ESSs parameters.
\r\n\tComputational fluid dynamics is composed of turbulence and modeling, turbulent heat transfer, fluid-solid interaction, chemical reactions and combustion, the finite volume method for unsteady flows, sports engineering problem and simulations - Aerodynamics, fluid dynamics, biomechanics, blood flow.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-248-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-247-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-321-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f8fd29e4b72dbfe632f47840b369b11",bookSignature:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10695.jpg",keywords:"Free Turbulent Flow, Discretisation Methods, Aerodynamics, Phase Flow, Bluff-Body, Complex Geometries, Drag Force, Flow Separation, Laminar Diffusion Flame, Non-Premixed Combustion, Fluid Dynamics, Biomechanics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus. His research interest lies in computational fluid dynamics, experimental heat transfer enhancement, solar energy, renewable energy, etc.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233630/images/system/233630.png",biography:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, India. Dr. Bhattacharyya completed his post-doctoral research at the Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Dr. Bhattacharyya completed his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India and with the collaboration of Duesseldorf University of Applied Sciences, Germany. He received his Master’s degree from the Indian Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology, India (Formerly known as Bengal Engineering and Science University), on Heat-Power Engineering.\nHis research interest lies in computational fluid dynamics in fluid flow and heat transfer, specializing on laminar, turbulent, transition, steady, unsteady separated flows and convective heat transfer, experimental heat transfer enhancement, solar energy and renewable energy. He is the author and co-author of 107 papers in high ranked journals and prestigious conference proceedings. He has bagged the best paper award in a number of international conferences as well. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8679",title:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a994b17ac471c6d414d63c74a7ab74de",slug:"inverse-heat-conduction-and-heat-exchangers",bookSignature:"Suvanjan Bhattacharya, Mohammad Moghimi Ardekani, Ranjib Biswas and R. C. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51111",title:"Distributed Control and Management of Renewable Electric Energy Resources for Future Grid Requirements",doi:"10.5772/63378",slug:"distributed-control-and-management-of-renewable-electric-energy-resources-for-future-grid-requiremen",body:'\nDistribution networks are usually designed to provide electric power to the customers, while operating within the grid national electricity standards, in particular having voltage and loading in permissible range. The existing distribution network planning, design and operation usually does not consider the existence of renewable energy sources such as Photovoltaic (PV) and wind turbine [1, 2]. Future distribution networks with high utilisation of these resources will have to meet certain requirements addressing issues such as voltage and equipment loading [2, 3]. Therefore, new facilities, methods and strategies have to be envisaged for proper design, operation and planning of future distribution networks.
\nLiterature offers numerous methods and strategies that are designed to deal with the future network requirements. Resources such as renewable energy sources, storage systems and smart loads with practical and adequate control methods will play an important role in this regard. These resources can be utilised for various reasons by utilities and customers [4]. Among many utilisation of these facilities, network loading support is the main application addressed in this chapter. Due to the variety use of these resources, normally supervisory control could not deliver promising objectives due to the reliability and complexity issues [2]. On the other hand, neither local management approach could offer an efficient control strategy [2]. However, distributed control is found to be the most practical control strategy in application to future smart grid [1], particularly for distribution network [2]. This control approach has already been established for many applications as reported in recent research citations [3–7]. To have a distributed management of resources, the smart network usually includes two layers. The first layer as physical layer consist of grid lines and energy resources, while the second layer as the cyber layer is added to provide information exchange between the nodes. Distributed control strategy uses the immediate neighbouring communication information to control and manage energy resources.
\nThe main aim of this book chapter is to provide some of the concepts and formulations used for distributed control, and to illustrate an application with results to support the method. In this approach, energy storage system (ESS) is considered as the promising facility for customers and utilities that can be used for different applications. Loading issue is considered as one of the network requirement which need to be dealt with using ESSs in distribution network. For all practical purposes, utility and/or customer are considered as the owner of storage facilities.
\nSection 2 discusses the main technical issues and influencing factors relating to the future state of distribution network operation with renewable energy resources. Distributed control management and its application in distribution network are put in perspective in Section 3. Distributed management of energy resources based on specific network requirement is discussed in Section 4. A case study using the distributed control strategy with detailed results is provided in Section 5. Finally, Section 6 concludes this chapter with related discussions and conclusions.
\nRenewable energy sources will play an important role in future electricity grid. Depending on the geographical location and network structure, they may be in either off-grid or grid-connected situation. Despite the mode of network connection, economically speaking, the main purpose of these resources was to reduce electricity consumption cost. However, from the technical point of view, there is a difference between these two connecting modes. In off-grid mode, usually the main aim was to balance generation and load to avoid load outage, which is not desirable [8]. However, in grid-connected mode, as grid support is available, the unbalancing can be tolerated to some allowable extend. However, significant unbalancing between generation and load can induce power quality issues. To better understand these issues, Figure 1 shows a single-line diagram of distribution network in which all customers’ load and generation in each phase are modelled by single generation and load. Based on this model, different issues associated by renewable energy sources can be addressed as follow:
\nDistribution network equivalent, with renewable energy sources.
Voltage rise due to high penetration of renewable energy sources is the main power quality issue in future distribution network. In high generation mode, as the load is usually in off-peak mode, there is an unbalancing between generation and load. This unbalancing can cause voltages to rise. To see this impact, let us have a close look at Figure 1. Based on this figure, the voltages magnitude for end of each phase can be written as [9]:
\nwhere
\nPga, Pgb and Pgc are the injected active power in each phase,
Pla, Plb and Plc are the consumed active power in each phase,
Qla, Qlb and Qlc are the reactive power in each phase,
Ra, Rb and Rc are the line resistance of each phase,
Xa, Xb and Xc are the line reactance of each phase.
It can be seen that when a phase source active power is more than the load in that phase, the phase voltage will increase. If this unbalancing is considerably high, a stationary limit can be violated which is not acceptable by regulations and standards.
\nVoltage unbalancing is happening when there are differences between the three phase voltage magnitudes and/or angles (not separated by 120°). Based on Eqs. (1)–(3), as the loading and generation of a phase changes with respect to other phases, the magnitudes or angles of Va, Vb and Vc will be unbalanced. Therefore, it can be seen that the voltage unbalancing is a common power quality issue in distribution network. The voltage unbalancing is usually measured by voltage unbalancing factor (VUF) as in Eq. (4) [10].
\nwhere V− and V+ are the negative and positive sequence voltage components which can be calculated as follow:
\nwhere
\nBased on national standards, usually up to a maximum VUF of 2% is accepted in distribution network [11].
\nAs most renewable energy sources are connected through power electronic converter to the distribution network, they usually inject harmonics to the network. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is usually considered as the harmonic index which normally need to be <5% based on standards [12].
\nFrequency deviation can also result from unbalancing between load and generation. During peak generation period, when generation is more than load, the frequency may rise. Additionally, during peak load period, the load is higher than generation which may cause the frequency to drop.
\nBased on Figure 1, the load of each phase and power transformer can be written as follows:
\nwhere Sa, Sb and Sc are the apparent power of each phase and S is the apparent power of power transformer.
\nBased on these equations, it can be seen that the loading of lines and power transformer depends on the difference between generation and load in each phase. If this difference is high, it can violate some of the facilities’ thermal limit.
\nIn this chapter, this issue is considered as one of the requirements for distribution network operation, which need to be dealt with using available resources in the network.
\nFuture distribution networks will include a lot of controllable resources which can be used and coordinated based on different network requirements. This section lists some of the resources, which can be utilised based on network requirements.
\nInjecting surplus active power to the grid by renewable energy source is the main cause of power quality issues. Therefore, one way to deal with these issues is to control the injecting power. For instance, Refs. [7, 9, 13] use active power curtailment as a robust control approach to deal with voltage rise issue.
\nAnother resource which can be used to deal with power quality issues in distribution network is reactive power contribution of renewable energy sources. This strategy is usually used to deal with voltage fluctuation in distribution network. References [14–16] use reactive power control in distribution network to deal with voltage rise.
\nTo deal with the unbalance between load and generation, smart controllable loads such as air-conditioner or washing machine are suitable options which can be utilised to deal with power quality issues as well [17]. These resources can be used for both voltage and loading support in network. References [13, 16] use these resources to prevent overvoltages in distribution network.
\nESS has an important role in developing future smart grid [18] which appears in several types such as flywheel, super capacitor, compressed gas and battery. Battery is the most popular ESS in distribution network which can be considered as the suitable option for customers or utilities application based on network requirements. This facility can be charged during high generation period, while discharging during peak load period. Therefore, it can easily reduce the unbalancing between generation and loading, while dealing with network issues.
\nBased on the versatility and vital role of batteries in future distribution grids, storage has been included in this chapter as part of the strategy and application for load and renewable energy management, while considering its role in resolving network quality issues for future distribution systems.
\nDistributed control is an effective management approach for future smart grids with distributed resources. This approach has been applied in various literatures in recent years. There are two comprehensive review papers which study the application of distributed control in power systems. Reference [19] presented different types of distributed multi-agent systems and their applications in power systems. In Ref. [20], the applications of distributed control in micro-grids are studied which includes; primary control, voltage coordination, economic dispatch and frequency control. In this study, distributed control are categorised based on problem formulisation into three main categories [20]:
\nPredictive control-based approach,
Agent-based approach,
Consensus-based approach.
Consensus-based approach is a new distributed control approach which aims to have an equal proportionality-based converging sate for the resources. In Ref. [2], this approach is used to deal with network loading, while coordinating storage units in a fair way. Reference [7] adapted an overvoltage control approach based on this algorithm which uses fair battery charging to prevent voltage rise in low voltage network.
\nConsensus algorithm also applied in recent studies to provide optimal utilisation of resources as well. In [8], a new distributed updating approach is used to utilise batteries in an efficient way in micro-grid. A new distributed optimal control approach is proposed in [21] which manages multiple generators based on consensus algorithm. It can be seen that the consensus-based distributed approach has attracted a lot of studies in recent years. This book chapter includes the use of this algorithm as the backbone of distributed management of resources in distribution network. The model for this algorithm is as follow:
\nIn consensus algorithm, network is modelled with graph G having N vertices. The graph is shown by G(V, E) where V is the set of vertices and E is the set of edges. For this graph,
In consensus algorithm, a parameter named as information state is defined for each resource. Based on this algorithm, the information state of each resource is a function of information state of its neighbours which can be shown as in Eq. (11) [6].
\nwhere
\nAs noted before, distributed management approach has been applied in variety of power system applications. In this section, the aim was to apply distributed control approach for specific application, which is distributed loading management in distribution network. Battery as an ESS with its associated inverter is considered as the main resource which can be used for this purpose.
\nIf there is only one single ESS in distribution network, there is no need to apply any coordination strategy. However, future distribution network may include high number of ESSs; therefore, a coordination strategy is needed to coordinate these units based on specific objective function.
\nThe proposed control structure for distribution network which coordinates multiple ESSs is shown in Figure 2. To manage multiple ESSs in a distributed way, a communication link is assumed between neighbouring ESSs. Additionally, there is a control agent named as the leader which monitors network loading and initiates the ESS coordination whenever it is needed.
\nDistributed control structure for distribution network.
To coordinate the ESSs for loading management, three operating control modes are considered for the network. These network control modes are shown in Figure 3, which there are four limits that determine the network control modes. If the network loading is within desirable range (Sdgen. and Sdcons.), the network is in normal condition. Therefore, there is no need for ESSs’ coordination based on network requirements and they can operate based on other objectives. If network loading violates Scgen., the network goes to the high generation control mode. In this control mode, ESSs should be coordinated to charge and reduce the network loading. Additionally, if the network loading violates Sccons., the network goes to the high consumption mode which means that the ESSs should be coordinated to discharge and reduce the network loading.
\nNetwork control modes based on predefined limits.
Based on consensus algorithm in this section, two distributed management approaches are proposed to coordinate multiple ESSs for loading management. Each distributed approach follows a specific objective function.
\nTo find these objective functions, the ESS’s owner interest is considered. If the ESS owners are customers, their preference is assumed to have a fair contribution in loading management. In other words, all customers prefer to have a fair sharing in loading management. However, for utility owned EES, the aims normally were to maximise the ESSs’ utilisation of these devices. Therefore, it can be said that a proper coordination should be considered for each of these objectives. The details of the two distributed control approaches which consider each of these objectives to coordinate multiple ESSs are as follow:
\nIn this case, the objective function includes two main parts [2]. To keep the network loading within acceptable range, the first objective was defined by keeping the network loading between critical limits:
\nAdditionally, to have a fair sharing among multiple ESSs, the second objective was defined by having the following ratio
\nwhere
\nTo achieve the noted objectives, the control structure of the leader, shown in Figure 4, will be used. In other words, as soon as the critical limits for generation or consumption are violated, the leader starts to update its information state as given in Eqs. (16) and (17).
\nLeader control structure for ESS fair contribution.
Once the leader initiates the control, the ESSs will update their information state based on consensus algorithm, as given in Eq. (18).
\nBased on the calculated ESS state information, the reference for ESS active power will be updated as in Eq. (19).
\nThe flowchart of this distributed loading control management is shown in Figure 5.
\nDistributed control structure for fair sharing of multiple ESSs.
In this case, the interest of utility is considered in managing multiple ESSs. In other words, the aim was to use ESSs for loading management while the utilisation rate and efficiency of the batteries are maximised. To achieve such an objective, the cost function given in Eq. (20) is used for each storage unit [22].
\nwhere
\nai and bi are the efficiency coefficient of ESS.
\nIn this case, the goal was to maximise this cost function while reduce loading to less than the critical limits. For instance, in high generation control mode, the cost function can be written as follows:
\nNote that the same cost function can be used for high loading control mode, and only the equality constraint will change.
\nBased on central optimisation approach, the optimal point of incremental cost is as follows
\nTo converge the optimal point and maximise cost function in Eq. (21), the iterative updating approach of the following equations is used [8]:
\nIf this iterative process is initiated by leader using Eqs. (29) and (30) when the critical limit is violated;
\nBased on Ref. [8], the Eqs. (23) and (24) converge to the following:
\nTherefore, it can be seen that the incremental cost converge to the noted optimal point, as given in Eq. (33)
\nThe flowchart of this distributed loading control management approach is shown in Figure 6.
\nDistributed control structure for optimal utilisation of multiple ESSs.
In this section, IEEE 33-bus distribution system is used to assess the performance of the distributed loading management approaches [23]. The details of ESSs are shown in Table 1. All the buses assumed to have their peak generation the same as their peak load. The aim of this section was to coordinate multiple ESSs to manage the loading of this network within −3000 to 3000 kVA as given in Table 2. To assess the performance of this approach in different network modes, the loading and generation profiles for each bus given in Figure 7 are considered. The profiles are based on maximum loading and generation at each bus. MATLAB platform is used to implement the proposed approaches in the following case studies.
\nESS | \n1 | \n2 | \n3 | \n4 | \n5 | \n6 | \n7 | \n8 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Location (bus) | \n2 | \n8 | \n12 | \n15 | \n20 | \n27 | \n30 | \n33 | \n
Rating (kW) | \n150 | \n160 | \n120 | \n180 | \n100 | \n140 | \n150 | \n140 | \n
ai | \n.91 | \n.9 | \n.89 | \n.9 | \n.9 | \n.92 | \n.9 | \n.9 | \n
bi | \n.09 | \n.05 | \n.12 | \n.12 | \n.13 | \n.09 | \n.08 | \n.1 | \n
ESSs parameters.
Parameter | \nPower (kVA) | \n
---|---|
Spcons. | \n3200 | \n
Sccons. | \n3000 | \n
Sdcons. | \n2800 | \n
Sdgen. | \n−2800 | \n
Scgen. | \n−3000 | \n
Spgen. | \n−3200 | \n
Loading limits in the proposed approach.
Load and generation profiles at each bus.
The aim of this case study was to coordinate multiple ESSs in a fair way, while managing the network loading. The results for distributed loading management using this approach are shown in Figure 8. As it can be seen, the system goes to the high generation control mode at t = 50 s and multiple ESSs reduce the power injected to the upper level grid <Scgen.. The contribution of each ESS at steady state is listed in Table 3, which follows the fair sharing objective as follow:\n
The same scenario is happening at t = 500 s in which the ESSs goes to the high consumption control mode, with ESS contribution for loading management in a fair way as given in following:\n
Results for fair sharing among ESSs (a) network loading, (b) ESS contribution, (c) incremental cost.
ESS | \n1 | \n2 | \n3 | \n4 | \n5 | \n6 | \n7 | \n8 | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–50 s | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
50–250 s | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
50–250 s | \n−51.631 | \n−55.073 | \n−41.304 | \n−61.957 | \n−34.420 | \n−48.188 | \n−51.631 | \n−48.188 | \n−392.36 | \n
250–500 s | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
500–650 s | \n23.698 | \n25.278 | \n18.958 | \n28.437 | \n15.798 | \n22.118 | \n23.698 | \n22.118 | \n157.93 | \n
650–800 s | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
ESSs power contributions for loading management.
Results for optimal ESSs coordination, (a) network loading, (b) ESS contribution, (c) incremental cost.
In this case, the aim was to coordinate multiple ESSs, while optimising their utilisation rate and maximise the cost function in Eq. (21). The results for this case are shown in Figure 9. The ESSs’ contributions for each time step are listed in Table 4. It can be seen that the ESSs with lower cost coefficients contribute more in loading management. Additionally, the total ESSs contribution in each time step is less than the previous case which shows the advantage in promising features of this optimal approach.
\nESS | \n1 | \n2 | \n3 | \n4 | \n5 | \n6 | \n7 | \n8 | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–50 s | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
50–250 s | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
50–250 s | \n−44.12 | \n−69.41 | \n−24.75 | \n−28.92 | \n−26.70 | \n−49.67 | \n−43.38 | \n−34.70 | \n−321.65 | \n
250–500 s | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
500–650 s | \n22.96 | \n31.33 | \n8.89 | \n13.05 | \n12.05 | \n28.52 | \n19.58 | \n15.67 | \n152.05 | \n
650–800 s | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
ESSs power contributions for loading management.
Finally, in this case, the impact of communication drop is studied on the distributed loading management approaches. To model this impact, it is assumed that the communication links between ESS 4 and 5 are unavailable during t = 450–600 s as given in Eq. (34).\n
The results for both scenarios are provided as follow. For the first case in which ESSs are coordinate in a fair way as shown in Figure 10, it can be seen that as soon as the loading passes the critical limit, ESSs 1, 2, 3 and 4 start to coordinate and reduce the loading to the allowable range. However, ESSs 5, 6, 7 and 8 cannot be coordinated due to the communication loss between ESSs 4 and 5. The ratio of contribution of each ESS is as follow:\n
As soon as the communication link is available at t = 600 s, ESSs 5, 6, 7 and 8 will start to contribute to loading management and their contribution converge to 0.251. So, comparing with the case with no communication drop, it can be seen that the communication drop causes this approach to use more resources than required (contributing ratio of 0.251 instead of 0.158). However, the robustness of the approach to keep the loading within the allowable range has still been achieved.
\nImpact of communication drop on fair sharing among ESSs (a) network loading, (b) ESS contribution, (c) incremental cost.
In the last case, the impact of communication drop was studied on the second approach. The same scenario is simulated for this case as well. The results are provided in Figure 11. Again, as there is no communication between ESS 4 and 5, only ESS 1, 2, 3 and 4 contributes in loading management. As soon as communication drop failure is repaired, ESSs 5, 6, 7 and 8 start to contribute in loading management. As the results show, all the ESSs have the same contribution compared with no communication drop case. Therefore, it can be said that communication drop may limit the resources while optimal operation is achieved all the time, in this case.
\nImpact of communication drop on optimal ESSs coordination, (a) network loading, (b) ESS contribution, (c) incremental cost.
Future distribution networks with high utilisation of renewable energy resources can encounter network operating problems. Network voltage and loading issues are usually listed as the main network concerns which need to be addressed properly. As discussed and shown in this chapter, utilities and/or customers’ storage resources can be used to resolve these issues. As part of this approach, distributed control method with consensus algorithm was presented in this book chapter. Application and results were also provided to support this technique over the existing methods, as a promising alternative to achieve accurate and efficient solution. Finally, the application of distributed control management strategy that coordinates multiple ESSs to deal with distribution network overloading was discussed in details. In this approach, both utility and customer interests were considered as part of a robust technique for loading management approach in future distribution network.
\nRolefulness is a psychological concept defined as “the continuous sense of role satisfaction we have in our daily lives” (p.258) [1]. Our roles in our respective social lives have become an important subject of psychological research. Studies have focused on specific social roles such as parenting, employment positions, and professions such as teaching and nursing. However, rolefulness does not depend on specific roles such as being parents and professionals; rather, it represents a general sense of role satisfaction and includes two subfactors: “social rolefulness” and “internal rolefulness.” Social rolefulness refers to one’s role satisfaction based on their social experiences such as interpersonal relationships. Meanwhile, internal rolefulness is the role satisfaction that a person forms by internalizing social rolefulness, and it includes identity and confidence. Rolefulness is a new psychological concept, and it is useful for promoting our interpersonal relationships and mental health.
\nFirst, we introduce the aspects of rolefulness; the next section discusses the theoretical background and developmental process. Second, we present a statistical study of the relation between rolefulness and maladjustment. We use Japanese adolescents’ data to investigate causal relations among rolefulness, social competence, and maladjustment. Then, we provide an example of how rolefulness is applied in education and art therapy. We conducted a group art expression workshop and examined its effect through the lens of rolefulness. Finally, we discuss the future application of rolefulness in our social lives and social science research.
\nRolefulness is a new psychological concept which includes both social and internal aspects. Therefore, it is necessary to develop the scale with validity to measure it. We developed the rolefulness scale and confirmed its validity [1] and this section shows the process of developing a rolefulness scale. Our sense of role affects our psychological state. Reid and Hardy [2] showed the relation between role quality and well-being, and Matud, Hernández, and Marrero [3] found that the most relevant indicator of well-being is one’s satisfaction with their work roles. At the same time, role confusion and the lack of role satisfaction can be heavy stressors; Akgunduz [4] showed that role ambiguity and role conflict are negatively associated with job performance.
\nThese research findings demonstrate the importance of one’s sense of role satisfaction in their mental health and interpersonal relationships. Some studies have focused on an individual’s role satisfaction in specific situations such as the nursing profession [5] or generational contexts [6]. While these findings are clearly important, it would also help to focus on a person’s general role satisfaction, which does not depend on particular situations. People assume several roles in their daily lives, such as doing housework, taking care of children, participating in volunteer activities, and sharing interests or hobbies with others, which may increase their general role satisfaction. For children, going to school and playing, collaborating, and discussing with classmates are good opportunities to enhance their role satisfaction. Based on these viewpoints, we developed the concept of “rolefulness,” which refers to an individual’s continuous sense of role satisfaction in their daily lives. The main purpose of this study is to develop a scale to measure rolefulness and confirm its validity.
\nWe hypothesized two rolefulness subfactors: “social rolefulness” and “internal rolefulness.” Social rolefulness is the role satisfaction that an individual develops through their interpersonal relationships and social activities in their daily lives. Meanwhile, internal rolefulness refers to one’s personality, identity, and confidence, and it is formed by internalizing one’s social rolefulness.
\nOur behavior and cognition are affected by both the environment and our beliefs, and the effect of the outer and inner worlds has become another important research topic in psychology. For example, Riesman [7] introduced the concept of “inner-directed” and “other-directed” personalities. Inner-directed personality is guided by one’s own conscience and values rather than their external environment while other-directed personality tends to be guided by one’s values derived from external influences. The theory of locus of control [8] also provides us useful information; it includes “external” and “internal” groups. The former believes that their behavior and decisions are controlled by environmental factors while the latter believes that they can exercise such control themselves. This shows that rolefulness is also influenced by one’s external environment and inner beliefs. These ideas are applied in both social rolefulness and internal rolefulness.
\nAnother core psychological concept regarding rolefulness is the “Ibasho” theory. Ibasho is a Japanese word that means “whereabouts and a place of my own” [9, 10]. In adolescent psychology, an individual’s sense of acceptance by others is a key concept for both communication and their ability to foster appropriate relationships [9, 10]. In psychology, besides the original literal meaning of the term, one’s “sense of Ibasho” is used to mean their sense of being accepted by others. The sense of Ibasho scale, developed by Norisada [11], includes “the sense of authenticity,” “the sense of perceived acceptance,” “the sense of relief,” and “the sense of role” as subfactors. As this evidence shows, one’s sense of role is an important component of interpersonal relationships. To develop the rolefulness scale, we examine its items with reference to these studies.
\nThe participants were 1029 Japanese high school students (484 men and 545 women, 15-18 year olds). After removing erroneous information, a total of 960 data points were analyzed.
\nThe “social rolefulness” and “internal rolefulness” subfactors were hypothesized, and based on previous studies, five items were listed for each [9, 11]. The first version of the scale includes 10 total items and is rated on a five-point scale from 1 (disagree) to 5 (agree). Social rolefulness includes 5 items of “I am useful in society.,” “I can apply my strong point for society.,” “My role is necessary for other people.,” “I have a role in the group I belong to.,” and “I carry out a social role.” Internal rolefulness also includes 5 items of “I realize my individuality by my role.,” “I am satisfied with my role.,” “I gain confidence because of my role.,” “My role brings out my individuality.,” and “I have a role that is only mine.”
\nFirst, we investigated the rolefulness scale’s factor structure using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Then, we examined the validity of the structure using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and evaluated the scale’s reliability using Cronbach’s alpha.
\nThe EFA results showed that the two-factor structure is adequate. Factor loading was between 0.699 and 0.851 for social rolefulness and between 0.432 and 0.885 for internal rolefulness. After removing the items with the lowest and highest loading in each factor, we analyzed seven items in the CFA.
\nCFA then confirmed the scale’s factor structure. In this model, social rolefulness includes four items, and internal rolefulness includes three (Figure 1). Fit indexes of the model were acceptable (CFI = 0.994, RMSEA = 0.045), and all paths for each item were significant (p < 0.01). The Cronbach’s alpha values were 0.88 for social rolefulness and 0.90 for internal rolefulness.
\nFactor structure of the rolefulness scale.
Besides confirming the subscales’ factor structure, the results also showed that social and internal rolefulness correlate positively with each other.
\nSocial rolefulness includes items such as “My role is necessary for other people” or “I am useful in society” while internal rolefulness includes “I realize my individuality by my role” or “I gain confidence because of my role.” These items show that social rolefulness pertains to our interpersonal relationships and our connection with the society we belong to. However, while social rolefulness is based on the social context, internal rolefulness consists of more authentic and personal aspects such as self-identity and confidence.
\nAlthough the previous section confirmed the factor validity of the rolefulness scale, it will need to be verified from several viewpoints for future application. The main purpose of this study is to confirm the scale’s criterion-related validity, in which the scale’s validity is compared with those of other relevant scales, and investigate correlations among rolefulness and relevant psychological factors.
\nSocial rolefulness is theoretically correlated with our social experiences; hence, interpersonal communication is especially important. We need to develop social and communication skills to establish and maintain good relationships with others. Therefore, we hypothesize that people with satisfactory social and communication skills can achieve adequate social rolefulness. In contrast, we form internal rolefulness based on social rolefulness, and it includes confidence and identity. Self-esteem is defined as one’s belief and confidence in their own ability and value and is developed as a result of positive relationships with others. For instance, the experience of being accepted or valued by others facilitates self-esteem. According to Erikson’s [12, 13] development theory, the establishment of one’s identity is the main theme in adolescence. In this period, interpersonal relationships become more complex than those in earlier developmental stages and cause role confusion. In addition, the internal rolefulness scale we developed includes the item “I realize my individuality by my role.” Therefore, the developmental process of identity and rolefulness affect each other, and significant correlations are expected among rolefulness, self-esteem, and identity. From the above, we investigate the correlation among rolefulness, social and communication skills, self-esteem, and identity to confirm the validity of the rolefulness scale.
\nThe data correction for the 1029 Japanese high school students (484 men and 545 women) was the same as that of the previous section; hence, 960 complete data points were analyzed. We compared communication skills, social skills, self-esteem, and identity. We used the lack of both the communication factor (α = .85) and problem-solving skill factor (α = .85) as the criteria for communication skills and social skills, respectively. Social skills include several aspects and problem-solving skill is one of the core factors of it. Therefore we adopted the problem-solving skill factor as an index of social skills. Both factors were included in the school maladaptive process scale [14]. For self-esteem, four items (α = .87) were selected from KINDLE [15, 16]. We then used the psychosocial identity factor (α = .83) of the Multidimensional Ego Identity Scale [17] as the identity criterion.
\nWe found adequate positive correlations with self-esteem (social: r = 0.413, internal: r = 0.398) and psychosocial identity (social: r = 0.399, internal: r = 0.383). The lack of communication skills (social: r = 0.318, internal: r = 0.243) and problem-solving skills (social: r = 0.437, internal: r = 0.345) was more negatively correlated with social rolefulness than with internal rolefulness. Table 1 shows the correlations among the rolefulness scale and other scales.
\n\n | Lack of communication | \nLack of problem-solving | \nSelf-esteem | \nIdentity | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Social | \n−0.318\n**\n\n | \n−0.437\n**\n\n | \n0.413\n**\n\n | \n0.399\n**\n\n | \n
Internal | \n−0.243\n**\n\n | \n−0.345\n**\n\n | \n0.398\n**\n\n | \n0.383\n**\n\n | \n
Correlation among the rolefulness scale and other scales.
\np < .01.
Both social and communication skills are significantly correlated with rolefulness. Also, the connection between these skills and social rolefulness is stronger than that between them and internal rolefulness. People develop social rolefulness through their interpersonal communication and social and communication skills; therefore, those who have these skills are also satisfied with their social rolefulness. Social and communication skills affect our behaviors and social attitudes. In contrast, self-esteem and identity are deeply connected with the deeper part of our mind, such as personality and motivation, and these psychological aspects take a long time to form. Internal rolefulness is also an inner aspect and needs a certain amount of time to develop. These points are common among self-esteem, identity, and internal rolefulness as the significant correlations show. This study’s results show interrelationships but not necessarily prove causal relations among these factors. Therefore, future studies may benefit from examining such causal relations.
\nThis section investigates the relation between rolefulness and school maladjustment with reference to Suzuki and Kato [18]. While many studies have been conducted on school maladjustment, they have found it difficult to arrive at a consensus on the concept of adjustment [19].
\nHarada and Takemoto [20] proposed two aspects of adjustment. One considers adjustment as a static state of harmony between internal motivation and the environment; the other sees internal motivation and the environment as engaged in a dynamic process. Majority of the previous studies are based on the former [21] while a few are based on the latter.
\nSuzuki and Morita [14] studied the dynamic process of school maladjustment and revealed that the lack of social competence reduced one’s sense of being accepted by others and promoted school maladjustment. McAdams [22] argued that characteristic adaptation is described in the context of time, place, and social role, and it includes motivation, interest, defense mechanism, and coping strategy. These studies may have demonstrated the relation between maladjustment and social roles, but statistical evidence of such an association is yet to be presented.
\nRolefulness is significantly associated with social skills [1], and the lack of social skills is positively correlated with maladjustment [14]. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that a significant relation exists between rolefulness and maladjustment; therefore, this study intends to examine the causal relation between the two using longitudinal models.
\nThe survey participants were 293 Japanese high school students (130 males and 163 females). The survey was administered for a total of three times per participant. The first survey was held in October 2015 (T1), the second was in October 2016 (T2), and the third was in October 2017 (T3). Of the total participants, 282 (127 males and 155 females) took part in all three surveys, and their data were analyzed. We used the school maladaptive process scale for high school students [14] as a set of maladjustment criteria. It has three subscales: “maladjustment,” “lack of sense of acceptance,” and “lack of social competence.” Rolefulness was measured using the rolefulness scale [1], includes two subscales: “social rolefulness” and “internal rolefulness.” In addition, the model showed that lack of acceptance and maladjustment may negatively affect rolefulness. Therefore, the causal relation between rolefulness and maladjustment is not one way; rather, the two are interrelated.
\nWe used the cross-lagged effects model to analyze the causal relations among the T1, T2, and T3 data. Figure 2 showed the causal relations between rolefulness and maladjustment, and the total fit indexes were acceptable (CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.05). The covariances among exogenous variables and error variables were omitted from the figure.
\nCausal relations between rolefulness and maladjustment.
The path model shows that lack of social competence in T1 affected social rolefulness in T2 and then influenced maladjustment and lack of acceptance in T3. It also indicates that lack of acceptance in T1 affected maladjustment in T2 and then influenced social and internal rolefulness in T3. Suzuki and Morita [14] stated that a lack of social competence reduces one’s sense of acceptance and then affects maladjustment. This study’s results revealed that social rolefulness also mediated these maladjustment formation processes, which supports McAdams’s [22] assertion that characteristic adaptation should be described in the context of social roles. McAdams [22] also pointed out the importance of other factors such as motivation, defense mechanism, and coping strategy and the need to investigate the relation between rolefulness and maladjustment from these viewpoints.
\nRolefulness is also important in psychological support, such as psychotherapy and counseling. An individual who feels accepted by their counselor and who realizes their role in their daily life experiences positive effects in their mental health. In group art therapy, some expressive activities are conducted to facilitate interpersonal communication and role development. Here, we introduce the group session and examine its effect from the viewpoint of rolefulness based on Kato and Suzuki’s study [23].
\nGroup art therapy requires several materials that will be used as mediums of communication. An example here is Lego blocks, which are useful in individual art therapy and collaborative creation. Negative moods such as anxiety, fatigue, and confusion have been found to significantly decrease through block creation [24]. LeGoff [25] showed that collaborative block making increased the social skills of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
\nCollaborative Lego play also has positive effects on children and adolescents with ASD and promotes their socialization [26], especially social engagement, frequency of social initiations, responses, and positive social behaviors [27, 28]. Using Lego blocks helps learners strengthen their role-playing and storytelling skills as well as build their confidence and imagination [28].
\nKato, Hattori, Iwai, and Morita [29] designed a collaborative block creation task and examined its effect. They divided their participants into small groups of four or five, and the participants were asked to collaboratively express anything they desired using a variety of blocks and figures on a 50 cm green square base plate. The results showed that such a collaborative experience promoted their social skills and trust in others. Meanwhile, Kato, Asai, and Yoshie [30] reexamined the effects of collaborative work especially on interpersonal relationships and showed that one’s sense of role significantly increased through the work. However, their study did not examine role satisfaction aspects in detail. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to thoroughly investigate how collaborative block work affects rolefulness.
\nFifty-nine female Japanese university students (Mage = 20.7) participated in the survey, and they were randomly divided into small groups of three or four.
\nThe participants collaborated with their group members to express anything they wanted using Lego blocks and figures on the green plastic square plates (50 cm). They finished their creations in 60 minutes. They were also asked to answer the rolefulness scale before and after the collaborative work.
\nThe mean social rolefulness score was 3.11 (SD = 0.80) before the activity and 3.76 (SD = 0.69) after the activity. The mean internal rolefulness score was 3.59 (SD = 0.87) before the task and 3.97 (SD = 0.85) after the task. Both social (t(58) = 7.33, p < .01, d = 0.87) and internal rolefulness (t(58) = 3.39, p < .01, d = 0.44) increased significantly throughout the collaborative work. Table 2 shows the rolefulness scores before and after the activity.
\n\n | Before | \nAfter | \n\n | \n | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Mean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \n\nt\n | \n\nd\n | \n
Social rolefulness | \n3.11 | \n0.80 | \n3.76 | \n0.69 | \n7.33\n**\n\n | \n0.87 | \n
Internal rolefulness | \n3.59 | \n0.87 | \n3.97 | \n0.85 | \n3.39\n**\n\n | \n0.44 | \n
Rolefulness scores before and after the collaborative block task.
\np < .01.
Kato et al. [30] showed that a small-group collaborative block creation task facilitated individuals’ sense of role, and this study’s results provided further evidence of this. LeGoff [25] introduced a systematic approach to using blocks for ASD children. The participants were assigned specific roles of “builder,” “supplier,” and “engineer” beforehand and then participated in a collaborative block creation task. In the present study, however, specific roles were not designated and instead were divided naturally throughout the creation task. Oztop, Katsikopoulos, and Gummerum [31] suggested that the closeness of group members and their perspective taking are important in group creativity. Cojocnean [28] also showed the importance of individual differences in fostering the creativity of a group. Role taking and perspective taking are also significant facilitators of creativity in group settings. This study’s collaborative work facilitated verbal and nonverbal communication among group members and helped them notice one another’s way of thinking and feeling. This is why such an activity promotes perspective taking, role taking, and rolefulness.
\nThe effect size of the analysis showed a remarkable increase in social rolefulness. Social rolefulness is considered to undergo short-term changes more than internal rolefulness because it is associated with communication skills [1]. Participating in collaborative block work with others improved friendship building, social interactions, and social competence [32]. As these findings show, the main goal of social rolefulness improvement through collaborative work is to enrich social skills, social competence, and confidence.
\nThis chapter proposed the new psychological concept of rolefulness and confirmed its validity. The results of the studies here showed that social rolefulness is developed from realistic social experiences, which then form internal rolefulness. Rolefulness is deeply associated with mental health and decreases social maladjustment. We also adopted the collaborative brock creation activity and examined its effect. The result of the study showed that working together with others increased rolefulness. This section reviews the findings above and discusses how they can be applied in social relationships and future studies.
\nThe results showed that social rolefulness buffered the association between lack of social competence and sense of acceptance. One’s emotional connection with others and their sense of acceptance are important to improve their mental health. The recent rapid changes in nature and society have had an immense psychological impact on us. Disasters such as floods and earthquakes change our lives in a moment, and the social impact of COVID-19 is serious and long-lasting. Our social roles are also affected in these situations. All people may equally become victims of emergencies. Human service professionals such as medical workers help people with difficulties in peacetime, but they are not exempted from becoming victims of crises. In such situations, people may lose their social roles and experience role confusion, and the risk of the latter exists not only for medial professions but also for every worker. For example, office workers cannot visit their offices and communicate with colleagues as usual. Schools are also closed, and face-to-face education involving teachers and students is limited.
\nWe are now facing serious difficulties in fulfilling our social roles. In rolefulness theory, having social roles is clearly an important factor in developing rolefulness. However, another important insight is that rolefulness is defined as our continuous sense of role satisfaction in our daily lives; it is a general role satisfaction that does not depend on any particular profession or job position. We argue that all people can increase their rolefulness throughout their daily lives. Establishing good relationships with family and community is a core factor of psychological empowerment [33]. These fundamental relationships are also essential causal factors for increasing rolefulness. We live in our own communities and have relationships with family members, relatives, and friends, which provide many chances to increase rolefulness in our daily lives. This does not refer to special activities; rather, ordinary ones such as greetings, conversations, and expressing gratitude to familiar people are important in developing rolefulness. However the findings of the present chapter comes from limited generations and specific activity such as collaborative block creation, investigating the effect of fundamental relationships with others on rolefulness is necessary in future studies.
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