic lipids of cell membranes and other cellular structural elements. It should be emphasized that the brain and nerve tissue are the richest in phospholipids [7].
An important feature of lipids is their insolubility in water. In order to dissolve it in the blood and transport it to all cells of the body, all lipid substances are bound to certain proteins, thus forming particles called lipoproteins [8].
The lipid part of the lipoprotein particles consists of cholesterol, cholesterol esters, triglycerides, and phospholipids, and their protein parts are very different in structure and are called apolipoproteins. Depending on the type and amount of lipids, on the one hand, and the amount and type of protein part, or apolipoprotein, on the other, different types of lipoproteins are present in the blood [4].
The four basic types of lipoprotein particles present in the blood of all persons are chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL) (Table 1) [7].
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Basic blood lipoprotein particles.
Today, the labeling of lipoprotein particles with abbreviations deriving from English names, i.e., as VLDL, LDL, and HDL particles, is accepted worldwide. They should also be supplemented with chylomicrons, which have the largest circulating lipoprotein particle [7].
Certain lipids (cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids) are found in the blood in the composition of all lipoprotein particles, in different amounts, and in combination with other constituents of lipoprotein particles. Chylomicrons and VLDLs contain predominantly triglycerides, LDL mainly cholesterol, while HDL particles are most abundant in the protein moiety and lipids in phospholipids. One person’s blood cholesterol represents the sum of cholesterol present in all lipoprotein particles, in chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL, although its largest amount (about 70%) is found in LDL particles. Depending on the physiological role of individual lipoprotein particles, the increase in cholesterol in one of them will have a different significance for the organism. Cholesterol contained in the LDL particle leads to atherosclerosis, while the increase in cholesterol in HDL particles has a protective effect against atherosclerosis [6]. In addition to chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL particles, some other types of lipoproteins are normally present in the blood. Among these lipoprotein species is the so-called lipoprotein Lp(a). It is a special type of lipoprotein, which has been shown to be present in the blood of every person at quite minimal concentrations (up to 0.25 g/l). Lipoprotein Lp(a) together with the LDL particle represents the most serious lipid risk factor for atherosclerosis [7].
Lipids are mostly insoluble in water. In plasma, they can be in the form of stable complexes if they are attached to specific protein moieties called apolipoproteins or apoproteins (Apo).
The protein part of the lipoprotein particle was previously thought to be a lipid transport agent only. However, they have been found to have other, very significant roles in the body. Apoproteins provide stability of plasma lipid transport. They are cofactors of individual enzymes that participate in the metabolism of lipoprotein particles. Their most important function is to bind to specific receptors on cell membranes, thereby ensuring the entry of plasma lipoprotein particles into cells and their further catabolism [2, 15, 16].
The structure and concentration of individual apolipoproteins in a particular lipoprotein particle are under a direct genetic control, as opposed to serum lipid content, which is significantly more influenced by diet and metabolism [17].
Apolipoprotein A-I (Apo A-I) is the major apolipoprotein of HDL particles. About 90% of Apo A-I is in HDL fractions. In the HDL particle alone, it accounts for 65% of the total protein portion. It is present in small amounts in the chylomicrons and the VLDL fraction. It is synthesized in the liver and small intestine wall. Its most important role is the activator of the enzyme LCAT, which allows esterification of free cholesterol on the surface of HDL particles. In this way, small discoidal HDL3 particles accept excess cholesterol from the cells and accumulate it in the form of esterified cholesterol, thereby transforming it into larger, more soluble, lower-density HDL2 particles. Since it allows the uptake of free cholesterol and subsequently its esterification, it is logical that it has a protective effect on the process of atherosclerosis [18].
Apolipoprotein A-II (Apo A-II) represents about 20–30% of total HDL particle proteins. It forms in the liver and the small intestine wall. It is thought to have an inhibitory effect on LCAT and modulatory effect on the activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and hepatic triglyceride lipase (HTGL) [19].
Apolipoprotein B (Apo B) is present in the human population in two forms, as apolipoprotein B-48 (Apo B-48) and apolipoprotein B-100 (Apo B-100).
Apo B-48, which is part of the chylomicron, is synthesized in the small intestinal wall. Far more significant is Apo B-100, which is synthesized predominantly in the liver, and is a constituent of VLDL, the intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL) that circulates for a short time, LDL particles, and the lipoprotein Lp(a). This apoprotein is also characterized by containing certain amounts of carbohydrates (approximately 5% of the total mass), which is chemically classified as glycoproteins [20, 21].
Apo B-100 is secreted primarily from the liver in the form of VLDL particles. By further metabolizing VLDL via IDL, LDL particles are formed that contain exclusively Apo B-100 [4]. The most important role of Apo B-100 is to specifically bind LDL particles to cellular receptors in the liver and other tissues [22].
Given that Apo B-100 is the only apolipoprotein in LDL particles known to have the most heterogeneous effect, it is understandable that an increase in plasma Apo B-100 concentration increases atherogenic risk. Due to the fact that only one Apo B-100 molecule is present in the LDL particle, unlike the amount of cholesterol that can vary in them, the plasma concentration of Apo B-100 is a better indicator of the content of atherogenic lipoprotein particles in the blood than the determination of LDL cholesterol [23].
The apolipoprotein C (Apo C) group is represented by three different proteins that are synthesized in the liver [20]. There are chylomicrons, VLDLs, and newly formed HDL particles bound in the circulation. During intravascular metabolism of lipoprotein particles, there is an intense exchange of Apo C. From HDL particles, these apolipoproteins transfer to lipoprotein particles rich in triglycerides, namely, chylomicrons and VLDL. Apparently, Apo C plays a significant role in the catabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins [24].
Apolipoprotein E (Apo E) is a protein molecule composed of 229 amino acids, which contains 10% of the amino acid arginine, and is therefore called the “arginine-rich protein” [16]. The main site of its synthesis is the liver, but it is also created in other organs: brain, spleen, lungs, adrenal gland, kidneys, ovaries, muscles. It plays a significant role in the metabolism of various lipoprotein particles: chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, and HDL containing Apo E.
Apolipoprotein E participates in the reversible transport of excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues into the liver via HDL particles, which when incorporated into cholesterol incorporate Apo E [25].
Apo E also appears to be involved in reparative responses to tissue damage. An increase in its concentration is found in sites of peripheral nerve damage and regeneration [25]. It has significance in nerve regeneration, growth, and/or differentiation of neurons [26].
Apolipoprotein (Apo A) is a relatively large molecular weight protein that is incorporated into the lipoprotein composition of Lp(a).
If Apo A is isolated, the rest of Lp(a) in its composition is almost identical to the LDL particle because it has a similar lipid composition and contains a single molecule of Apo B-100. The gene that regulates the synthesis of this apolipoprotein is located on the sixth chromosome near the plasminogen gene. Apo A has a great structural similarity and shows immune cross-reactivity with plasminogen, which could be a link between atherosclerosis and fibrinolysis [27].
Lipid disorders are of fundamental importance for atherogenesis and even the occurrence of ischemic heart disease and other cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. They are often associated with diabetes, obesity, and hypertension with which they interact synergistically, leading to arteriosclerotic changes. Atherosclerosis is caused by changes in the wall of blood vessels characterized by lipid deposition and cell proliferation. Deposited lipids in the blood vessel wall originate from plasma lipoproteins, and elevated cholesterol, especially LDL cholesterol, is a major risk factor. Atherogenic lipoproteins include, in addition to LDL particles, almost all classes of Apo B-containing lipoproteins (VLDL, VLDL residues, IDL, Lp(a), and oxidized LDL). A common feature of all atherogenic lipoproteins is that they contain different amounts of cholesterol esters and/or Apo B-100 or Apo B-48. Atherogenic effects of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins are associated with postprandial lipemia after fatty meal intake. Atherosclerosis is considered an inevitable process at the present stage of medical science development. In most people, around the age of 85, it is thought that about 60% of coronary circulation is covered by atherosclerotic plaques, provided that no risk factors are present during life. In the presence of risk factors such as hypercholesterolemia, such changes in the coronary vessels are reached sometime in the 42nd year of life. This early atherosclerosis is a global problem for humanity today. The major risk factors for cardiovascular disease are the values of total LDL and HDL cholesterol. Higher HDL cholesterol has also been shown to have a protective effect. Elevated triglyceride levels also increase the incidence of myocardial infarction, even when HDL cholesterol levels are normal. Based on the studies, it was concluded that the level of total cholesterol was important in the assessment of total individual risk but the value of LDL cholesterol was taken as the goal of therapy for lipid abnormalities.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
None.
Hansen’s disease has been stigmatized from ancient times. Patients were forced to live in sanatoriums for their entire life, and this forced some of them to commit suicide. Although a sanatorium was a medical institution, it had a crematorium, an ossuary, and religious facilities (see Figures 1–4). Religion was used for saving the patient’s soul.
First Ossuary. The 674 people who passed away between 1901 and 1936 are buried here. The oldest remains are dated June 12, 1901 (Ōshima Sanatorium opened on April 1, 1901).
Ossuary. A majority of the residents lived here for the rest of their life and were cremated here. Those whose remains were not returned to their hometowns are kept in this ossuary on the island.
The 88-statue circuit within Oshima Seisho-en property. A total of 88 stone images are enshrined on the property to permit the 88-temple Shikoku pilgrimage to be carried out on-site.
Dance of the Wind. The title, “Dance of the Wind,” is based on the following wish: “at least let the spirit of my dying words ride the wind away from the island, freely released to return to my native home.” It was built by approximately 1000 volunteers in 1992. The pointed conical monument on the front represents “everything in the heavens and space above,” while the conical platform in the back represents “everything under the sun on earth.” The round area with flagstones is a stage on which souls are thought to dance with the wind before setting off to their hometowns. The conical monument contains ashes of many individuals that did not entirely fit within their funerary urns.
What is the level of suffering or “spiritual pain” that makes a person consider suicide? What causes spiritual pain in those suffering with Hansen’s disease? The experiences of Hansen’s disease survivors are important to order identify the essence of spiritual pain, which remarkably decreases their QOL. On the other hand, Hansen’s disease survivors who had suffered spiritual pain were eventually freed of their sufferings and went on to become latter-stage elderly living vividly with purpose of life, even though it was minor. Is it possible to develop an individuality wherein one can experience spiritual well-being despite having experienced spiritual pain? This is an important theme, as spiritual well-being constitutes a part of QOL.
This study is divided into two parts. In the first report, we describe the conceptual structure of “spirituality” and the relationship between spirituality and QOL. In the second report, we show the spiritual pain and spiritual well-being of Hansen’s disease survivors through a review analysis and discuss spirituality and QOL. A table content of the first and second report is presented in Table 1 as an overview of the entire study.
Part one | Part two | |
---|---|---|
Spirituality’s conceptual structure and Hansen’s disease history | Accounts of spiritual pain and spiritual well-being by Hansen’s disease survivors | |
2-1. What is quality of life (QOL)? 2-2. What is spirituality? 2-3. Development of spiritual pain into cancer terminal care 2-4. Spiritual pain and total pain 2-5. What is spiritual well-being? 2-6. Quality of life and total pain | 2-1. The life review of Hansen’s disease survivors 2-2. Overview of Mr.Takahisa Yamamoto’s life review 2-3. Analysis method for construction 2-4. Construction of Mr. Takahisa Yamamoto’s spiritual pain | |
3-1. From the ancient times to the end of the feudal era ( –1867) 3-2. From establishing a modern nation (the Meiji government) to the end of World War II (1868–1945) 3-3. From developing the magic bullet ‘Promin’ to abolishing the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 214 of 1953 らい予防法) (1943–1996) 3-4. After abolishing the Leprosy Prevention Law (1996–) | 3-1. What sustained Mr.Takahisa Yamamoto through the suffering? 3-2. Relieving sufferings; preparing to accept turning points 3-3. Turning point 1: Changing the flow of life 3-4. Turning point 2: Meeting a friend for life (Ceramics) 3-5. After the turning point | |
4-1. Introduction to the National Sanatorium Oshima Seisho-en, where the survivors who have shared their life review live 4-2. The life review book of Hansen’s disease survivors | 4-1. How do individuals live energetically despite having experienced extreme situations? 4-2. Construction of spiritual well-being; Introduction of the study | |
Mr. Takahisa Yamamoto’s life review (An excerpt only from the section that discusses spiritual pain) |
Table contents about the first report and the second report about ‘Spirituality and Hansen’s disease’.
Characteristics of QOL include considering the health and happiness from the perspective of the subject. It emphasizes subjective over objective evaluation, and the evaluation of multiple dimensions rather than a single dimension. The primary goal of nursing is enhancing the QOL of a subject and the results of nursing intervention can be evaluated by the QOL.
By Haas’ QOL model [1], if the four dimensions that are physical, psychological, social, and spiritual, indicate well-being, the QOL is high.
The Old testament, states: “God made person from mud and breath in its nose, and then the mud figure become living human.” Therefore, we believe that the source of life is from the breath given by God. Spirit comes from the Latin word “Spiritus,” and the elements that make the human are body, mind, and spirit.
When we encounter a crisis in life and lose our identity or the existing framework for living like other human beings and leading life in our own way, we seek the framework of transcendent power that exists outside us or the ultimate core within us. This function is known as spirituality [2].
Figure 5 shows the relationship between spirituality, spiritual pain, and spiritual well-being. At the time when we have control over our life and can live in our own way and like other human beings, we tend not to notice spirituality, as we are not philosophers who think about life and death everyday see (Figure 5(a)). Although when faced with a crisis, for example the news that we have cancer or Hansen’s disease, or see our own people dying, lose family members in an earthquake, or face other sufferings that make us think of committing suicide, we feel spiritual pain and notice spirituality see (Figure 5(b)). On the other hand, spiritual well-being became apparent in some people, for example, those who have a peaceful death or are deeply religious see (Figure 5(c)).
(a) Not actualized spiritual pain and spiritual well-being (life as usual); (b) actualized spiritual pain; and (c) actualized spiritual well-being.
Spiritual pain has been important in terminal care for cancer patients. The reasons for this are mentioned below. The first, cancer has the stigma of death attached. After being diagnosed with cancer, patients have to reconsider their life plan and think about where they want to live, who do they want to live with, and how do they want live the rest of their life. The second, dying patients can see the signs of their end coming closer as their physical condition and activities of daily living (ADL) decline gradually. Facing one’s death leads to despair and spiritual pain. The third, the understanding that their family will lose a loved one. Death of a loved one means losing the future of living with the loved one, therefore to deal with this grief a lot of psychological energy is needed.
The experience that terminal cancer patients undergo is called “Total Pain.” Total pain encompasses physical, psychological, social, and spiritual pain [3]. Physical pain includes various factors like body aches, difficulty in breathing, fatigue, and also difficulties in ADL like eating, sleeping, and moving. Psychological pain includes feelings of anxiety, loneliness, anger, irritation, etc. Social pain is related to work problems, financial issues, problems in the family, inheritance issues, etc. Spiritual pain implies questioning the meaning of life, pursuing God, changes in the value system, a search for the meaning of suffering, fear of death, feeling of guilt, etc.
It is difficult to distinguish between psychological and spiritual pain. Psychological pain implies that the mind is functioning against the body, on the other hand, spiritual pain means questioning the relationship with something greater than self or something that is transcendent [4]. Therefore, spiritual pain exists when we question the meaning of life and existence. For example, when we cannot meet a loved one or a partner and feel lonely because of the physical distance, it is psychological pain, but when we lose a loved spouse and suffer and contemplate suicide and blame God for the loss, it is spiritual pain.
Spiritual pain is expressed as: (1) unfairness: why did I get this disease?; (2) unworthiness: I do not want to become a burden on my family; (3) hopelessness: there is no meaning in doing that; (4) guilt: it is my fault; (5) isolation: no one understands me; (6) vulnerability: I do not have the ability; (7) abandonment: God is not helping me either; (8) punishment: I am being punished and that is why I have cancer; (9) confusion: why must I suffer even if there is God; (10) meaninglessness: my life is meaningless [5].
There are very few patients who have a sense of gratitude and peace as they face death as compared to the number of patients who have total pain. There are some who try to find the meaning of suffering when they are afflicted with hardships of life like, a massive earthquake, loss of a loved one, loss of work, divorce, etc. Spiritual well-being implies being in harmony with self, others, nature, and something greater than self, and the process of finding the best meaning [2]. People who have faith in God in daily life can find the meaning of suffering and are peaceful while facing death and hardships as compared to people who do not have faith. Therefore, it can be said that religion leads to spiritual well-being. At the same time, religion is not the same as spirituality. All persons with or without faith have spirituality. Therefore, all humans have the potential to develop at the level of the soul even in extreme situations until the moment of death.
By Haas’ QOL model [1], if the four dimensions that are physical, psychological, social, and spiritual, indicate well-being, the QOL is high. QOL and total pain are the two sides of the same coin, which implies that if the four dimensions are painful, then the patient has total pain, and if the dimensions indicate well-being, the patients level of QOL is high. Ensuring a patient’s well-being in all four dimensions is the aim of the practice of nursing.
It would be help to divide this into four periods to facilitate better understanding: (1) From the ancient times to the end of the feudal era (the Edo period); (2) From establishing a modern nation (the Meiji government) to the end of World War II; (3) From developing the magic bullet “Promin” to abolishing the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 214 of 1953; らい予防法); (4) After abolishing the Leprosy Prevention Law.
Leprosy existed in Japan from the ancient times and statements about the disease were mentioned in Nihon Shoki (AC.720), which is one of the two oldest written documents in Japan. According to the concept of defilement, Hansen’s disease patients were considered to be defiled beings because of their change in appearance. In Buddhism, leprosy is considered as a punishment from heaven and a disease caused because of karmic retribution. Patients stayed at home so that they do not stand out, or lived in areas that were designated for the feudal outcast group and thus coexisted in society. Patients who could no longer live in their hometowns would beg at the gates of temples and shrines, or depart on wandering journeys and were called “wandering lepers.”
During the Edo shogunate (1603–1868) the society was peaceful and there was no war for 250 years, but this was broken by a bloodless revolution, the Meiji Restoration and the Meiji government was established. The new government made an effort to create a modern nation, make the country economically sound, encourage new industries, and to strengthen the army, in order to prepare for the threats from the Western powers. Unfortunately, the government was a part of the World War II and lost the battle in 1945.
After the Meiji government was established, Hansen’s disease was considered as a “national disgrace disease,” in addition to a “heavenly punishment disease” and “defilement disease.” The Government believed that the sight of patients begging at shrines was symbol of a country that was not civilized. This was considered a national disgrace as the government aimed to make the country a civilized country. According to the concept of national purification and the idea of supremacy, patients with Hansen’s disease as well as weak and disabled people were excluded. In line with militarism, Hansen’s disease patients were treated coldly during the war because they did not contribute to military strength and the disease was mostly seen in young men.
In addition, bacteriology and the study of public health were introduced, leading to the use of isolation to prevent infection. By similarly to the acute infectiousness of cholera according to theory of social protection, general people misunderstood as terrifying infectious disease.
Based on the above background, the government forced lifelong isolation and internment in order to eradicate Hansen’s disease, and established sanatoria and legislations to legalize forced isolation. In 1907, the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 11 of 1907; 癩予防二関スル件) was enacted in order to force patients who did not have relatives and were known as “wandering lepers,” to intern at sanatoria. Five sanatoria were established across the nation. In 1931, the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 58 of 1931; 癩予防法) was enacted to isolate patients living at home and did not force internment by police authority. In 1929, the Leprosy-Free Prefecture Movement started spreading. This movement was aimed at tracking all patients, reporting them, and interning them at the sanatoria so that there would be no patients living in the prefecture. As a result of this movement, the feeling that Hansen’s is a horrible infectious disease took root among the populace.
The treatment offered to the patients at the sanatoria during that period had serious issues from humanitarian and ethical perspectives. For example, the patients were forced to undergo sterilization surgery in order to prevent the them from having child, they were forced to enter the punishment room, officers had disciplinary arrest rights which was the right of the sanatorium director to punish or confine patients who disobeyed the rules at his own discretion, sanatorium scrip which was an attempt to prevent runaways by converting money to a currency that could only be used in the sanatorium, changing names to an internal alias, forced labor, establishment of diseased/non-diseased boundary, autopsy, and so on. One of the biggest issue was that the Hansen’s Disease Prevention Law did not have any stipulations about being discharged. Therefore, once a person entered a sanatorium, there was no possibility for them to get discharged.
Japan lost the Second World War in 1945 and a new constitution which respected basic human rights and advocated democracy was established in 1946. In addition, the magic bullet “Promin” was developed in USA in 1943, and after the success to synthesize the chemical in Japan in 1946, treatment using the same was started in 1947. The conventional law, the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 58 of 1931;癩予防法) was amended and the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 214 of 1953; らい予防法), which emulated the conventional law and continued to grant disciplinary arrest rights and forced internment, was established. This was going backwards and was against the intent to promote respect for basic human rights and democracy after the war, and was adopted even though the disease could be cured with Promin. In addition, in spite of furious opposition, through hunger strikes and abandonment of sanatorium work, by the National Hansen’s Disease Sanatorium Residents’ Council, the opinion of authority in the Leprosy academic meeting at that time were adopted.
The National Hansen’s Disease Sanatorium Residents’ Council negotiated with the government persistently, which led to the buffering on the regulation on going out, but this came to a standstill in operational mitigation because of the abolition of the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 214 of 1953; らい予防法) in 1996.
After the abolition of the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 214 of 1953;らい予防法) in 1996, during the National Redress Suit in 2001, the government was convicted to have committed a mistake by promoting the policy of isolation. The government, including the Prime Minister; the House of Representatives and the House of Councilors; and the Minister of Health, Labor, and welfare, apologized to the Hansen’s disease survivors. Only a few Hansen’s disease survivors could return to social existence as the average age of these people was over 60 years. The Law on Promoting a Resolution for the Hansen’s Disease problem was established in 2009. This law directs that these patients are guaranteed that they would be able to lead a normal life, get treatment, return to the society and will be offered aid for social life, also that assistance would be provided to redeem their reputation, protection would be provided for family members, and the dead would be memorialized.
The average age of Hansen’s disease survivors currently is 86, and the total number of people with the disease has decreased to 1175 as of 2019. There will be no cases of Hansen’s disease in Japan soon. Now, high quality nursing is provided in the sanatoria. With this we hope that the aging Hansen’s disease survivors, who have previously experienced suffering and hardship, can have a peaceful life and live with purpose. We are hopeful that the survivors, who do not have children and grandchildren because of the sterilization surgery, are well cared for by the nursing staff and can have a peaceful death.
A national sanatorium, Oshima Seisho-en was established under the Leprosy Prevention Law (Act No. 11 of 1907; 癩予防二関スル件) and it has 110 years of history. Oshima island is in Seto inland sea, and one can get there on a ship. The distance from the nearest harbor in the mainland is 8 km. Oshima is a small scenic island with a total area of seven kilometers, and has a mild climate. The island is seven kilometers. The number of residents recorded during the war was about 740. As of August 2019, the number of residents is 52, the average age is 84.3, and the length of stay of these residents is 57.6 years. After the abolition of the Leprosy Prevention Law, many people have visited the sanatorium to learn about human rights, and some foreigners visit the island during the Setouchi Triennale. See Figures 6 and 7(a) and (b).
Hansen’s disease sanatoria nationwide.
(a) View of the entirety of the Ōshima Seishoen (in the background are Yashima and Takamatsu harbor); and (b) view of Ōshima Seishoen.
We published a life review book about 19 Hansen’s disease survivors living at Oshima Seisho-en [6]. From chapter 2 to 20, each chapter describes the experiences of one person. Each survivor talks about their childhood before having Hansen’s disease, the shock and suffering that followed the diagnosis, till the time that they entered the sanatorium, discrimination and exclusion in their hometown, the parents affection and worry to protect them, inconvenience faced by their brothers and sisters, various symptoms and cures, the bad experiences in the sanatorium, romantic alliances, support from friends at the sanatorium, fighting against the government, current feelings and thoughts in their old age. The subject of the book is summarized as “Deeply Deeply Closing Our Eyes in Order to See What We Truly Should See,” which is the subtitle of the book and has been penned by poet Ms. Yoshiko Takagi.
The significance of the book is discussed in the following eight points. (1) Negative history about medical care and administration at the sanatoria has been mentioned from the perspective of the survivors as a subjective experience, therefore, their narration is important as a primary resource to share the history of the disease with later generations. (2) When the principles of medical ethics including, respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice and/or equality, were violated, what happened? The reality is shared. (3) Discrimination and exclusion against diseases with stigma in not just limited to Hansen’s disease. If there is an outbreak of an unknown or lethal infectious disease (ex. Ebola hemorrhagic fever) in future, these experiences will become the lessons to ensure that the mistakes are not repeated again. (4) Their narratives hold value for ethnology, for example, the 88-temple Shikoku pilgrimage accepted wandering lepers and handed them secret medicines from the major Buddhist Kobo Daishi (774–835), and the discrimination and customs of the neighborhood groups in the agricultural society. (5) Their accounts give an insight about the wisdom and strength that made them overcome terrible hardships, and the clear vision that made them accept their life positively. This wisdom and strength has universal value for all human beings and is also useful for people who are currently suffering. (6) The nurses at the sanatorium were the listeners of their life review. This book has also recorded the nursing practices. This interaction also increased the ability of the nurses to listen, empathize, understand, and deepen the relationship between them and the survivors. Through this, the nurses also got the opportunity to care for the survivors who do not have their own children. (7) The book was made by using qualitative and inductive methods in order to arrange the composition and express it in a narrative tone, therefore even elementary students can read it to learn about human rights. (8) New patients of Hansen’s disease have been found only in developing countries like India, Brazil, and Indonesia. They account for about 80% of the total patients. The developed countries are not concerned about the disease. We hope that by increasing the awareness in developed countries, through the stories of the survivors, the wisdom and strength for solving problems in future will be shared.
In the second report, we introduce Mr. Takahisa Yamamoto’s life review which clearly defines spiritual pain and shows the result of an analysis of questions such as why does a person experience spiritual pain, what is the identified nature of spiritual pain, and how can one recover from spiritual pain.
This study comprises the first report and the second report. In the first report, we describe the conceptual structure of spirituality, the relationship of spirituality and QOL, and the history of Hansen’s disease. Spirituality was developed as a part of the studies relating to terminal cancer patients who must confront their own death. When our daily lives are calm and mundane, we do not notice spirituality. However, when we confront hardships of life, for example, when we are exposed to the dangers of life, we notice spirituality as an existential distress. On the other hand, the development of individuality and imperturbability by overcoming hardship is spiritual well-being. Spirituality serves as the existential foundation for human existence and is important for the relationship with “something greater than self.” In common understanding, QOL is evaluated not objectively but subjectively, and not as a single dimension but as multiple dimensions. Spiritual well-being is one of multiple dimensions of QOL.
In the second report, we will show the spiritual pain and spiritual well-being of Hansen’s disease survivors who have lived harsh lives via an analysis of their life review based on the findings of spirituality and QOL from the first report.
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 18H03075. We would like to thank Editage (www.editage.com) for English language editing.
We have no financial relationships to disclose.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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In tropical and subtropical regions, during hot days, the testicular temperature may increase and impair both the spermatogenic cycle and semen quality, which culminates in decreased bull fertility. The effects of heat stress on livestock can be minimized via adapting suitable scientific strategies comprising physical modifications of the environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress. In addition, the summer infertility may be countered through advanced reproductive technologies involving hormonal treatments, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer, which may enhance the chances for establishing pregnancy in farm animals.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Govindan Krishnan, Madiajagan Bagath, Prathap Pragna,\nMallenahally Kusha Vidya, Joy Aleena, Payyanakkal Ravindranathan\nArchana, Veerasamy Sejian and Raghavendra Bhatta",authors:[{id:"89780",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Sejian",slug:"veerasamy-sejian",fullName:"Veerasamy Sejian"},{id:"177210",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghavendra",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatta",slug:"raghavendra-bhatta",fullName:"Raghavendra Bhatta"},{id:"177220",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Bagath",slug:"m-bagath",fullName:"M Bagath"},{id:"201967",title:"Dr.",name:"Govindan",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"govindan-krishnan",fullName:"Govindan Krishnan"},{id:"201968",title:"Ms.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Pr",slug:"archana-pr",fullName:"Archana Pr"},{id:"201969",title:"Ms.",name:"Pragna",middleName:null,surname:"Prathap",slug:"pragna-prathap",fullName:"Pragna Prathap"},{id:"201970",title:"Ms.",name:"Aleena",middleName:null,surname:"Joy",slug:"aleena-joy",fullName:"Aleena Joy"},{id:"201971",title:"Dr.",name:"Vidya",middleName:null,surname:"Mk",slug:"vidya-mk",fullName:"Vidya Mk"}]},{id:"55006",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68650",title:"Immunocastration as Alternative to Surgical Castration in Pigs",slug:"immunocastration-as-alternative-to-surgical-castration-in-pigs",totalDownloads:1931,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Surgical castration of piglets is a routine practice in pig production used to prevent the incidence of boar taint of pig meat, which may develop in entire male pigs as they reach puberty. This practice is being presently questioned in the European Union, and there is a strong initiative to end it. The initiative is presently voluntary; however, key stakeholders of European pig production sector have signed a declaration, and the actions undertaken by them already affect the business. Before such new concepts in pig production can be implemented, alternative solutions are needed, one of them being immunocastration. The present chapter will thus focus on the presentation of immunocastration as one of the promising alternatives to surgical castration. Theoretical and practical aspects of immunocastration in pig production will be described, and the advantages and disadvantages of this alternative will be summarised. Physiological principles of immunocastration and impacts on metabolism, growth performance, body composition and meat quality will be described and aspects of public acceptability reviewed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Marjeta Čandek-Potokar, Martin Škrlep and Galia Zamaratskaia",authors:[{id:"23161",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjeta",middleName:null,surname:"Čandek-Potokar",slug:"marjeta-candek-potokar",fullName:"Marjeta Čandek-Potokar"},{id:"198220",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Škrlep",slug:"martin-skrlep",fullName:"Martin Škrlep"},{id:"198221",title:"Prof.",name:"Galia",middleName:null,surname:"Zamaratskaia",slug:"galia-zamaratskaia",fullName:"Galia Zamaratskaia"}]},{id:"55696",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69444",title:"Estrus Cycle Monitoring in Wild Mammals: Challenges and Perspectives",slug:"estrus-cycle-monitoring-in-wild-mammals-challenges-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1888,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The knowledge of reproductive physiology is of paramount importance to guide reproductive management and to make possible future application of assisted reproduction techniques (ARTs) aiming ex situ conservation of wild mammals. Nevertheless, information on the basic reproductive aspects of wild mammals remain scarce, and appropriate management practices have not yet been developed for all the species. This chapter discusses the methods most currently used for reproductive monitoring in wild females. Additionally, the difficulties regarding their use in different species and the possibilities of these procedures in captivity or in free-living mammals are addressed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Alexandre R. Silva, Nei Moreira, Alexsandra F. Pereira, Gislayne C.X.\nPeixoto, Keilla M. Maia, Lívia B. Campos and Alana A. Borges",authors:[{id:"90066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandre-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Silva"},{id:"177090",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexsandra Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"alexsandra-fernandes-pereira",fullName:"Alexsandra Fernandes Pereira"},{id:"177093",title:"MSc.",name:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto",slug:"gislayne-christianne-xavier-peixoto",fullName:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier Peixoto"},{id:"198314",title:"Prof.",name:"Nei",middleName:null,surname:"Moreira",slug:"nei-moreira",fullName:"Nei Moreira"},{id:"198315",title:"MSc.",name:"Keilla Moreira",middleName:null,surname:"Maia",slug:"keilla-moreira-maia",fullName:"Keilla Moreira Maia"},{id:"198316",title:"MSc.",name:"Lívia Batista",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"livia-batista-campos",fullName:"Lívia Batista Campos"},{id:"198317",title:"MSc.",name:"Alana Azevedo",middleName:null,surname:"Borges",slug:"alana-azevedo-borges",fullName:"Alana Azevedo Borges"}]},{id:"56522",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69549",title:"Role of Melatonin in Reproductive Seasonality in Buffaloes",slug:"role-of-melatonin-in-reproductive-seasonality-in-buffaloes",totalDownloads:1772,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Buffaloes are characterized by seasonal reproductive activity. Anestrus buffalo heifers and lactating buffaloes were used to study the effect of melatonin treatment on the resumption of ovarian activity during out-of-breeding season. Buffaloes of treated group were injected or implanted with melatonin (18 mg melatonin/50 kg body weight). Using CIDR-eCG protocol preceded with melatonin successfully achieved estrus behavior and induced conception rate during out-of-breeding season. Furthermore, the reproductive performance of buffaloes during out-of-breeding season was clearly improved by melatonin implantation in conjunction with CIDR-eCG protocol due to the luteotrophic effect of melatonin expressed as increasing diameter of CL (corpus luteum) and progesterone concentration. This improvement resulted in greater values of conception rate, in melatonin implanted compared to not implanted buffaloes. Melatonin implantation in anestrus buffalo heifers increased the diameter of largest follicles and melatonin concentration but progesterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations were decreased. In addition, melatonin implantation in anestrus lactating buffaloes increased the SOD (superoxide dismutase) enzyme activity. Sustained release of exogenous melatonin significantly protects against oxidative stress while increasing beneficial total antioxidant capacity (TAC) concentration in summer-stressed anestrus buffaloes. Melatonin implantation in conjunction with CIDR-eCG protocol successfully improved some blood metabolites, in anestrus buffalo heifers during out-of-breeding season under tropical conditions.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Tamer Awad Ramadan",authors:[{id:"197651",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamer",middleName:"Awad",surname:"Ramadan",slug:"tamer-ramadan",fullName:"Tamer Ramadan"}]},{id:"54974",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68651",title:"Markers for Sperm Freezability and Relevance of Transcriptome Studies in Semen Cryopreservation: A Review",slug:"markers-for-sperm-freezability-and-relevance-of-transcriptome-studies-in-semen-cryopreservation-a-re",totalDownloads:1618,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Advances in sperm assessment techniques have offered new perspectives to improve the technology of semen cryopreservation. This review addresses some recent achievements in the proteomics of seminal plasma and spermatozoa and exemplifies its importance as markers for sperm fertility following cryopreservation. Recent advances in transcriptome studies on sperm RNA-Seq data have generated new information aimed to unravel the physiological roles of RNAs in the sperm-egg fertilization processes and their associations with male fertility. The relevance of the sperm freezability markers and the potential associations of RNA-profiling sequences with the sperm biological functions have been discussed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Leyland Fraser",authors:[{id:"199650",title:"Dr.",name:"Leyland",middleName:null,surname:"Fraser",slug:"leyland-fraser",fullName:"Leyland Fraser"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"79344",title:"Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and Its Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control",slug:"epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-and-its-diagnosis-prevention-and-control",totalDownloads:312,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Mastitis is an inflammation of mammary glands that is prevalent in dairy bovines. It causes a significant proportion of economic losses to the dairy farmers in India. Cattle and buffalo farming contribute significantly to the economy of the state. Various infectious agents such as bacteria, fungi, and algae may cause mastitis. Hence, it is essential to understand the etiological agents and predisposing factors that lead to mastitis in susceptible bovine populations in Madhya Pradesh state so that appropriate prevention and control strategies can be implemented. In this chapter, epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention, and control measures of mastitis in general and in India, the state of Madhya Pradesh, in particular, will be presented.",book:{id:"10589",slug:"mastitis-in-dairy-cattle-sheep-and-goats",title:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats",fullTitle:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats"},signatures:"S.D. Audarya, D. Chhabra, R. Sharda, R. Gangil, R. Sikrodia, J. Jogi and N. Shrivastava",authors:[{id:"291434",title:"Dr.",name:"N.",middleName:null,surname:"Shrivastav",slug:"n.-shrivastav",fullName:"N. Shrivastav"},{id:"317236",title:"Dr.",name:"S.D.",middleName:null,surname:"Audarya",slug:"s.d.-audarya",fullName:"S.D. Audarya"},{id:"344698",title:"Dr.",name:"D.",middleName:null,surname:"Chhabra",slug:"d.-chhabra",fullName:"D. Chhabra"},{id:"344699",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"Sharda",slug:"r.-sharda",fullName:"R. Sharda"},{id:"344700",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"Gangil",slug:"r.-gangil",fullName:"R. Gangil"},{id:"344702",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"Sikrodia",slug:"r.-sikrodia",fullName:"R. Sikrodia"},{id:"344703",title:"Dr.",name:"J.",middleName:null,surname:"Jogi",slug:"j.-jogi",fullName:"J. Jogi"}]},{id:"55696",title:"Estrus Cycle Monitoring in Wild Mammals: Challenges and Perspectives",slug:"estrus-cycle-monitoring-in-wild-mammals-challenges-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1886,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The knowledge of reproductive physiology is of paramount importance to guide reproductive management and to make possible future application of assisted reproduction techniques (ARTs) aiming ex situ conservation of wild mammals. Nevertheless, information on the basic reproductive aspects of wild mammals remain scarce, and appropriate management practices have not yet been developed for all the species. This chapter discusses the methods most currently used for reproductive monitoring in wild females. Additionally, the difficulties regarding their use in different species and the possibilities of these procedures in captivity or in free-living mammals are addressed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Alexandre R. Silva, Nei Moreira, Alexsandra F. Pereira, Gislayne C.X.\nPeixoto, Keilla M. Maia, Lívia B. Campos and Alana A. Borges",authors:[{id:"90066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandre-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Silva"},{id:"177090",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexsandra Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"alexsandra-fernandes-pereira",fullName:"Alexsandra Fernandes Pereira"},{id:"177093",title:"MSc.",name:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto",slug:"gislayne-christianne-xavier-peixoto",fullName:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier Peixoto"},{id:"198314",title:"Prof.",name:"Nei",middleName:null,surname:"Moreira",slug:"nei-moreira",fullName:"Nei Moreira"},{id:"198315",title:"MSc.",name:"Keilla Moreira",middleName:null,surname:"Maia",slug:"keilla-moreira-maia",fullName:"Keilla Moreira Maia"},{id:"198316",title:"MSc.",name:"Lívia Batista",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"livia-batista-campos",fullName:"Lívia Batista Campos"},{id:"198317",title:"MSc.",name:"Alana Azevedo",middleName:null,surname:"Borges",slug:"alana-azevedo-borges",fullName:"Alana Azevedo Borges"}]},{id:"76529",title:"Mastitis in Small Ruminants",slug:"mastitis-in-small-ruminants",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Bacterial mastitis in small ruminants is a complex disease, with massive economic loss in dairy sheep/goat industry due to poor productivity. The current mastitis prevention strategy relies on culling of infected ewes or does and or the use of antimicrobial agents to eliminate the bacterial infection. This has a potential risk for developing antibiotic resistant bacteria, posing human health risk from consumption of raw sheep or goat dairy products. Existing experimental and licensed vaccines on the market are ineffective against reducing the risk of mastitis in herds or flocks. Raising the needs for development of improved vaccines against mastitis for use in sheep and goats. This review examines, current understanding of the pathological processes and immunological responses against bacterial mastitis, using S. aureus as an example. By highlighting the protective defense mechanism induced in the udder against S. aureus mastitis. Based on evidence from published studies on pathological process and protective immune response mechanism, the need for improved vaccines for prevention of mastitis in small ruminant is highlighted and the development of a vaccine capable of enhancing immune response mechanism, that reduce the establishment of intramammary infection through induction of local IgA, IgG2 and Th17 immune responses is proposed.",book:{id:"10589",slug:"mastitis-in-dairy-cattle-sheep-and-goats",title:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats",fullTitle:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats"},signatures:"Christine T. Mwenge Kahinda",authors:[{id:"335924",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine T.",middleName:"Christine",surname:"Mwenge Kahinda",slug:"christine-t.-mwenge-kahinda",fullName:"Christine T. Mwenge Kahinda"}]},{id:"55491",title:"Mitigation of the Heat Stress Impact in Livestock Reproduction",slug:"mitigation-of-the-heat-stress-impact-in-livestock-reproduction",totalDownloads:4337,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Heat stress affects the fertility and reproductive livestock performance by compromising the physiology reproductive tract, through hormonal imbalance, decreased oocyte quality and poor semen quality, and decreased embryo development and survival. Heat stress decreases the secretion of luteinizing hormone and estradiol resulting in reduced length and intensity of estrus expression, increased incidence of anoestrus and silent heat in farm animals. Oocytes exposed to thermal stress lose its competence for fertilization and development into the blastocyst stage, which results in decreased fertility because of the production of poor quality oocytes and embryos. Furthermore, low progesterone secretion limits the endometrial functions, and subsequently embryo development. In addition, the increased secretion of endometrial prostaglandin F2 alpha during heat stress threatens the maintenance of pregnancy. In general, the percentage of conception rate was found to be reduced by 4.6% for each unit increase in temperature humidity index (THI) above 70, and heat stress during pregnancy further slows down the growth of the foetus and results in lower birth weight. In tropical and subtropical regions, during hot days, the testicular temperature may increase and impair both the spermatogenic cycle and semen quality, which culminates in decreased bull fertility. The effects of heat stress on livestock can be minimized via adapting suitable scientific strategies comprising physical modifications of the environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress. In addition, the summer infertility may be countered through advanced reproductive technologies involving hormonal treatments, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer, which may enhance the chances for establishing pregnancy in farm animals.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Govindan Krishnan, Madiajagan Bagath, Prathap Pragna,\nMallenahally Kusha Vidya, Joy Aleena, Payyanakkal Ravindranathan\nArchana, Veerasamy Sejian and Raghavendra Bhatta",authors:[{id:"89780",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Sejian",slug:"veerasamy-sejian",fullName:"Veerasamy Sejian"},{id:"177210",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghavendra",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatta",slug:"raghavendra-bhatta",fullName:"Raghavendra Bhatta"},{id:"177220",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Bagath",slug:"m-bagath",fullName:"M Bagath"},{id:"201967",title:"Dr.",name:"Govindan",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"govindan-krishnan",fullName:"Govindan Krishnan"},{id:"201968",title:"Ms.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Pr",slug:"archana-pr",fullName:"Archana Pr"},{id:"201969",title:"Ms.",name:"Pragna",middleName:null,surname:"Prathap",slug:"pragna-prathap",fullName:"Pragna Prathap"},{id:"201970",title:"Ms.",name:"Aleena",middleName:null,surname:"Joy",slug:"aleena-joy",fullName:"Aleena Joy"},{id:"201971",title:"Dr.",name:"Vidya",middleName:null,surname:"Mk",slug:"vidya-mk",fullName:"Vidya Mk"}]},{id:"79839",title:"Antimicrobial Usage for the Management of Mastitis in the USA: Impacts on Antimicrobial Resistance and Potential Alternative Approaches",slug:"antimicrobial-usage-for-the-management-of-mastitis-in-the-usa-impacts-on-antimicrobial-resistance-an",totalDownloads:176,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Mastitis is the most frequently diagnosed disease of dairy cattle responsible for the reduction in milk quantity and quality and major economic losses. Dairy farmers use antibiotics for the prevention and treatment of mastitis. Frequent antimicrobial usage (AMU) undeniably increased antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria from dairy farms. Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB) from dairy farms can spread to humans directly through contact with carrier animals or indirectly through the consumption of raw milk or undercooked meat from culled dairy cows. Indirect spread from dairy farms to humans can also be through dairy manure fertilized vegetables or run-off waters from dairy farms to the environment. The most frequently used antibiotics in dairy farms are medically important and high-priority classes of antibiotics. As a result, dairy farms are considered one of the potential reservoirs of ARB and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). To mitigate the rise of ARB in dairy farms, reducing AMU by adopting one or more of alternative disease control methods such as good herd health management, selective dry-cow therapy, probiotics, and others is critically important. This chapter is a concise review of the effects of antimicrobials usage to control mastitis in dairy cattle farms and its potential impact on human health.",book:{id:"10589",slug:"mastitis-in-dairy-cattle-sheep-and-goats",title:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats",fullTitle:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats"},signatures:"Benti D. Gelalcha, Getahun E. Agga and Oudessa Kerro Dego",authors:[{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego"},{id:"332974",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Benti D.",middleName:"Deresa",surname:"Gelalcha",slug:"benti-d.-gelalcha",fullName:"Benti D. Gelalcha"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"302",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:332,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:142,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA and her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. 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