X, Y coordinates for CIE diagram for Gd2O3 phosphor.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5295",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology",title:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology is addressed to one of the fundamental molecular mechanisms - autophagy- evolutionarily adopted by cells for processing of unnecessary or malfunctioned constituents and shaping intracellular structures, adjusting them to environmental conditions, aging, disease, neoplasia, and damages over their life period. Particular attention is paid to autophagy-mediated barrier processes of selective sequestration and recycling of impaired organelles and degradation of invading microorganisms, that is, the processes sustaining intrinsic resistance to stress, tissue degeneration, toxic exposures, and infections. The presented topics encompass personal experience and visions of the chapter contributors and the editors; the book chapters include a broad analysis of literature on biology of autophagy.",isbn:"978-953-51-2727-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2726-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4152-5",doi:"10.5772/61911",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"autophagy-in-current-trends-in-cellular-physiology-and-pathology",numberOfPages:526,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"e16382542f283b73017bdb366aff66ad",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Marion Schneider",publishedDate:"November 10th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5295.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28318,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:44,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 7th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 26th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 24th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 24th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180960/images/system/180960.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gorbunov obtained his Ph.D. degree in Biology from the Russian Academy Sciences. Then, he was a recipient of the NRC NAS (http://sites.nationalacademies.org/pga/rap/) and the Department of Energy fellowship awards to pursue postdoctoral training in translational science at the University of Pittsburgh and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (https://www.emsl.pnl.gov/emslweb Washington, USA). His translational research area has encompassed molecular pathology of trauma and countermeasures against acute radiation injury that was explored at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (http://wrair-www.army.mil) and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. His research interests are the disease-specific mechanisms driving alterations and defense responses in organelles, cells and tissues constituting biological barriers. With this perspective, the main objectives of his research are : i) to define the key components and pathways which regulate adaptive homeostasis and sustain intrinsic resistance to the harmful exposures and mediate recovery from the produced stress, cytotoxicity and damage; and (ii) to employ the acquired knowledge for advancement of injury-specific therapeutic modalities.",institutionString:"Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"200898",title:"Dr.",name:"E. Marion",middleName:null,surname:"Schneider",slug:"e.-marion-schneider",fullName:"E. Marion Schneider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/200898/images/4957_n.jpg",biography:"Marion Schneider studied biology and medicine at Bonn University, Germany. Her postdoctoral fellowship was on T-cell deficiencies and stem cell transplantation at the University of Tubingen and HIV1 infection in macrophages and myeloid cells at the Institut Pasteur in Paris (1981–1985), where for\b the first time she got interested in vacuolization and prolonged viability as well as persistence of macrophages even under conditions of virus infections. Her next topics were hemophagocytic diseases (hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, HLH) and macrophage activation syndromes (MAS) related to immune dysfunction and chronic virus infections as well as severe sepsis and septic shock. When taking the professorship for Experimental Anesthesiology at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany, in 1998, she concentrated on biomarker analysis combining soluble and membrane-bound characteristics of major inflammatory diseases related to inflammasome activation. Inflammation appears to be a major risk factor for sepsis (systemic inflammation) and also for tumor manifestation. 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Among various groups of crystalline materials, oxide crystal is of incredible enthusiasm because of their exceptional optical properties, for example, long fluorescent lifetime, extensive Stokes shift, positive physical and chemical properties, and also great photochemical stability. A few of the rare earth components and their relating oxides are of exceedingly specialized significance and are utilized in basic parts. Rare earth oxides are this sort of cutting edge materials, which are generally utilized as elite luminescent gadgets, magnets, catalyst, and other useful materials, for example, electronic, attractive, atomic, optical, and synergist gadgets [1].
\nLanthanide hydroxides and oxides have effectively been examined as a result of their extensive variety of utilizations including dielectric materials for multilayered capacitors, luminescent lights and shows, strong laser gadgets, optoelectronic information stockpiles, and waveguides. Lanthanide-doped oxide nanoparticles are of unique interests as potential materials for a vital new class of nanophosphors. At the point when connected for a fluorescent naming, they present a few focal points, for example, sharp emanation spectra, long-life times, and obstruction against photobleaching in examination with ordinary natural fluorophores and quantum spots [1, 2].
\nGadolinium oxide (Gd2O3) is one of the good choices to researchers for luminescence behavior because it has high refractive index (2.3), high optical transparency, great thermal and chemical stability, high dielectric consistent, and low phonon energy among the group of oxide [3, 4, 5, 6]. Due to these positive properties, it displays various applications, for example, oxygen gas sensors, anode materials for sensors, optoelectronic gadgets, high definition TVs, medical imaging, high temperature superconducting materials, phenomenal UV light safeguard, photograph impetus, remedial impacts on malignant growth treatment-improving the impact of radiation on destructive cells while diminishing harm to typical cells, luminescent inks, paint and color sunscreen beautifiers, and luminescent materials [7].
\nGadolinium oxide-based nanophosphors are observed to guarantee hopefuls in the field of superior luminescent gadgets, catalysis, and other practical gadgets dependent on their great electronic, optical, and physico-concoction reactions emerging from 4f electrons. Of course, every one of these properties could be to a great extent affected by their synthetic synthesis, precious stone structure, shape, and dimensionality. In this way, high surface region nanomaterial, which has a bigger part of deformity locales per unit zone, ought to be of enthusiasm as adsorbents in ecological remediation forms. Cost of amalgamation, effortlessness, and morphological attributes of arranged phosphor are vital parameters for their utilization in the business applications as it is basic that a self-spreading ignition course offers the best decision for the blend of Gd2O3 powder [2, 7].
\nNanoparticles arranged by combustion synthesis have size of ~10 nm; such methodologies include the utilization of organic fuels such as urea, glycine, and so forth to start deterioration response of precursor metal salt at high temperature. The higher reactivity of littler size Gd2O3 particles is not simply because of the vast explicit surface region, yet in addition, because of the high concentration of low planned destinations and basic imperfections on their surface. Because of these benefits, these are sought after for different innovative applications including optoelectronic gadgets, top quality TVs, organic imaging and labeling, MRI, luminescent paints and inks for security codes, and so forth [8].
\nIn the present work, combustion synthesis has been used for preparation of gadolinium oxide by utilizing glycerin and urea as a fuel. The union and portrayal of gadolinium oxide through various strategies have pulled in impressive consideration. The fuel and metal nitrate get deteriorated and give combustible gases, for example, NH3, CO2, and NO2. At the point when the arrangement achieves a point of sudden ignition, it starts consuming and turns into a consuming strong. The ignition proceeds until the point that all the combustible substances have wore out, and it ends up being a free substance with voids and pores framed by the getting away gases amid the burning response. The entire procedure takes just a couple of minutes to yield powder of oxide. The auxiliary and optical portrayals of the incorporated powders were completed utilizing X-beam powder diffractometer. Checking electron microscopy (SEM) was utilized to show the development of crystallites, and TEM was utilized for molecular measure affirmation. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) range of Gd2O3 nanopowder was acquired by utilizing FTIR spectrophotometer (Model; MIR 8300TM) with KBr blend in the pellet shape. The Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic studies of the prepared phosphor were also carried out.
\nPhosphor was synthesized by combustion synthesis method. Gadolinium nitrate was used as precursor solution and urea or glycine as fuel. Aqueous solution of gadolinium nitrate was prepared by dissolving suitable amount of precursor into double distilled water followed by the addition of fuel. The mixture was kept in a magnetic stirrer at 60°C and stirred for 4 h, and a transparent gel was obtained. Gel was transferred into alumina crucible and kept in a preheated furnace at 600°C. The gel mixture undergoes dehydration followed by spontaneous combustion to form Gd2O3 powder [1, 2]. The resulting brownish powder was heated until a controlled explosion took place yielding a very fine, white powder. Since the reaction is so rapid, the crystal growth will be highly restrained (Figures 1 and 2).
\nFlow chart of synthesis of Gd2O3 with urea (reproduced from [1]).
Flow chart of synthesis of Gd2O3 with glycerin (reproduced from [2]).
The crystallinity of the phosphor was checked by X-ray diffraction estimation. The X-ray powder diffraction information was gathered by utilizing Bruker D8 Advanced X-ray diffractometer using Cu Kα radiation. The X-beams were created utilizing a fixed cylinder, and the wave length of X-beam was 0.154 nm. The X-rays were identified utilizing a quick checking indicator dependent on silicon strip technology (Bruker Lynx Eye finder). The surface morphology of the phosphors was detected by field emission electron microscopy (FESEM) JSM-7600F. Energy dispersive X-ray examination (EDX) was utilized for compositional investigation of the phosphor. Crystal size of arranged phosphor was determined by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) utilizing Philips CM-200. Raman spectra were recorded by Jobin-Yvon, France, Ramnor HG-2S Spectrometer with Ar-Laser with 4 W control having goals of 0.5 cm−1 and wave number exactness of 1 cm−1 over 5000 cm−1. XPS investigation was performed in a VG instrument with a CLAM2 analyzer and a twin Mg/Al anode. The weight pressure in the investigation chamber was roughly 9 × 10−10 mbar. The estimations were done with unmonochromated Al Kα photons (1486.6 eV). The intensity of the X-ray source was kept steady at 300 W.
\nThe XRD pattern of the Gd2O3 sample is shown in Figure 3. The diffraction patterns are well matched with standard JCPDS card no. 43-1015, indicating that the sample of Gd2O3 phosphor is in the pure monoclinic phase. The particle size was calculated by the Scherer formula [7]
\nXRD patterns of Gd2O3: (A) glycerin fuel and (B) urea fuel.
where D is the volume weighted crystallite size, k is the shape factor (0.9), λ is the wavelength of Cu Kα1 radiation, β\nhkl is the instrumental corrected integral breadth of the reflection (in radians) located at 2θ, and θ is the angle of reflection (in degrees) utilized to relate the crystallite size to the line broadening. The average crystallite size of Gd2O3 nanoparticles was found to be in the range of 8–10 nm for both the fuels. No impurity peaks or other possible phases of Gd2O3 were observed. Further, the strong and sharp diffraction peaks confirm the high crystallinity of the products.
\nThe scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was utilized as a focused ray of high energy electrons to produce an assortment of signs at the crystalline surface. The signs that get from electron and sample interaction uncover data about the example including outer morphology, elemental composition, and crystalline structure and introduction of materials making up the example. The SEM is likewise fit for performing examinations of chose point areas on the example; this methodology is particularly valuable in subjectively or semi-quantitatively deciding synthetic structures. Figure 4 demonstrates the SEM micrographs of the Gd2O3 arranged by combustion synthesis method utilizing urea and glycine as a fuel. The black and white SEM micrograph of the prepared powder indicates that all the particles are looking like agglomerated in homogeneously in different shapes/sizes of the order of nano range.
\nScanning electron microscope image of Gd2O3 phosphor: (A) glycerin fuel and (B) urea fuel.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is an imaging system whereby a light emission is engaged onto an example making a broadened form show up on a fluorescent screen or layer of photographic film or to be distinguished by a CCD camera. The main commonsense transmission electron magnifying instrument was built by Albert Prebus and Lames Hillier at the college of Toronto in 1938 utilizing ideas grew before by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska. The particle size of the system was determined by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). It is a phase differentiated imaging process because the image formed is due to the scattering of electron waves through a thin surface. In Figure 5, HRTEM micrograph demonstrates a Gd2O3 nanocrystal with a width of 8–10 nm seen all through the particle for both fuels [1, 2, 7].
\nTransmission electron microscope image of Gd2O3 phosphor: (A) glycerin fuel and (B) urea fuel.
Elemental investigation of the prepared samples is generally determined by EDX analysis. The spectrum shows the relation between the X-ray energy, which lies in between 10 and 20 eV, and the number of counts per channel by a plot between them in X and Y axes, respectively. An X-ray line is expanded by the reaction of the framework, delivering a Gaussian profile. Energy resolution is characterized as the full width of the crest at half maximum height (FWHM). In the spectrum of both the Gd2O3 samples, intense peak of Gd and O is present, which confirms the formation of Gd2O3 phosphor (Figure 6). For EDX analysis, the entire area of the black and white SEM micrographs was analyzed with EDX mapping and spectrum. The EDX mapping measurements were carried Gd2O3 powders to analyze the composition of the clustered particles [1, 2].
\nEDX spectra of Gd2O3 phosphor: (A) glycerin fuel and (B) urea fuel.
XPS is a surface compositional investigation system that can be utilized to examine the surface chemistry of a material in its as-formed state, or after some treatment, for instance: cracking, cutting, or scratching in air or UHV to uncover the bulk chemistry, ion beam etching to wipe off a few or the majority of the surface defilement or to purposefully uncover further layers of the sample inside and out profiling XPS, presentation to warmth to think about the progressions because of warming, introduction to receptive gases or arrangements, introduction to particle bar embed, and introduction to bright light. The synthetic organization of Gd2O3 nanoparticles was contemplated with X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), and the test information was broken down utilizing bend fitting. The Gd (3d) level comprised of a turn circle split with the Gd (3d)5/2 top is found at 1186.74 eV (Figure 7). The line shape and pinnacle positions are in great concurrence with prior distributed information on Gd2O3 powder squeezed into the sheet [1].
\nThe Gd (3d) XPS spectrum of Gd2O3 nanocrystals (reproduced from [1]).
To understand the molecular structure, Raman effect has been used, and the obtained Raman data can be compared with the infrared spectra. Raman spectroscopy is very informative to illustrate the structure of the phosphor. It is a nondestructive device to investigate vibrational, rotational, and other low recurrence modes in the frameworks under study. Figure 8 demonstrates the Raman spectra of Gd2O3 obtained by combustion synthesis method. The spectra were recorded at room temperature with an excitation wavelength of 633 nm He-Cd laser. An broad and intense Raman crest at 340 cm−1 along with less extreme peaks was seen at 375, 395, 424, and 451 cm−1. The outcomes are in great concurrence with the recently distributed Raman spectroscopic examinations on Gd2O3 nanoparticles [1].
\nRaman spectra of Gd2O3 nanoparticles (reproduced from [1]).
The emission spectra of Gd2O3 phosphor prepared with both the fuels have emission peaks at UV and visible region. A slight variation in peaks was observed in emission peaks for both phosphors. The emission spectra of Gd2O3 phosphor prepared by combustion synthesis method have peak at UV region in between 317 and 399 nm along with weak blue band around 450–494 nm, green around 515–586 nm, and red emission centered at 616–625 nm (Figure 9). 6P7/2 → 8S7/2 transition is responsible for the UV emission centered at 317 nm, whereas the visible emissions are due to transition from 6GJ state of Gd3+ [8]. The presence of oxygen vacancy and interstitials also contributes in modified photoluminescence response for oxide-based system [8]. Transition from 6GJ state of Gd3+ ion and 6GJ/6PJ transition is responsible for green and red emissions, respectively (Figure 10).
\nEmission spectra of pure Gd2O3 phosphor: (A) urea and (B) glycerin (reproduced from [7]).
Energy level diagram for emission transitions for pure Gd2O3 phosphor (reproduced from [7]).
To determine the specific color produced by the prepared Gd2O3 phosphor, CIE coordinate diagram was prepared by using MATLAB 7.10.0 (R2010a) software. The CIE coordinates for combustion synthesized Gd2O3 phosphor were found X = 0.207 and Y = 0.206, which resemble with blue color. Effect of annealing on the produced color was determined by the CIE coordinates of Gd2O3 phosphor annealed at 900°C. It was observed that the X and Y coordinates for the annealed sample have same values as freshly prepared samples, and only the change in intensity was observed after annealing (Figure 9) [9].
\nThe TL response of the Gd2O3 phosphor was recorded under 254 nm UV exposure and 60Co gamma exposure for the phosphors prepared by both urea and glycine fuel. The TL glow curve of phosphors prepared with both the fuels was recorded under 254 nm UV exposure immediately after 5 min exposure time at 6 Cs−1 heating rate. For the combustion synthesized phosphor, the TL glow peak was found at 103°C and 111°C for urea and glycine fuels, respectively. For 1 kGy gamma exposure at 6 Cs−1 heating rate, the TL glow peak was found at 232°C and 221°C (Figure 11) for urea and glycine fueled phosphors, respectively [10].
\nTL glow curve for 6 Cs−1 heating rate and 10 min UV exposure with (A) urea fuel and (B) glycerin fuel. TL glow curve for 6°Cs−1 heating rate and 1 kGy gamma exposure (C) urea fuel and (D) glycerin fuel (Reproduced from [8]).
\n | \n | Monoclinic | \n|
---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | Urea | \nGlycerin | \n
For 275 nm | \nX | \n0.207 | \n0.207 | \n
Y | \n0.206 | \n0.206 | \n
X, Y coordinates for CIE diagram for Gd2O3 phosphor.
Chen’s peak shape method was used to determine all the kinetic parameters including order of kinetic, activation energy, shape factor, and so on [4, 5, 6, 11] (Table 1). The activation energy for TL glow curve for combustion synthesized both phosphors has 0.66 eV for UV exposure and 0.71 and 0.72 eV for gamma exposure. Due to gamma exposure, deeper traps were formed, which are responsible for the higher activation energy value. The phosphor follows second-order kinetics as the obtained shape factor value for UV exposure and gamma exposure was in the range of 0.49–0.52 and 0.50–0.54, respectively, which is near to 0.52 for second-order kinetics (Table 2).
\nExposure | \nFuel | \nμg\n | \nE (eV) | \nS (s−1) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
UV (254 nm) | \nUrea | \n0.49 | \n0.66 | \n1.4 × 1010\n | \n
Glycerin | \n0.52 | \n0.66 | \n1.5 × 1010\n | \n|
Gamma (1kGy) | \nUrea | \n0.54 | \n0.71 | \n9.5 × 109\n | \n
Glycerin | \n0.50 | \n0.72 | \n9.7 × 109\n | \n
Trapping parameters for optimized TL glow curve.
The study confirms that the combustion synthesis method is suitable for large-scale production of the phosphor in minimum time. Structural characterization shows that the phosphors have monoclinic structure with particle size in the range of 8–12 nm. Phosphor synthesized by this method has homogenous particle size distribution. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) show the Gd (3d) level consists of a spin orbit split doublet, with the Gd (3d)5/2 peak is found at 1186.74 eV. Raman spectra was recorded with excitation of 633 nm wavelength, we found a broad and intense Raman peak at 340 cm−1 along with less intense peaks were observed at 375, 395, 424 and 451 cm−1. The emission spectra have peaks in all UV and visible regions. So that, the phosphor may behave as white light emitting phosphor, which was further confirmed by its CIE coordinates. The CIE coordinates for combustion synthesized Gd2O3 phosphor have values X = 0.207 and Y = 0.206, and for the glycine synthesized Gd2O3 phosphor X = 0.209 and Y = 0.207. The values of CIE coordinates show that the Gd2O3 phosphor prepared by combustion synthesis emits blue color. The TL studies of both the phosphors were carried out under UV and gamma exposure. The activation energy for 0.66 eV and 0.71–0.72 eV for UV exposure and gamma exposure respectively. The value of shape factor μg for all the TL analysis was found in between 0.45 and 0.54, which shows that the phosphors follow the second-order kinetics.
\nWe are very grateful to NIT Raipur for XRD characterization and also thankful to Dr. Mukul Gupta for his co-operation. We are thankful to SAIF, IIT, Bombay and IIT Delhi for other characterization such as SEM, TEM, FTIR, and EDX.
\nThe authors declare there is no conflict of interest.
Organic soils are soils which have diagnostic horizons with more than 20% organic matter and essentially reside in marshes, bogs, and swamps where anaerobic soil conditions support a low rate of organic matter decomposition relative to the rate of organic matter production. Thus, organic soils are observed to have a carbon input rate that is initially greater than the carbon loss rate resulting in an annual carbon accumulation, then with continued soil genesis the rate of carbon input approximately equals the carbon loss rate and a carbon quasi-equilibrium is attained.
These organic soils are frequently associated with extremely wet landscapes, or extremely acidic soils, or soils lacking available nutrients or some combination of these influences. Organic soils (Histosols) as defined in the United States [1] are soils that have an abundance of organic soil materials with additional criteria specifying that they lack sufficient andic properties and lack permafrost plus these soils possess certain thickness, water saturation duration, and decomposition status associated with their fresh and rubbed fiber contents. According to the United States Keys of Soil Taxonomy [1], organic soil horizons have (i) 12% organic carbon (approximately 21% soil organic matter) if the clay content is 0% and (ii) 18% organic carbon if the clay content is 60% or greater. For horizons that have clay contents between 0 and 60% the organic carbon content is a linear relationship to clay content involving the 12% organic carbon if the clay content is 0% and 18% organic carbon if the clay content is 60%.
Histic epipedons are surface organic horizons that are water saturated for at least 30 days in most years (typically an aquic soil moisture regime) are generally 0.2 to 0.4 m thick and have sufficient organic carbon as a function of clay content. Folistic epipedons are surface horizons that are not water saturated for at least 30 days in most years (not artificially drained), typically are more than 0.20 m thick, and are largely composed of 75% or more sphagnum fibers or have a bulk density of less than 0.1 g cm−3. The Keys of Soil Taxonomy [1] partition histic epipedons into fibric, hemic and sapric materials. Fibric materials (Of) are minimally decomposed where three quarters or more of its volume is made up of fibers after rubbing the sample. Sapric materials (Oa) are highly decomposed; less than one-sixth of the volume of sapric material contains fibers after a sample is rubbed. Hemic materials (Oe) are intermediate with respect to decomposition. In general, fibric materials possess a very low bulk density (0.05 to 0.15 Mg m−3), a large total pore space (85%) with a high distribution of large pores spaces, a low bearing capacity, and a hydraulic conductivity ranging from 1.6 to 30 m day−1.
Generally, the Histosol soil order is recognized if more than half of the upper 0.8 m of the soil profile is organic or if organic soil material rests on rock or fragmental material showing interstices filled with organic material. In colloquial terms the Histosol order contains soils formally described as bogs, moors, peatlands, muskegs, fens or are composed of peats and mucks. Histosols make up about 1% of the world’s glacier-free land surface (325 to 375 million ha). Suborders of Histosol order are based on the degree of organic material decomposition and the length of water saturation. The Histosol suborders are: Fibrists, Hemists, Saprists and Folists. The World Reference Base for soil resources [2] states that Histosols are soils having a histic or folic horizon either 0.1 m or more thick from the soil surface to a lithic or paralithic contact or 0.4 m or more thick and starting within 0.3 m from the soil surface, and having no andic or vitric horizon starting within 0.3 m of the soil surface.
Histosols occur in all latitudes; however, Histosols are particularly common in the boreal zone, a feature Histosols share with Spodisols. The dominant feature of Histosols is the accumulation of organic materials, which may be characterized as:
The rate of organic matter decomposition in Histosols is usually very slow, a feature attributed to specific conditions of climate, topography and hydrology. In boreal biomes, cool summer temperatures restrict microbial activity, with biologic zero being approximately 4 to 5°C. Low soil temperatures must be further associated with anoxic soil conditions to support Histosol genesis. In tropical climates, warmer temperatures support greater ecosystem productivities; however, the combined effects of precipitation, topography and hydrology may create anoxic soil conditions for a sustained time interval to restrict soil organic matter decomposition. Topography influences Histosol formation by directing water flux within the landscape position. Lateral groundwater may create seepage on sideslopes, whereas peatlands may form in poorly-drained basins. Fens occur where surface water inflow or groundwater discharge concentrates nutrient rich water. Pocosins or bogs on coastal plains or interior flatlands are frequently located on slightly raised interfluvial positions.
The degree of soil organic matter decomposition has a significant influence on soil properties. Buol et al. [3] reviewed literature to describe the soil genesis and classification of Histosols. Key soil properties that are influenced based on the degree of soil organic matter decomposition include: organic carbon, total nitrogen, carbon to nitrogen ratio, cellulose content, pH, cation exchange capacity, bulk density, water contents at field capacity and permanent wilting point, hydraulic conductivity. Upon transition from fibric to sapric soil conditions the following properties typically increase in magnitude: total nitrogen, pH, cation exchange capacity, bulk density, and the water contents at field capacity and permanent wilting point. Most notably the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities decrease on transition from fibric to sapric soil conditions. However, many Histosols exhibit greater soil organic matter decomposition with increasing soil profile depth, thus the corresponding reduced hydraulic conductivity and increased water content at greater soil profile depth support continuance of the sapric condition.
Buol et al. [3] alluded to two adjacent Histosols in Michigan that differ in nutrient sources. The Napoleon soil series (dysic, mesic Typic Haplohemists) receives nutrients only from precipitation and dry deposition, whereas the Houghton (euic, mesic Typic Haplosaprists) primarily receives nutrients from seepage water that transverses calcareous sandy glacial till. The Napoleon mucky peat has an Oa1-Oa2-Oe1-Oe2 horizon sequence, with all horizons having a pH near 4, whereas the Houghton muck has an Oa1-Oa2-Oa3-Oa4-Oa5-Oa6 horizon sequence with all horizons having a pH near 7. Vegetation associated with the Napoleon mucky peat comprised various maples, swamp white oak, and dogwood, whereas the Houghton muck is vegetated with marshy grasses. Thus, water chemistry dramatically influences the soil’s pH and exchangeable cation expression and coupled with hydrology influences vegetation establishment.
Aide and Aide (two authors of this manuscript) have unpublished field data of several soil series in northeastern Wisconsin. The Lupton series (Euic, frigid Typic Haplosaprists) are very deep, very poorly-drained organic soils formed in depressions on lake and outwash plains. The horizon sequence is Oa1-Oa2-Oa3-Oa4-Oa5 and has little inorganic material, a very low bulk density, a pH in 0.01 M CaCl2 of 5.7 to 6.0 and a cation exchange capacity ranging from 107 to 199 cmol kg−1 across multiple pedons. The dominant surrounding soil consists of pedons of the Padus series (coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, frigid Alfic Haplorthods). The tupical Padus horizon sequence is A-E-Bs1-Bs2-E/B-B/E-2C. The texture is sandy loam above the lithologic discontinuity and sandy textured at greater depths (2C). These very deep, well-drained and very strongly acidic pedons are moderately deep to stratified sandy outwash with an abundance of clay films in the B material of the E/B and B/E horizons. The organic carbon content of the A horizon is less than 2% and the cation exchange capacity is very low, reflecting the sandy loam texture and diminished quantity of soil organic matter. Water extracts from both soils show an abundance of calcium, reflecting that calcium is the dominant exchange cation. These two soils have very distinctive profiles, whose properties are directly related to the contrasting oxidation–reduction environments imposed by the local hydrology.
Parent materials for Histosols are mostly hydrophytic plants [1]. Sphagnum consists of both living and dead tissue from the genus Sphagnum, with approximately 380 species. Sphagnum leaf tissue consists of chlorophyllose and hyaline cells, with the former having photosynthetic activity and the latter consisting of larger, clear and non-living cells with a large capacity to hold and store water. The cell walls contain an abundance of phenolic compounds that are resistant to decomposition. Sphagnum also has a substantial uptake capacity for calcium, magnesium and other nutrients, predisposing the underlying mineral soil to an acidic reaction. Typically, Sphagnum is the dominant plant genus in mires, raised bogs and blanket bogs. Other plant species commonly associated with Sphagnum include sedges, various dwarf shrubs, Betula nama (Dwarf birch) and Salix spp. (Willows).
Paludification or the geologic accumulation of organic materials across a landscape is influenced by soil pH, soil temperature, microbial activity, nutrient availability, oxidation–reduction and vertebrates (example: beavers or Castor canadensis). One criterion for paludization is the maintenance of anaerobic soil conditions sufficient to inhibit plant material decomposition. In glacial lake settings or ox-bows in fluvial systems, sediment infusion may occur resulting in lacustrine sediment accumulation. When sediment accumulation is sufficient to permit acceptable light levels to penetrate to the submerged sediment surface and if the water oxygen levels are appropriately anaerobic then plant material preservation prevails. When Histosols evolve because of sediment deposition with subsequent soil organic matter accumulation then this process is termed terrestrialization.
In the United States the Keys of Soil Taxonomy support 12 soil orders at the highest level of soil taxonomy [1]. Gelisols (Cryosols in the World Reference Base of Soil Resources [2]) are soils that have permafrost within two meters from the soil surface. Permafrost is a soil climatic condition where soil material has continuous temperatures at or below 0°C. Because of the permafrost requirement, Gelisols occur extensively in boreal, subarctic and arctic environments and comprise approximately 18 km2 (13.4%) of the ice-free land area [1]. Gelisols having a short period of seasonal thawing have an upper zone that thaws, creating an “active layer” approximately a few cm to 1.5 m thick. This active layer may experience soil forming processes, including sufficient biotic activity to form histic epipedons (suborder histels) [3].
The boundary between the active layer and permafrost is termed the “permafrost table”. In moist soil and with the return of winter conditions, soil freezing begins at the permafrost table and also at the soil surface, which subsequently finalizes in the active layer. Thus, the active layer experiences freezing fronts from both the soil surface and from the permafrost table, giving rise to compaction and a loss of any soil structure. In the active layer of many Gelisols, dark streaks of organic matter that are distinguished from the soil matrix colors, suggesting soil material redistribution because of cryoturbation. The permafrost table is frequently impermeable to percolating water and therefore develops an accumulation of soil organic matter.
In very cold and low precipitation areas Gelisols are mostly shallow and relatively featureless soils; however, where temperatures are relatively mild and precipitation is more extensive, Gelisols are deeper and likely have an active layer that exhibits accumulation of soil organic matter. Gelisol vegetation includes lichens, moss, liverwort, sedge, grass and boreal forest species. Soil inhabiting organisms include prokaryotes (most notably N-fixing Azotobacter), fungi, actinomycetes, anthropoids, nematodes, protozoa and algae [1, 3].
Solifluction may occur on sloping landscapes. Cryopedogenic processes include cryoturbation causing a reduction in soil profile horizonation (Haploidization), soil structure formation, seasonal ice lens formation above the permafrost table, landscape collapse (thermokarst), and the formation of redoximorphic features. Additionally, soil carbon pool sizes, redistribution within the soil profile, and bioavailability are strongly affected by (1) cryoturbation, which is the soil-mixing action of freeze/thaw processes, and (2) by the presence of permafrost itself, which has strong controls over soil temperature and moisture and runoff. Overall, permafrost affected soils represent 16% of all soils on the globe, and contain up to 50% of the global belowground soil carbon pool [4]. Histels are Gelisols consisting of organic materials, with suborder groups listed as: (i) Folistels, (ii) Glacistels [have the upper boundary of a glacic layer (75% or more visible ice)], (iii) Fibristels, (iv) Hemistels, and (v) Sapristels.
Tarnocai et al. [4] performed an extensive review of carbon pools in the northern permafrost region, noting that approximately 3.56 x 106 km2 in this region at peatlands. These authors provided data illustrating that Histels (66.6 kg m−2) and Histosols (69.6 kg m−2) have the highest soil organic carbon contents. Histels alone are estimated to contain 184 Pg C, whereas histosols contribute 94.3 Pg C. Turbels show extensive soil organic carbon incorporation to deeper soil depths because of cryoturbation.
Peatland ecosystems are well represented in the majority of the world’s biomes. In this manuscript we define a biome as a community of associated ecosystems characterized by their prevailing vegetation and by organism adaptation to that particular environment. Different sources define the types and number of biomes differently; herein, we specify six biomes: (i) tundra, (ii) taiga, (iii) grassland, (iv) deciduous forest, (v) desert, and (vi) tropical rainforest. Tundra, taiga and tropical rainforests are commonly accepted biomes having considerable expanses of peatlands; however, examples do exist in grassland and deciduous forest biomes.
Peatlands, as defined by the National Working Group (Canada), are wetlands containing more than 0.4 m thickness of peat [5]. Ombrotrophic peatlands or oligotrophic peatlands include soil and vegetation which receive water and nutrients primarily from precipitation, thus they are environments isolated hydrologically from the surrounding landscape. Given that rainfall is acidic because of equilibrium with the partial pressure of CO2 and the rainfall nutrient composition is relatively low, ombrotrophic peatlands are typically considered nutrient deficient and exhibit reduced microbial activity. Frequently the vegetation is dominated by Sphagnum mosses. Minerotrophic peatlands are wetlands whose water availability comes mainly from nutrient-enriched surface waters that have neutral to alkaline pH reactions. Typically, minerotrophic wetlands have a high-water table, low internal drainage and exhibit moderately-well to well-decomposed sedges, brown mosses and related vegetation.
Carbon content is variably defined to represent the carbon concentrations on a surface area basis or a soil volume basis. Typically, carbon content defined as the mass of carbon per unit land area (kg carbon m−2) is presented to indicate landscape variability, whereas carbon content on a volume basis (kg carbon m−3) is presented to indicate intra-pedon or inter-pedon differences. Carbon content as expressed as the carbon concentration per volume is a soil or landscape property influenced by bulk density and horizon depth. Carbon accumulation is the net gain or loss of carbon content, typically at century or millennial scales. Peatlands reside on nearly 2.7% of the global land surface, yet peatlands possess a significant portion of the terrestrial soil carbon pool with deep soil organic matter accumulations created over millennia. Estimates suggest that boreal and subarctic peatlands contain 455 Pg C [6] and 462 Pg [7], repectively. Boreal peat deposits tend to be deeper than subarctic peatlands, a feature attributed to long carbon accumulation intervals [8].
Peat-forming systems have been partitioned into acrotelm and catotelm zones [9]. The acrotelm portion of a peat-forming soil system is defined as the relatively more oxygenated (oxic) upper portion of the peat forming soil system, where aerobic decomposition is comparatively greater, the hydraulic conductivity is more rapid and the bulk density typically ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 g cm−3. Conversely the catotelm is the suboxic to anoxic lower portion of the peat-forming soil system that is characterized by a comparatively slower hydraulic conductivity and a bulk density typically ranging from 0.8 to 1.2 g cm−3.
Soils being open thermodynamic systems receive water and particulate soil organic matter and energy at their boundaries, most notably at the soil-atmosphere interface. Matter and energy may also be transferred by lateral flow at the pedon-pedon interface or vertical flow at the soil-sediment interface. Water infiltration and percolation within the acrotelm is rapid; however, percolation slows substantially in the catotelm, creating the upper oxic and deeper anoxic oxidation–reduction regimes within the soil profile. As soil organic matter decomposition progresses at the base of the acrotelm, the resulting loss of pore space, attributed to an increase in the bulk density, supports water retention and conversion of the lowermost portion of the acrotelm into that of the catotelm, thus elevating the acrotelm-catotelm boundary with progressive soil development.
The primary vegetation productivity (P [=] g cm−2) is the annual production of particulate organic matter and its subsequent incorporation in the soil’s surface horizons. The transformation of particulate matter to humus is predicated on soil temperature, microbial acidity, the soil’s oxidation–reduction status, pH and nutrient availability. The rate of organic matter accumulation per unit surface area (x) is the difference between the annual production of particulate organic matter per unit area and the rate of soil organic matter loss per unit area, expressed as a first-order linear ordinary differential equation:
where α is the decay coefficient, and t is time (years). Integration using an integration factor provides a solution:
From Clymo [9] typical decay constant values include α = 0.05 and 0.15 year−1. Also, from Clymo [9] typical annual production of particulate organic matter values includes: 150 and 450 g m−2 yr.−1. Using Eq. 3, The mass accumulation is presented for two scenarios: (i) P = 450 g m−2 yr.−1 and α = 0.15 year−1 (upper line in Figure 1) and (ii) P = 150 g m−2 yr.−1 and α = 0.05 year−1 (lower line in Figure 1). The scenario (i) P = 450 g m−2 yr.−1 and α = 0.15 year−1 provides a greater annual production of particulate organic matter and a faster rate of decay, such that the ratio P/α is a limit point as t approaches infinity. The asymptotic approach to P/α as a limit point implies that the net annual accumulation of organic matter ultimately becomes constant.
Illustration of mass accumulation per year (0 to 3500 g m−2 yr.−1) versus time (40 years) using Eq. (2) . The primary vegetation productivity was 150 and 450 g m−2 yr.−1 and the decay coefficients were 0.05 and 0.15 year−1, respectively.
Street et al. [10] in Svalbard considered the influence of phosphorus (P) on the decomposition potential of carbon stocks. Nitrogen additions supported carbon stock reductions because of enhanced soil organic matter decomposition; however, the combination of added nitrogen and phosphorus supported an increase in the carbon stocks because of stimulated plant production. In Poland, Sienkiewicz et al. [11] investigated Histosol soil organic carbon and its relationship to total nitrogen, dissolved organic carbon and dissolved organic nitrogen. Carbon and nitrogen loss rates were independent, and soil organic carbon losses were dependent on the soil organic carbon content. The ratio of dissolved organic carbon to soil organic carbon increased with respect to the intensity of soil organic matter decomposition. Turunen et al. [12] investigated wet deposition of nitrogen (0.3 to 0.8 g nitrogen m−2 yr.−1) in ombrotrophic peatlands in eastern Canada, noting that nitrogen additions supported a greater diversity of vascular plants.
Qui et al. [13] modeled northern peatland areas and carbon changing aspects during the Holocene. They recognized that the net primary production (NPP) and heterotrophic respiration increased over the past century in response to climate change and increased atmospheric CO2 activity. In their study net primary productivity was a greater influence than heterotrophic respiration, with 11.1 Pg C accumulated carbon storage since 1901, with the majority of the carbon storage increase occurring after 1950.
The literature is replete with compelling research documenting biologically mediated geochemical pathways that are instrumental in creating vibrant biomes that have substantial accumulations of soil organic matter. Microbial populations secrete extracellular enzymes that are specific for degrading organic functional groups. The effectiveness of these extracellular enzymes is a complex function of (i) peat chemistry and litter quality, (ii) nutrient status, (iii) moisture content, (iv) plant community composition, (v) microbial community representation, and (vi) temperatures [14]. The absence of oxygen may also result in the accumulation of phenolic compounds that impost a negative feedback on microbial activity. Key enzyme activities important to mineralization include: (i) alpha-glucosidase, (ii) beta-glucosidase, (iii) cellobiohydrolase, (iv) N-acetylglucosaminidase, (v) acid phosphatase, and (vi) leucine aminopeptidase.
Fox [15] reviewed literature involving low-molecular-weight organic acids. Low-molecular weight organic acids are approximately 10% of a typical forest soil’s dissolved organic carbon pool, but they may have a disproportionate influence on soil processes, including metal complexation. Common low molecular weight organic acids include: acetic, aconitic, benzoic, cinnamic, citric, formic, fumaric, gallic, lactic, malic, maleic, malonic, p-hydroxybenzoic, phthalic, protocatechuic, oxalic, salicylic, succinic, tartaric, and vanillic. Common functional groups include (i) acidic groups [carboxylic (R-COOH), enolic (R-CH=CH-OH), phenolic (Ar-OH) and quinones (Ar = O)], (ii) neutral groups [alcoholic OH (R-CH2OH), ethers (R-CH2-O-CH2-R), ketones (R-C=O (−R)), aldehydes (R-C=O(-H)) and esters (R-C=O(-OR))] and (iii) neutral nitrogen-bearing amines (R-CH2-NH2) and amides (R-C=O(NH-R)). When considering root extracts oxalic, citric and malic are quite abundant. Sources of low molecular weight organic acids are root respiration, leaching from the litter floor, decomposition of soil organic matter, and rainfall. Herbert and Bertsch [16] further detailed dissolved and colloidal organic matter in the soil solution. Based on their review of literature dissolved organic matter is primarily composed of hydrocarbons, chlorophyll, carotenoids, phospholipids and long-chain fatty acids, tannins, flavonoids and other polyphenols, fulvic and humic acids, aromatic and aliphatic acids, and proteins /amino acids. In most studies the dominant organic materials were humic substances.
Kane et al. [17] measured pore water chemistry associated with an artificially-induced warming of a nutrient poor fen. The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration was greater in the warmed fen (73.4 ± 3.2 mg L−1) compared to the untreated check (63.7 ± 2.1 mg L−1). The amount of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) was greater in the warmed fen; however, the DON/DOC ratio was smaller. The reduced DON/DOC ratio was primarily attributed to a smaller capacity of the microbial community to yield labile nitrogen via the decomposition process and the greater utilization efficiency of the nitrogen by the microbial community. In Manitoba (Canada) Aide and Cwick [18] studied Eluviated Eutric Brunisols having an Of-Bm-C horizon sequence and Orthic Eutric Brunisols having an Oh or Of-Bm-C horizon sequence. Located in the glacial Lake Agassiz these soils formed in fine-graine lacustrine sediments interspersed with organic soils and fens. The surface horizons of the Eluviated Eutric Brunisols possessed organic carbon contents ranging from 19.8 to 29.4% with C/N ratios of 29.5 to 27.4, whereas the surface horizons of the Orthic Eutric Brunisols possessed organic carbon contents ranging from 27.3 to 41.7% with C/N ratios of 39.5 to 25.4. The C/N ratios and associated nitrate-N concentrations suggests that nitrogen limits the rates of soil mineralization. In a near companion manuscript Aide et al. [19] documented that the silty sediments were dominated by hydroxy Al-interlayered vermiculite, smectite, hydrous mica, and kaolinite in the clay separate. The potential for potassium fixation by vermiculite was reduced by Al-interlayering.
Van Cleve and Powers [20] isolated state factors involved in carbon storage in forest soils, noting the role of climate, parent material, topography, vegetation, and soil organisms. The chemistry of soil organic carbon, including root exudates and leachates, strongly influence the microbial processing of detritus, the materials synthesized in this process and the intensity of the roles that low and high molecular weight organic acids have in soil development. Observed effects show that synthesized products are more resistant to further decomposition and possessed smaller nitrogen contents, which over time supports soil organic matter accumulation.
Peatlands are an important terrestrial carbon sink and any increased microbial activity may result in soil organic matter oxidation, with subsequent CO2 release. Northern peatlands historically have had the benefit of cool to frigid temperatures that limit microbial activity. Low oxygen activity attributed to water saturation further limits mineralization. Climate change may result in warmer soils, with the cavate that the effective length of the increasingly warmer summer interval is also increased. The encroachment of vascular plants will be expected to proceed, leading to a positive feedback on microbial activity. Thus, studies on peatland functioning in higher latitudes and their potential to accelerate climate change are becoming commonplace [14].
In Canada, Dieleman et al. [21] established mesocosms, where peat production of dissolved organic carbon was measured. The production of dissolved organic carbon from peat was estimated to be a function of temperature, CO2 concentration and the influence of the water table, wherein increased temperatures increased the dissolved organic carbon contents, lowered water tables increased decomposition rates and reduced pore water dissolved organic carbon concentrations. In the Alaskan arctic Euskirchen et al. [22] established eddy covariance flux towers across various ecosystems for three years to document peak CO2 uptake patterns. Peak CO2 uptake centered from June to August at a mean of 51 to 95 g C m−2 across the various ecosystems. Warmer spring seasons promoted greater CO2 uptake patterns, whereas warmer late seasons supported greater soil respiration rates, reducing the Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE).
In Canada, Frolking et al. [23] employed the Holocene Peat Model to simulate the vegetation community composition and the annual net primary productivity. Northern peatlands take up CO2 at rates of 40 to 80 g carbon m−2 yr.−1, with carbon leaching as DOC at rates of 10–20 g DOC m−2 yr.−1. Decomposition was estimated to be 95% of the Net Primary Productivity. Similarly, Frolking et al. [23] observed undisturbed Canadian peatlands and determined that these peatlands were a weak sink for carbon and a moderate source of methane emission. McLoughlin and Webster [24] performed a review of peatland dynamics, primarily within the Hudson Bay Lowlands. Long term carbon accumulation, CO2 sequestration, peat depth and land age were positively correlated. Carbon dioxide sequestration showed the greatest variability, with bogs (−1.7 to 1.5 g carbon m−2 day−1), fens (−4.3 to 1.6 g carbon m−2 day−1), and palsa peat (−0.8 to 1 g carbon m−2 day−1). Methane and evapotranspiration were greater in the wettest ecosystems, with methane emission for bogs (3.3 to 28 mg carbon m−2 day−1), fens (0.1 to 204 mg carbon m−2 day−1), and palsa peat (−1.6 to 24 mg carbon m−2 day−1).
On paludified soils Schneider et al. [25] measured methane (CH4) flux for forest and peatland areas. Open peatlands exhibited a methane emission rate of 21.9 ± 1.6 g m−2 yr.−1 in contrast with forested peatland transition zones (7.9 ± 0.5 g m−2 yr.−1). The forested peatland transition zones demonstrated an inflow of less acidic surface water that supported a higher biological diversity and greater plant productivity. These authors noted that methane emission was more influenced by increased temperatures than the water table depths. In Sweden, Sagerfors et al. [26] established eddy covariance measurements across oligotrophic mires. Based on the vertical exchange of CO2 their sites were a net sink for carbon (55 ± 7 g carbon m−2 yr.−1). The non-growing seasons exhibited a carbon loss; however, the growing season sequestration of carbon more than compensated for the non-growing season carbon loss.
Wickland et al. [27] observed changes in CO2 and methane exchanges on a black spruce (Picea mariana) lowland experiencing permafrost melting. Sites were partitioned as peat soils having permafrost, thermokarst wetlands, and thermokarst edges, with thermokarst edges having greater methane emissions. Ernakovich et al. [28] measured greenhouse gas emissions from thawed permafrost with simulated oxic and anoxic redox environments. Carbon dioxide emission was supported by an active microbial community and a labile dissolved organic carbon pool. Increased methane production was related to soils with a labile litter pool. Carbon dioxide emission was 30 to 450 times the methane production in an anoxic soil and carbon dioxide emission was 500 to 2500 times the methane production in an oxic soil.
In Canada, Webster et al. [29] investigated net ecosystem exchange and methane emissions for bogs, nutrient-poor fens, intermediate-rich fens across seven ecozones. During the growing season, the net ecosystem exchange, per season, was −108 ± 41.3 Mt. CO2 and the methane emissions were 4.1 ± 1.5 Mt. CH4. Converting methane to CO2 global warming potential for a 25 to 100-year event, the total sink was −7 ± 77.6 Mt. CO2e. The boreal plain peatlands exhibited the greatest net ecosystem exchange, whereas the boreal shield peatlands exhibited the highest methane emissions. In the discontinuous permafrost zone of western Siberia, Shirokova et al. [30] showed that permafrost thaw supported an increase in soil subsidence and the development of thermokarst lakes. Soil subsidence was related to soil carbon decomposition and mobilization to water resources.
Jackowicz-Korczynski et al. [31] observed methane emission from subarctic Swedish mires. A permafrost free mire having tall graminoid vegetation showed methane emission rates of 6.2 ± 2.6 mg CH4 m−2 hr.−1. The annual emission was 24.5 to 29.5 g CH4 m−2 yr.−1, with most of the emission during the summer months. In Wales (UK), Fenner et al. [32] investigated ombrotrophic peat or acid mires. Artificially enhanced CO2 and warming produced increased concentrations of dissolved organic carbon. Higher concentrations of phenolic compounds were associated with the increase in dissolved organic carbon. The influence of increased temperature promoted microbial activity, whereas increased CO2 content increased the supply of photosynthate to the soil because of greater root exudates. The effect of the temperature and elevated CO2 were to synergistically decrease the C/N of the dissolved organic carbon. In Indonesian tropical peatlands, Uda et al. [33] noted that land drainage influenced CO2 emissions from drained oil palm landscapes.
Aurangojeb et al. [34] contrasted a drained Histosol and an adjacent mineral soil in Sweden, noting that the Histosol N2O emissions were 49.9 ± 3.3 μg N2O m−2 hr.−1, whereas the adjacent mineral soil N2O emission was 8.0 ± 3.3 μg N2O m−2 hr.−1. The N2O difference was attributed to the mineral soil having greater mycorrhizal N demand reducing the N availability. Leifeld et al. [35] investigated four temperate ombrotrophic peatlands across central Europe and determined that ash content is related to land drainage and land management, thus ash may be an indicator of historical decomposition but this protocol should be used only in pristine study areas.
Net primary production is critical to developing large carbon contents in peatlands. Net primary production is a function of climate, vegetation, topography, the natural of the parent materials, and land use. Investigating Swedish peatlands, Chaudhary et al. [36] investigated drivers of biotic and abiotic peatland dynamics. For patterned ground they noted that plant species, hydrology, nutrient status, plant productivity and decomposition rates vary between hummock and hollow positions. Typically hollows possessed taller productive graminoid species that showed faster decomposition rates than sphagnum. Hummock positions possessed more shrub species that preferentially lowered the water table. In interior Alaska, O’Donnell et al. [37] studied Gelisols having a 30-day enhanced temperature incubation period, noting that the dissolved organic carbon concentration and its associated aromaticity increased at higher incubation temperatures. At these higher temperatures the dissolved organic materials contained more hydrophobic organic acids, polyphenols, and condensed aromatics and smaller concentrations of low-molecular weight hydrophilic and aliphatic compounds. Dissolved labile organic materials were preferentially mineralized, with the dominant kinetic controls being temperature and substrate lignin contents.
Wang et al. [38] correlated that increased mean annual air temperature was associated with increased active layer thickness. In a Siberian low arctic landscape, Frost et al. [39] documented seasonal and long-term changes to active layer temperatures and noted that vegetation and snow cover were important predictors of active layer thickness. Summer soil temperatures decreased with increasing shrub cover and soil organic matter thickness. Compared with open tundra, mature shrubs depressed summer soil temperatures; however, mature shrubs altered the insulative snowpack and fostered warmer winter soil temperatures.
In Canada Kroetsch et al. [5], working with the National Wetlands Working Group, noted that peatlands were routinely identified when peat depths exceeded 0.40 meters. Fibrisol, Mesisol and Humisol great groups were partitioned based on rubbed fiber content, von Post scale, pyrophosphate and depth of the surface, middle and bottom tiers. The key diagnostic genetic processes of organic soils included: (i) additions from litter, fine roots, soil organic matter deposition and low molecular weight organic acid exudation from sphagnum, feather mosses and related plant species, (ii) losses attributed to decomposition, (iii) transfers of dissolved organic carbon because of fluctuating water tables, leaching and burrowing organisms, (iv) transformations attributed to soil organic matter decomposition, O2 status, nutrient availability, and toxins.
Glaser et al. [40] observed Hudson Bay Lowlands peatland development from a chronological perspective, relating the length of time for isostatic rebound to elevate the landscape and developing a transect of peatland sites ranging from comparatively younger to older sites. They observed that the resulting transects consisted of a sequence consisting of (i) basal tidal marshes in the youngest sites, (ii) Larix (Larches) dominated swamp forests, (iii) Picea (Spruce) forested bogs, and ending with (iv) non-forested bogs in the oldest sites. This sequence of peatlands was viewed as a predictable vegetation succession influenced by changes in hydrology and other factors derived from continuing isostatic rebound. Conversely, in western Siberia, peatlands demonstrated an increase in carbon accumulation upon transition from the northern region to the southern region [41]. The northern peatlands exhibited a carbon content of 7–35 kg carbon m−2, whereas the southern peatlands exhibited a carbon content range of 43–88 kg carbon m−2. The carbon content was estimated to be a complex function of soil organic matter quality (lignin content) and the predominant vegetation (vascular plants versus bryophytes).
Karofeld et al. [42] noted Estonia’s decline of pristine mires and investigated a method for mire reconstruction, involving the removal of oxidized peak layer followed by the spreading of plant fragments to increase the effective development of bryophyte and vascular plants. Along with maintaining the presence of a highwater table, the reconstruction effort was deemed successful.
Miettinen et al. [43] employed satellite images to document the role of fire and logging on the loss of Sumatra’s pristine peat swamps. In Indonesia, Swails et al. [44] investigated soil respiration as a climatic driver in undrained forest settings and adjacent oil palm plantations. They documented that oil palm plantations with a reduced water table exhibited a higher soil respiration rate (0.71 ± 0.04 g CO2 m−2 h−1) than forested sites (0.58 ± 0.04 g CO2 m−2 h−1).
Across Poland, Grzywna [45] documented drainage-induced Histosol subsidence ranges from 9 to 33 cm. Nicia et al. [46] demonstrated that restoration of peatlands in Poland has potential to increase the organic carbon content, the C/N ratio and increase the pH in acidic fens. Richardson [47] noted the development sequence of alkaline mires (fens) in the Everglades (Florida) and the role of changing hydrology during the Holocene. In Wisconsin, Adhikari et al. [48] used digital maps and soil profile data to spatially quantify carbon stocks and subsequently estimated the fate of carbon stocks with improved land use management. The average baseline soil organic carbon stock was 90 mg ha−1 and with improved land management the soil across the state could increase the carbon stocks by 20 mg ha−1. Mollisols were predicted to have the greatest potential for increasing carbon stocks, whereas Histosols and Spodisols were likely to lose carbon stock. Frazier and Lee [49] investigated Wisconsin Histosols partitioned as fibrists, hemists and saprists. Saprists possessed the highest carbon content, whereas the fibrists possessed the least carbon content, a feature related to chemical changes associated with the humification process.
The fate of peatland ecosystems is integral to global sustainability. As scientists, we are acutely aware that carbon stored in peatland ecosystems may be released to the atmosphere, contributing to climate change acceleration. The precise drivers of peatland respiration, the role of the microorganism communities, organic acid leaching, soil mineralization, and other soil carbon pathways are reasonably well understood, but they are not sufficiently formalized into a coherent and interconnected model to provide detailed information concerning near-term peatland degradation [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. Thus, a critical need exists to predict on a regional level specific changes to peatland dynamics because of the multi-faceted nature of accelerated climate change. With this process focus on peatland dynamics, best management practices are slow carbon de-sequestration.
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\n\n*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nServices included are:
\n\nSee our full list of services here.
\n\nWhat isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\nIf your manuscript:
\n\nYour Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\nOpen Access Funding
\n\nTo explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\nFor Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\nAdded Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\nChoosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\nBenefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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