The comparison between ACE and ACE2 is given in Table 1 [22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"347459",title:"Mr.",name:"Abebe",middleName:"Demissew",surname:"Demissew Gashahun",fullName:"Abebe Demissew Gashahun",slug:"abebe-demissew-gashahun",email:"abebe_demissew@dmu.edu.et",position:null,institution:{name:"Debre Markos University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ethiopia"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"77888",slug:"production-of-sustainable-concrete-by-using-challenging-environmentally-friendly-materials-instead-o",signatures:"Abebe Demissew Gashahun",dateSubmitted:"April 13th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 5th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 23rd 2021",datePublished:"May 4th 2022",book:{id:"10668",title:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"347459",title:"Mr.",name:"Abebe",middleName:"Demissew",surname:"Demissew Gashahun",fullName:"Abebe Demissew Gashahun",slug:"abebe-demissew-gashahun",email:"abebe_demissew@dmu.edu.et",position:null,institution:{name:"Debre Markos University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ethiopia"}}}]},book:{id:"10668",title:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11817",leadTitle:null,title:"Next Generation Fiber-Reinforced Composites - New Insights",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tHigh-performance fiber-reinforced polymer/ceramic/metal composites are the current state-of-the-art for lightweight structures and their use is rising exponentially in a wide range of applications. They offer outstanding mechanical properties: high strength and stiffness, low weight, and low susceptibility to fatigue and corrosion. This book will be focused on the next-generation fiber-reinforced composites, which possess better mechanical properties for engineering applications. For polymer-matrix composites (PMCs), works regarding the research contents of fabrication methods, testing and theoretical analysis for high mechanical properties (i.e., tensile, compression, and shear, et al.) and related damage mechanisms are welcome. For ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs), the works on the fabrication methods and high-temperature mechanical properties related to durability, fatigue, creep, and damage mechanisms and theoretical predictions are welcome. For metal-matrix composites (MMCs), the investigations on the fabrication methods and mechanical properties of MMCs are also welcome to be submitted.
\r\n\t
The last two decades have seen epidemic outbreaks by novel viruses including SARS, MERS, and influenza which shared certain commonalities such as a likely zoonotic origin, high mortality rates, and less available therapeutic methods to counteract them. The COVID-19 pandemic shows no signs of slowing down with affecting 223 countries, with 224,811,910 cases, and 4,633,797 death tolls till date [1]. With what history on earlier pandemics has made us understand and with the rapidly mutating nature of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, it is not unreasonable to say that the pandemic is here to stay, and the world must learn to co-exist with it. The first reported case of COVID-19 was found in Wuhan, China in December 2019. By March 2020, the disease had spread across the globe and had become a public health emergency. The WHO declared a pandemic state to the disease spread on March 11, 2020 [2]. With more than a year since the declaration of the pandemic, the scientific community has yet not developed a definitive anti-viral drug to combat the disease spread. Even though the advent of vaccination has set the pace in favour of global health, we have a long way to go to eradicate if at all suppress the disease spread.
SARS-CoV-2 is highly virulent and highly contagious with the R0 value of 3.77 [3]. Though it predominantly affects the respiratory system, other organ systems like the gastrointestinal system, heart, kidney, and central nervous system are also targeted by the virus. Fever, chills, cough, shortness of breath or breathing difficulty, sore throat, nasal congestion, diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, generalised body aches are some of the common symptoms noted in patients infected with COVID-19 [4].
Neurological manifestations of COVID-19 include non-specific symptoms like headache, dizziness, fatigue, and myopathy and more specific symptoms like anosmia, ageusia, impaired consciousness, stroke, meningitis, acute transverse myelitis, and Guillian-Barre syndrome [5, 6]. More than one third of the individuals with COVID-19 were found to present with neurological symptoms [7, 8]. The presence of viral RNA in cerebrospinal fluid and the brain was observed in COVID-19 patients [9]. Preliminary
Coronaviruses are the largest among RNA viruses. They have a crown-like spikes on their surface and hence the name. SARS-CoV-2 is the latest/seventh coronavirus to become pathogenic to humans. It belongs to the Coronaviridae family which includes four genera; α−, β−, γ−, and δ-CoV. Out of these human pathogens include HCoV- 229E, HCoV- NL63 [α − CoV] and OC43, and HKU1 [β − CoV] that in most cases cause mild self-limiting respiratory disease. γ − and δ-CoV strains mainly affect avian species [13]. SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, causatives of SARS and MERS, are beta coronaviruses that caused up to 9.6% and 34.3% mortality rates which were responsible for earlier pandemics that resulted in a death toll of 812 and 866, respectively [14]. SARS-CoV-2 is more similar to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV while being far more pathogenic and transmissible than the earlier known coronaviruses.
SARS-CoV-2 is a beta coronavirus that is positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus with 29–30 kb in size. It has four structural proteins and 16 non-structural proteins. Nucleocapsid protein [N], membrane protein [M], spike protein [S], and envelope protein [E] are the four structural proteins (Figure 1). The capsid of the genome is formed by N protein and the genome is further surrounded by an envelope that is made up of M, E, and S proteins. Like other coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 has enveloped with a crown-like spikes on its surface. It is the spike protein that is responsible for the variations in host specificity and tissue tropism of the different coronavirus. Spike protein is a type-I membrane glycoprotein and has two functional subunits S1 and S2 with different functional domains in the amino and carboxy terminal. S1 subunit contains the receptor-binding domain [RBD] and binds with the receptor in the host cells. S2 subunit fuses the membranes of the host cells and the virus. The entry of the virus into the host cell involves binding of the S protein [S1 subunit] to a specific cell receptor followed by priming of the S protein by proteases in the host cell. This leads to the fusion of the spike protein to the cell membrane which is mediated by the S2 subunit [15]. The specific cell receptor through which SARS-CoV-2 enters the host cell is the ACE2 receptor and the protease in the host cell that processes the spike protein to reveal the fusion peptide between S1 and S2 subunits facilitating its entry, is a TMPRSS2 serine protease, member of the hepsin/TMPRSS subfamily [16]. Another protein named furin or paired basic amino acid cleaving enzyme [PACE], a member of the subtilisin-like proprotein convertase family, mediates proteolytic cut of the S protein at S1-S2 boundary, is required for TMPRSS2 processing of S protein. Both TMPRSS2 and furin are essential for the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the cell. The furin cleavage site in the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 is not found in SARS-CoV and other beta coronaviruses [17].
ACE2 is a cell surface protein, a metalloproteinase and an ectoenzyme which is an obligatory receptor for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. The affinity of SARS-CoV-2 to ACE2 is ten times higher than that of SARS-CoV which partly explains its higher pathogenicity [18]. It was discovered in 2000 by two independent groups of researchers while searching for human ACE homologues [19, 20]. The gene for ACE2 in humans is located in Xp22 and has 18 exons, a majority of which are similar to the exons of the ACE gene [21]. Despite ACE2 exhibiting 42% sequence identify and 61% sequence similarity with ACE, the two enzymes show enormous variations (Table 1) [27].
ACE | ACE2 | |
---|---|---|
Forms | Exists as a 2-domain somatic form and a one domain testicular form | Exists as a single form |
Structure | Transmembrane ectoenzyme with two active sites | Transmembrane ectoenzyme with one active site |
Enzymatic action | Removes C-terminal dipeptide – peptidyl-dipeptidase | Removes single amino acid from C-terminus – carboxypeptidase |
Substrate specificity | Converts Ang I to Ang II | Converts Ang I to Ang (1-9) |
Does not cleave Ang II | Converts Ang II to Ang (1-7) | |
Converts Ang (1-9) to Ang (1-7) | Does not cleave Ang (1-9) | |
Converts Ang (1-7) to Ang (1-5) | Does not cleave Ang (1-7) | |
Does not cleave Ang A | Converts Ang A to Alamandine | |
Hydrolyses bradykinin | Does not cleave bradykinin | |
Does not cleave des-Arg9-bradykinin | Hydrolyses des-Arg9-bradykinin | |
Action on amyloid protein | Hydrolyses Aβ-43 to Aβ41 | Hydrolyses Aβ43 to Aβ42 |
Hydrolyses Aβ-42 to Aβ40 | Does not cleave Aβ-42 | |
Localisation within cells | Equal distribution between apical and basolateral membranes | Localised on the apical membrane |
Transports intestinal amino acids | No | Transports intestinal neutral amino acids |
Shedding into plasma | Unidentified. May involve metalloproteinase and A Disintegrin | By A Disintegrin and Metalloprotease 17 (ADAM 17) |
Response to ACE inhibitor | Inhibited | Resistant, gets upregulated |
Acts as a receptor to virus | No | Receptor for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 |
Since the 20 years of its discovery, ACE2 was found to have a multitude of physiological and pathological functions based on its three fundamental actions viz. negative regulation of renin-angiotensin system [RAS], facilitation of amino acid transport in the intestine, and surface receptor for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. ACE2 is mainly expressed in the lungs, intestine, liver, heart, kidneys, testes, and brain. In the brain, it is expressed in neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, and in ventricles, substantia nigra, hypothalamus, hippocampus, middle temporal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, nuclei in pons—the nucleus of tractus solitarius and pre-Bötzinger complex and olfactory bulb [21, 28]. ACE2 expression is higher in astrocytes, astrocytic foot processes, pericytes, and endothelial cells which form the key components of the blood–brain barrier [29]. In the olfactory epithelium, its expression is higher in the supporting sustentacular cells than in olfactory sensory neurons [30]. The sites of ACE2 expression are given in Table 2 [31].
Vascular system | Endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, and migratory angiogenic cells |
Heart | Cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, pericytes, and epicardial adipose cells, and cardiofibroblasts |
Skin | sebaceous gland cells and basal epidermal layer |
Kidneys | glomerular endothelial cells, proximal tubule epithelial cells, bladder urothelial cells, luminal surface of tubular epithelial cells, and podocytes |
Reproductive system | Ovary, oocyte, uterus, vagina, and placenta of the female reproductive system Adult Leydig cells and cells in the seminiferous ducts in the testis of the male reproductive system |
Liver | Perinuclear hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, epithelial cells of the bile duct |
Gut | Stratified epithelial cells of oesophagus, stomach, Intestinal epithelial cells, enterocytes of small intestine, absorptive enterocytes from the ileum, colon and rectum, and endothelial cells |
Pancreas | Acinar cells and duct cells of the exocrine gland and alpha, beta, delta, and PP cells of islets of Langerhans |
Thyroid | Glandular cells |
Oral cavity | Tongue, buccal mucosa, gingiva, leucocytes within the oral mucosa, non-keratinising squamous epithelium of the oral cavity – basal layer |
Upper airway | Ciliated epithelial cells, goblet cells |
Lungs | Pulmonary vasculature, type I and II alveolar epithelial cells, bronchiolar epithelial cells |
Eyes | Pigmented epithelial cells, photoreceptor cells, Müller glial cells |
Central nervous system | Neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes, and in ventricles, substantia nigra, hypothalamus, hippocampus, middle temporal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, nuclei in pons – nucleus of tractus solitarius and pre-Bötzinger complex and olfactory bulb and cerebral vasculature and components of blood–brain barrier (astrocytes, astrocytic foot processes, pericytes, and endothelial cells) |
Sites of ACE2 expression.
ACE2 is a type 1 integral membrane protein that includes a short cytoplasmic C-terminus, a transmembrane region, collectrin, and N-terminal ectodomain. Zinc-binding motifs, HEMGH forms the active site of the enzyme. N-terminal domain has a claw-shaped protease domain which is the binding site of receptor-binding domain [RBD] of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. N terminus is homologous to ACE and is a carboxypeptidase that metabolises peptides like angiotensin II, kinins, apelin-13, apelin-36, neurotensin 1–13, kinetensin, and morphins, and C terminus is homologous to collectrin which is involved in the trafficking of neutral amino acid transporter [B[o]AT1] in the intestinal epithelium [32].
Both ACE and ACE2 play a major role in maintaining renin-angiotensin system [RAS] homeostasis. ACE2 acts like a negative regulator of ACE in RAS. RAS involves a variety of proteins and enzymes. Angiotensinogen is an inactive precursor that gets cleaved by renin to form angiotensin I. ACE acts on angiotensin I to convert into angiotensin II [Ang II] while ACE2 converts Ang II to Ang [1-7]. Ang [1-7] then binds to Mas receptors and causes attenuation of the signal cascade that was activated by Ang II (Figure 2). Thus, ACE2 not only inactivates Ang II but also generates the antagonistic peptide Ang [1-7] [33]. Ang [1-7] can also be formed from Ang I by neutral endopeptidases and neprilysin, but the most effective pathway of Ang [1-7] generation is through ACE2 [34]. The conversion of Ang II to Ang [1-7] by ACE2 is 70 folds more efficient than the conversion of Ang I to Ang [1-9] by ACE2. Thus, under physiological conditions, ACE2 mainly forms Ang [1-7] than Ang [1-9] [34].
While Ang II, which acts via angiotensin 1/AT1 [primary mediator] and angiotensin 2/AT2 receptors is a potent vasoconstrictor, a pro-fibrotic, and a pro-inflammatory agent, Ang [1-7] acts via Mas receptors and has vasodilator, anti-apoptotic and anti-proliferative effect. Mas receptors are G protein-coupled receptors and in the brain, they are highly expressed in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, a site-specific for adult neurogenesis and in blood vessels [35]. The ACE2/Ang [1-7]/Mas receptor axis of the RAS is considered to be the protective arm of the renin-angiotensin system. A balance in ACE/ACE2 is critical which implies a balance between the pro-inflammatory pro-oxidative arm and the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative arm of RAS. An increase in ACE/ACE2 ratio was observed in many pathological conditions including cardiovascular pathology, renal dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, in cigarette smokers, and Alzheimer’s disease [36, 37, 38, 39]. SARS-CoV-2 which enters the host cells via ACE2 also causes downregulation of ACE2 and the major targets of SARS-CoV-2 are those which express higher levels of ACE2 [26]. The fibrotic and inflammatory processes observed in various organs in COVID-19 patients could be attributed to the dysregulation of ACE2 and subsequently, RAS which is observed in endocrine, paracrine, and intracrine levels in several organs [40]. Dysregulation of RAS in the brain is associated with neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration [41].
The old dogma that the production of functional neurons does not occur in adult life was refuted when Altman and Das published evidence to support the continuation of neurogenesis in adult life in rodents [42]. Neurogenesis refers to the process of the generation of new neurons from neural stem cells. This process which plays a major role in brain development in embryonic life ceases to exist shortly after birth in the majority of brain areas except two. The subgranular zone [SGZ] of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and subventricular zone [SVZ], lining the lateral wall of the lateral ventricles are the two areas where neurogenesis persists well into adult life albeit declining slightly with ageing (Figure 3) [43, 44]. There is a complex microenvironment that nourishes and supports the neural progenitor cells and their progeny which is called the ‘neurogenic niche’. There are various trophic factors, blood vessels, supporting glial cells, and hormones in the neurogenic niche that help to control and enhance neurogenesis [45]. The newborn neurons mature and get integrated into neural circuits and are involved in a variety of functions including learning and memory like temporal and pattern separation, high-resolution memory, synaptic plasticity, fear conditioning and emotions, and olfaction [46]. Incidentally altered neurogenesis is implicated in several neuropsychiatric diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, depression, Huntington’s disease, and stroke, epilepsy, and demyelinating disease [46, 47].
(a) Structure of ACE2 and SARS-CoV-2; (b) Interaction of spike protein and ACE2; (c) Shedding of ACE2 and entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the cell.
Renin-Angiotensin System.
Coronal section of the brain showing the sites of adult neurogenesis.
The process of adult neurogenesis occurs in stages viz. maintenance of neural stem/progenitor cells [NPC] and proliferation of NPC, fate specification/commitment, differentiation, maturation, survival of immature neurons, and integration into neural circuitry. The defining abilities of NPC are self-replication and multipotency, that is, the ability to differentiate into multiple lineages of cells and in this case neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes [48]. There are different types of neural progenitor cells in SGZ and SVZ. Type-1 cells in SGZ, B-cells in SVZ, and radial glia-like cells in SGZ and SVZ are largely quiescent cells, which are similar to radial glia cells found during embryonic development and have a morphology similar to mature astrocytes. Type-2 cells in SGZ and C-cells in SVZ are small roundish cells that are highly proliferative, and they give rise to type-3 cells in SGZ and A-cells in SVZ which represent committed neuroblasts. The type-1/B-cells are multipotent and have unlimited self-renewal capacity which get activated by various factors and multiply to form highly proliferative transient intermediate progenitor cells [TIP] in the SGZ. In SVZ, the transit-amplifying cells [TAC] [type-2/C-cells] has the ability to differentiate into neurons. These divide to form neuroblasts or immature neurons [type-3/A-cells] which proceed to neuronal differentiation and forms newborn neurons that mature and get integrated into neural circuitry in the brain. It is pertinent to know that many of the newborn neurons perish and only 15–30% of immature neurons survive the maturation process. There are various factors that regulate this step and thereby the process of adult neurogenesis [49, 50, 51].
In SGZ, the NPCs form granule cells which are the principal excitatory cells of the dentate gyrus. Their axons form the mossy fibres extending to the CA3 region and their dendrites are in the molecular layer which receives connections from the entorhinal cortex. Immature neurons that are less than a week-old start to have neurite outgrowth and by one- or two-weeks axons can be observed in the hilus, and dendrites start to extend to the molecular layer without spines which being developed by around the 16th day. By 17 days, functional connections are formed by the axons [mossy fibres] with the CA3 pyramidal neurons [52]. They release glutamate as the neurotransmitter. After around 1 week of birth, the newborn granule cells receive GABAergic inputs and after 2 weeks receive glutamatergic inputs [53]. These immature neurons exhibit enhanced excitability by virtue of high input resistance and subthreshold calcium ion conductance which enables them to develop action potential with less excitatory currents. They also have a low threshold for induction of LTP [long-term potentiation] [54, 55]. Between 3 weeks and 2 months, there occurs a gradual increase in spine formation, dendritic arborisation and connection, boutons on CA3 neurons, and maturation of mossy fibres. By less than 2 months, the newborn neurons become functionally indistinguishable from fully mature granule cells [52].
In SVZ, restricted neural progenitor cells migrate along scaffolds maintained by specialised astrocytes via the rostral migratory stream [RMS] to reach the olfactory bulb. By 15–30 days, they differentiate into two types of interneurons, GABAergic granule neurons [95%] and GABA or dopaminergic periglomerular neurons [5%]. The newborn GABAergic granule neurons can become cells with dendrites that do not cross beyond the mitral cell layer and those with non-spiny dendrites that extend till the external plexiform layer. These interneurons mature and get integrated into olfactory network and start responding to olfactory signals [52].
There are various factors that regulate neurogenesis. These include intrinsic niche-derived intrinsic mechanisms and extrinsic systemic factors. The intrinsic factors that regulate adult neurogenesis are given in Table 3. There are extrinsic environmental cues and systemic factors that can positively and negatively affect adult neurogenesis like physical exercise, dietary intake, olfactory/hippocampal-dependent learning, environmental enrichment, ageing, stress, alcohol abuse, and certain inflammatory conditions [46, 56, 57, 58, 59].
Intrinsic factors | Examples |
---|---|
Neurotrophic factors | brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), nerve growth factor (NGF), glia-derived nerve factor (GDNF), fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), epidermal growth factor (EGF) |
Morphogens | Notch, sonic hedgehog (Shh), wingless ligands (Wnts), and bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs). |
Inflammatory cytokines | tissue necrosis factors α (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-1β IL-4 and IL-10 |
Neurotransmitters | gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine |
Hormones | Glucocorticoids, sex hormones, leptin, incretin |
Epigenetic factors | methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 1 (Mbd1), MYST family histone acetyltransferase Querkopf (Qkf), mixed-lineage leukaemia 1 (Mll1), polycomb complex protein (Bmi-1), histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2), and microRNAs (miR124, 137, 184, 185, and 491-3p) |
Transcriptional factors | sex-determining region Y-box 2 (Sox2), Orphan nuclear receptor TLX, forkhead box O proteins (FoxOs), prospero homeobox 1 (Prox1), neurogenic differentiation1 (NeuroD1), Kruppel-like factor 9, cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), paired box protein (Pax6), and neurogenin 2 (Neurog2) |
List of intrinsic factors that affect adult neurogenesis.
There are different ways that are the possible pathway for the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the brain. Some of the ways include olfactory transmucosal invasion, hematogenous dissemination, and neuronal retrograde dissemination [5]. The olfactory sensory neurons of the olfactory mucosa are bipolar neurons. The axons of the olfactory sensory neurons along the apical side project into the nasal cavity while that on the basal side merge into filia and protrudes into the olfactory bulb through the cribriform plate. Thus, the olfactory sensory neurons are in direct contact with the cerebrospinal fluid [60]. In the olfactory mucosa, ACE2 receptors are mainly found in the non-neuronal cells, sustentacular cells while their expression in the olfactory sensory neurons is less [30]. The blood vessels lining the olfactory mucosa express both ACE2 and TMPRSS2 protease receptors which help in the invasion of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and facilitate binding, replication, and accumulation of the virus [61, 62]. Studies have found that SARS-CoV-2 enters CNS through this neural-mucosal interface by infection of the olfactory neurons or by diffusion through channels formed by olfactory ensheathing cells in the olfactory mucosa [60, 63]. Following the olfactory transmucosal invasion, the virus passes along the olfactory tract via axonal transport, trans-synaptic transport, or microfusion to different areas of the brain linked with the olfactory tract [60, 64].
Recent studies have observed that SARS-CoV-2 RNA was found in brain regions that are not directly connected to olfactory mucosa like the cerebellum which shows that other forms/routes of viral entry into the brain are at play. Neuronal retrograde dissemination is the one where the virus may breach peripheral nerve terminals and take a trans-synaptic route to reach CNS. For instance, SARS-CoV-2 may invade peripheral chemoreceptors and may reach the cardiorespiratory centre in the brain stem [65] or through the gut-brain axis where the virus may enter the brain through enteric nerves [66]. In case of hematogenous dissemination, the virus after infecting the airways may breach the epithelial barrier and enter the bloodstream. Through systemic circulation, the virus may reach the cerebral circulation and could infect endothelial cells of blood–brain barrier or epithelial cells of the blood CSF barrier to reach the brain or via circumventricular organs which lack the blood–brain barrier [5]. Trojan horse mechanism is another way by which SARS-CoV-2 could reach the brain parenchyma. It is the process in which the virus infects leucocytes which get activated and disseminate to other tissues and cross blood–brain barrier [67].
Once SARS-CoV-2 enters the brain, it enters and infects the neurons, glial cells, and endothelial cells through ACE2 and replicates which leads to cell death. It causes damage to the blood–brain barrier which will increase its permeability and cause oedema, intracerebral bleeding, and neuronal death. The infected neurons can release inflammatory mediators that can activate other immune cells like mast cells, neurons, microglia, astrocytes, endothelial cells, and pericytes [68, 69].
Earlier studies show that survivors of critical illness have higher risk of developing neuropsychiatric consequences after discharge from the hospital. The prevalence of symptoms of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress was found to be 29% [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34], 34% [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42], and 34% [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50] in survivors of critical illness, respectively [70, 71, 72]. Impairment in memory, attention, and concentration was observed in SARS survivors 1 year after recovery [73]. Based on the knowledge from earlier infections by coronaviruses, SARS, and MERS, an increased risk of neuropsychiatric disorders like depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, are possible in a long-term follow-up of patients recovered from COVID-19 [12].
Neuropsychiatric disorders that display impaired adult neurogenesis include major depressive disorder, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, and post-traumatic stress disorder. All of these correlate well with the reduction in hippocampal volume, cognitive deficits, and mood dysregulation [74]. A recent 3-month prospective study by Yiping Lu et al. conducted in COVID-19 recovered patients found that there was grey matter enlargement in olfactory cortices and hippocampus bilaterally [75]. Yiping Lu et al. also found that the grey matter volume of the hippocampus was negatively related to loss of smell during the disease phase [75]. Anosmia over a course of time in upper respiratory tract infections was found to be associated with a decrease in the grey matter volume [GMV] of the central olfactory system due to loss of stimulation while enlargement of GMV is observed during recovery [76]. Functional compensation in the form of enlarged neurons and an increase in the dendritic spine and compensatory enhanced neurogenesis are believed to be the reason behind GMV enlargement during recovery [77]. Loss of memory that persisted 3 months after the active infection in COVID-19 recovered patients was found to be negatively related to hippocampal grey matter volume [75]. Memory acquisition depends on newborn neurons and impairment in the acquisition of memory occurs due to inhibition of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus [78, 79].
Anosmia is regarded as the key feature of COVID-19 which either occurs as an only symptom or in association with other signs and symptoms [80, 81]. Earlier studies show that any impairment in olfactory neurogenesis is associated with anosmia since neurogenesis in the olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb is essential for the sense of smell [82, 83]. Dysfunction or atrophy of the olfactory bulb was observed in COVID-19 patients by recent studies done using brain imaging reports [84, 85]. Pathogenic changes in COVID-19 seem to cause loss of dopaminergic neurons, defects in the dopamine system, and exacerbate the clinical features of Parkinson’s disease [PD] [86, 87]. Anosmia is an important premotor symptom of PD which is not directly related to the neurodegenerative process in substantia nigra but appears to be related to defective adult neurogenesis [88, 89].
Understanding the process of adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 may reveal a critical role of the regenerative capacity of NPCs in combating the neuropsychiatric consequence of COVID-19. There are no studies or evidence to link COVID-19 with adult neurogenesis yet. Based on the factors like the presentation of neuropsychiatric symptoms in COVID-19, the occurrence of symptoms like anosmia, memory and cognitive deficits in COVID-19, the neuro-invasive potential of SARS-CoV-2, ACE2 expression in sites of adult neurogenesis, increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-6, Il-1β which inhibit adult neurogenesis and impact of earlier coronavirus infections, it might not be far-fetched to say that COVID-19 could have a possible impact on adult neurogenesis. There is a severe scarcity in research analysing the effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection on adult neurogenesis. The current chapter, which is speculative and based on a thorough literature search, discusses the possible changes in adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 emphasising the role of ACE2. If proven to be true in the future, the findings in this article will help in achieving early intervention to address the neuropsychiatric long-term consequence of COVID-19.
SARS-CoV-2 entry into the cell through ACE2 is followed by the downregulation of ACE2. A decrease in ACE2 will lead to dysregulation of RAS and various other complications. A recent study has found that ACE2 is expressed in young neurons and in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural progenitor cells [90]. ACE2 is found to have various neuroprotective functions. It converts neurotoxic amyloid protein Aβ into neuroprotective one in transgenic mice [91]. ACE2 activator, diminazene increased CREB, BDNF, glutamate, and nicotinic receptor and decreased the levels of apoptotic and inflammatory proteins in the AD model of D-galactose-ovariectomized rats [92]. All these factors play a major role in adult neurogenesis. ACE2 deficiency in mice was found to be accompanied by significantly impaired learning and memory [93]. Exercise-induced neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus was abolished in ACE2 deficient mice. Ang II, Ang [1-7], and Mas receptors were not found to be responsible and hence the mediator of this effect is not identified yet [94].
ACE2 expression is stronger in the enterocytes of the small intestine and colon, which is even higher than in the lungs. Neural ganglia cells in the colon of the enteric nervous system also express ACE2 receptors. Intestinal ACE2 plays a major role in the transport of neutral amino acids via B0AT1, neutral amino acid transporter. ACE2/B0AT1 complex regulates the composition and function of gut microbiota. ACE2 knockout animals showed lower levels of serum neutral amino acid levels like tryptophan, and impaired gut microbiota composition along with reduced expression of small intestinal antimicrobial peptides [95]. Enteric infection is an important presentation of COVID-19. Faeces of COVID-19 patients were found to have Viral mRNA [96, 97]. SARS-CoV-2 entry via the enteric route into host cell leads to ACE2 shedding due to S priming which may lead to gut microbiota dysbiosis [98]. Depletion of gut microbiota by prolonged antibiotic treatment resulted in impairment in cognitive function and hippocampal neurogenesis in adult mice [99]. The existence of a strong link between gut microbiota and the development of mental disorders, depression, and anxiety which are associated with impaired adult neurogenesis has been explored in recent studies [100].
Neuroinflammation directly impairs adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-α causes a reduction in neural cell proliferation and suppresses adult hippocampal neurogenesis [101, 102, 103]. SARS-CoV-2 entry into the brain triggers an immune response by activating microglia, astrocytes, and other immune cells. This leads to increased production of cytokines in the brain. Cytokine storm which is a deadly hyperinflammatory response is considered to be a hallmark feature of COVID-19 pathogenesis [104]. Hypercytokinemia of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α was observed in COVID-19 patients. Increased levels of IL-6 correlate with mortality and the need for ventilator support [105, 106].
Thus, there are different possible mechanisms through which SARS-CoV-2 affects adult neurogenesis via ACE2. This chapter, however, will focus on the role of ACE2 in possible alterations in adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 via neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitter signalling is found to play a major role in the formation of new neurons in addition to its clear and indisputable role in communication between neurons. Starting from embryogenesis, neurotransmitters are involved in neuronal proliferation. In adult neurogenesis, they influence various steps including proliferation, differentiation, and migration. In addition to the direct action of neurotransmitters on adult neurogenesis, they also influence other factors that regulate neurogenesis like neurotrophic factors and growth factors [107].
Serotonin is a crucial monoaminergic neurotransmitter that acts as a mood stabiliser and is associated with feelings of happiness, well-being, and contentedness. In the brain, it is synthesised by the Raphe nuclei neurons in the brain stem from tryptophan using neuron-specific tryptophan hydroxylase 2 enzymes. Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 [VMAT] packs the synthesised serotonin into vesicles. Serotonin transporters [SERT] re-uptake serotonin back to presynaptic neurons after its release, thereby regulating its extracellular levels [108]. The serotonergic fibres from raphe nuclei have projections throughout the brain and especially to the granule cells and interneurons of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Serotonin is known to play a major regulatory role in adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SRRI] are commonly used antidepressants that act by increasing serotonin levels in the brain causes clinical improvement associated with an increase in adult hippocampal neurogenesis characterised by increased neuronal proliferation and number of newborn neurons [109]. Malberg et al. in 2000 were the first to show that chronic treatment with fluoxetine improved adult hippocampal neurogenesis [109]. In the dentate gyrus, serotonin is known to promote neuronal development and its depletion was found to cause reduced dendritic spine density of granule cells [110, 111, 112, 113]. Chronic treatment with SSRI, fluoxetine was found to increase the survival of newborn neurons in the dentate gyrus [109, 114]. In stress models like inescapable stress, cold restraint stress in the animal model, fluoxetine administration was found to exhibit neurogenic and neuroprotective roles in the hippocampus [114, 115]. Accelerated synaptogenesis and increased long-term potentiation [LTP] in the hippocampus were also observed by long-term treatment by fluoxetine [116].
Recent studies have found that ACE2 plays a major role in the biosynthesis of serotonin [5HT]. The precursor for 5HT is an essential amino acid, tryptophan which can cross the blood–brain barrier and whose intestinal absorption was found to be reduced by 70% in case of ACE2 deficiency. Thus, ACE2 has an indirect modulatory role in 5HT synthesis in the brain [117]. There are recent studies that show that 5HT synthesis in the brain is dependent on ACE2, which acts by modulating 5HT metabolism and ACE2 deficiency leads to decreased serum tryptophan levels and decreased serotonin levels in the brain [94].
Dopamine is involved in executive functions, volition, motor control, motivation, pleasure/reward, and attention/concentration [118]. The role and mechanism of action of dopamine in adult neurogenesis are not elucidated fully. Dopamine was found to modulate cell proliferation in the embryonic brain [119]. Hippocampus and sub-ventricular zone [SVZ] which are the neurogenic niche containing neural stem cells receive dopaminergic projections from the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. Dopamine receptors are also widely expressed in these two areas and play a regulatory role in adult neurogenesis and neural plasticity [120, 121]. Earlier studies show that depletion of dopamine in the rat model reduces both proliferation and survival of neural precursor cells in the sub-granular zone [SGZ] of the dentate gyrus [122, 123]. Dopaminergic denervation in substantia nigra caused a significant reduction in the proliferation of neural stem cells in SGZ and SVZ which was reversed by D2 receptor stimulation in rodents [123]. In humans, post-mortem studies have revealed that the number of neural precursor cells in SGZ and SVZ was reduced in patients with Parkinson’s disease [124]. Dopamine was also found to increase the type 2A early progenitor cell in the hippocampus of rodents via D1 like receptors [118]. Dopamine receptor agonist pramipexole increases the proliferation and survival of newborn neurons in SVZ, olfactory bulb [119].
RAS plays a major role in dopaminergic vulnerability through AT1 receptors. Dysregulation of RAS due to the downregulation of ACE2 induced by SARS-CoV-2 may increase the vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons and subsequently dopamine levels [125]. Interactions between dopamine and angiotensin receptors that are counterregulatory in nature are observed in substantia nigra and striatum [125]. The gene for ACE2 was found to coexpress and coregulate with that of dopa decarboxylase [DDC] in non-neuronal cells, which is a major enzyme of dopamine, serotonin, and histamine biosynthesis. DDC converts L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine [L-DOPA] into dopamine which subsequently forms norepinephrine and epinephrine and L-5-hydroxytryptophan into serotonin. This coexpression and coregulation link between the genes for ACE2 and DDC gives rise to the possibility of a functional link between the actions of ACE2 and DDC [i.e.,] in the synthesis of Ang [1-7] and dopamine and serotonin mediated by ACE2 and DDC, respectively [126]. Following the infusion of Ang [1-7] in the hypothalamus of rats, brain dopamine levels increased which emphasises the link between ACE2 and DDC. SARS-CoV-2 induced downregulation of ACE2 could cause the decreased synthesis of serotonin and dopamine [94, 127].
The SARS-CoV-2 infection has been found to cause loss of dopaminergic neurons and deficits in the dopamine system [86, 128]. ACE2 expression is high in dopaminergic neurons and the downregulation of ACE2 by SARS-CoV-2 may cause depletion of dopaminergic neurons and dopamine levels. This is evident from the worsening of symptoms observed in COVID-19 patients with Parkinson’s disease [PD], requiring increased dopamine replacement therapy [129]. ACE2 deletion in the knockout mouse model caused a significant reduction in dopamine D1 mRNA expression in substantia nigra [130].
Norepinephrine is an important catecholamine that is involved in alertness, arousal, sleep–wake cycle, memory storage, and emotions. It modulates various functions of the hippocampus like learning, memory, and mood. Noradrenergic axon terminals arising from the locus coeruleus densely innervate the neurogenic niche in the adult hippocampus [131]. Norepinephrine along with the other monoaminergic neurotransmitters plays a major role in adult neurogenesis. Norepinephrine was found to activate the stem cells and neural precursor cells via β3-adrenergic receptors where non-proliferating latent precursor cells develop the ability to respond to mitogens and generate neurospheres. It also increases the proliferation of early progenitor cells in the adult hippocampus via β2-adrenergic receptors [132, 133]. Depletion of norepinephrine significantly decreased the proliferation of progenitor cells of granule cells in the hippocampus [134]. Antidepressants that selectively increase norepinephrine were found to increase adult hippocampal neurogenesis [132].
Downregulation of ACE2 by SARS-CoV-2 may affect the activity of DDC due to the coexpression and coregulation between the genes for ACE2 and DDC. This could lead to a decrease in the biosynthesis of dopamine and subsequently norepinephrine [126].
Glutamate is the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter of the CNS. It plays a vital role in both embryonic brain development and adult neurogenesis. Its extracellular levels are especially higher in the neurogenic niche when compared to other areas of the brain [135, 136]. It has trophic effects on the developing neurons before synapse formation like proliferation, migration, and maturation. It causes an increase in the proliferation of neural progenitor cells [NPC]. The NPCs express NMDA metabotropic glutamate receptors, stimulation of which caused increased intracellular calcium and activation of NeuroD1, proneural gene [137]. Glutamate signalling plays a positive role in maintaining the proliferation of NPCs and the survival rates of newborn neurons [137, 138].
Gamma-aminobutyric acid [GABA] is a principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. It is produced from glutamate by the action of the enzymes glutamate decarboxylase GAD65 and GAD67 [139]. Dysfunction in the GABAergic system is implicated in major depressive disorder and anxiety [140]. However, in the developing brain, GABA exerts an excitatory effect, that is, GABA is excitatory in immature neurons. Tonic discharge from GABAergic neurons is necessary for maintaining the quiescent state of NPCs. The absence of GABAergic excitability will cause impairment in neuronal maturation and synapse formation while an excess of it over newborn neurons will lead to seizures [141]. In SGZ, GABA mediates depolarisation of progenitor cells which is involved in the incorporation of AMPA receptors in immature granule cells, which is critical for learning and formation of memory [142]. It has a negative influence on neuroblasts. It inhibits the proliferation and migration of neuroblasts. It also inhibits the proliferation of NPCs [143, 144, 145]. It also promotes the differentiation of hippocampal NPCs. GABAA receptor agonist, phenobarbital caused a reduction in NPC proliferation and increase in differentiation which resulted in an increased number of newborn neurons [146]. Thus, it plays crucial role in different stages of adult neurogenesis. GABA and glutamate signalling play a major role in adult neurogenesis. Selective activation of the receptor subtypes of GABA and glutamate expressed in NPCs plays a pivotal role in self-replication and fate commitment of the developing neurons into a particular progeny [147].
A recent study has found ACE2 to be located mainly in excitatory neurons of the brain and to a lesser extent in inhibitory neurons like GABAergic neurons [148]. This indicates that SARS-CoV-2 once enters the brain has the potential to access the glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons. The consequence of this is not known however, viral entry may trigger apoptotic pathways and cause excitatory-inhibitory imbalance, and lead to neuronal death [149]. Cytokine release from infected neurons and other activated microglia and astrocytes may also cause a decrease in glutamate and GABA [150]. These effects are implicated along with impaired adult neurogenesis in neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Seizure is one of the neurological symptoms in COVID-19 patients, in which an increase in glutamate levels and decrease in GABA levels in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus is an implicated mechanism [151]. This further emphasises the possible impact of SARS-CoV-2 on glutamate and GABA.
Thus, SARS-CoV-2 induced downregulation of ACE2 in COVID-19 is potentially detrimental to adult neurogenesis. ACE2 deficiency affects the levels and actions of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA, and glutamate which play crucial roles in adult neurogenesis.
SARS-CoV-2 has been found to have a high affinity to ACE2 receptors. Such high affinity has been linked to affect neurogenesis through a variety of mechanisms. The present chapter has clearly postulated the link between this deadly virus and its effect on monoaminergic neurotransmitters as well as GABA and glutamate which play a major role in adult neurogenesis. As ACE2 receptors are expressed in the hippocampus, decreased neurogenesis in this region could be one of the major factors behind the neuropsychiatric disorders associated with patients affected with COVID-19. Awareness and early intervention to prevent and treat long-term psychiatric consequences of COVID-19 are crucial. We should be aware of the possibility that in the long term, COVID-19 may be associated with cognitive and psychiatric disorders in those who recovered. Despite having a mild course of disease in children and adolescents, immunological response to the infection in this population may affect synaptic pruning which may lead to various issues that may not be immediately apparent. Insights into the various machinations of adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 can be used to engineer the process to help with the pathological changes in the brain inflicted by the disease.
The authors would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research, Majmaah University for the support of this chapter.
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Energy capture as hydrogen via water electrolysis has been gaining tremendous interest in Europe and other parts of the world because of the higher renewable penetration on their energy grid. Hydrogen is an appealing storage medium for excess renewable energy because once stored, it can be used in a variety of applications including power generation in periods of increased demand, supplementation of the natural gas grid for increased efficiency, vehicle fueling, or use as a high-value chemical feedstock for green generation of fertilizer and other chemicals. Today, most of the cost and energy use in PEM electrolyzer manufacturing is contributed by the cell stack manufacturing processes. Current state-of-the-art electrolysis technology involves two options: liquid electrolyte and ion exchange membranes. 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The improved performance of those materials can include mechanical strength, toughness and stiffness, electrical and thermal conductivity, superior flame retardancy and higher barrier to moisture and gases. Nanocomposites can also show unique design possibilities, which offer excellent advantages in creating functional materials with desired properties for specific applications. The possibility of using natural resources and the fact of being environmentally friendly have also offered new opportunities for applications. This chapter aims to review the main topics and recent progresses related to polymer nanocomposites, such as techniques of characterization, methods of production, structures, compatibilization and applications. First, the most important concepts about nanocomposites will be presented. Additionally, an approach on the different types of filler that can be used as reinforcement in polymeric matrices will be made. After that, sections about methods of production and structures of nanocomposites will be detailed. 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Due to their highly anisotropic shape and enormous index of refraction, they behave as optical antennae with improved absorption and emission properties, and thus better photovoltaic cell efficiency compared to a planar material with equivalent volume. Implying important advantages of reduced material usage and cost as well as due to its direct bandgap and its flexibility for designing solar cells, we choose to review III–V NWs. Their bandgap can easily be tunable for growing on the cheapest Si substrate. The recent developments in NW-based photovoltaics with attractive III–V NWs with different growth mechanisms, device fabrication, and performance results are studied. Recently, III–V NW solar cells have achieved an interesting efficiency above 10%. GaAsP NW has achieved 10.2%; InP NW has achieved 13.8%; GaAs NW has achieved 15.3%; and moreover the highest 17.8% efficiency is achieved by InP NW. While the III–V NW solar cells are much more vital and promising, their current efficiencies are still much lower than the theoretically predicted maximum efficiency of 48%. In this review, the chapter focused on the synthesis processes of III–V nanowires, vapor-liquid-solid growing mechanisms, solar light harvesting of III–V nanowire solar cells, and designing high-efficiency and low-cost III–V nanowire solar cells.",book:{id:"11461",title:"Advances in Nanowires Synthesis and Applications to Sensing Technologies \ufeff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11461.jpg"},signatures:"Fikadu Takele Geldasa"},{id:"82660",title:"Organoclay Nano-Adsorbent: Preparation, Characterization and Applications",slug:"organoclay-nano-adsorbent-preparation-characterization-and-applications",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105903",abstract:"Organoclay has a tremendous impact on both fundamental studies and practical applications in numerous fields. In this context, this chapter investigates the performance of Organoclay in wastewater treatment. In particular, the adsorption of various hazardous substances has been reviewed. This study aims to give an overview of the preparation methods of Organoclay. The second purpose was to discuss the removal efficiency and reliability of various pollutants by organoclay. The third goal discussed the isotherms and kinetics used for the data interpretation. This work revealed that the characteristics of Organoclay depend mainly on the type of clay used and the nature of the intercalated surfactant. Sorption efficiency was found to depend on the nature of Organoclay, type of pollutant, pH, contact time and the concentration of pollutant.",book:{id:"11755",title:"Nanoclay - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11755.jpg"},signatures:"Kawthar Yahya, Wissem Hamdi and Noureddine Hamdi"},{id:"81789",title:"Processing of Graphene/Elastomer Nanocomposites: A Minireview",slug:"processing-of-graphene-elastomer-nanocomposites-a-minireview",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104849",abstract:"Since the isolation and identification of graphene, the academic and industrial communities are utilizing its superior properties. This minireview deals with the processing of graphene-based fillers/elastomer nanocomposites. The incorporation of graphene in an elastomeric matrices has significant effects on the properties of nanocomposites. The dispersion of graphene in elastomers is discussed. The processing of graphene/elastomer nanocomposites is discussed. The mechanical properties of the elastomeric matrix can be enhanced due to the presence of graphene. In this review and due to space limitations, we will present an example of improvements in the mechanical characteristics of graphene/styrene-butadiene (SBR) elastomer nanocomposites.",book:{id:"10825",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10825.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammed A. Sharaf and Andrzej Kloczkowski"},{id:"82693",title:"CuO and MWCNTs Nanoparticles Filled PVA-PVP Nanocomposites: Morphological, Optical, Dielectric, and Electrical Characteristics",slug:"cuo-and-mwcnts-nanoparticles-filled-pva-pvp-nanocomposites-morphological-optical-dielectric-and-elec",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105810",abstract:"Copper dioxide (CuO) nanoparticles and multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)-filled poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) blend matrix (50/50 wt%)-based polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) have been prepared employing the solution-cast method. The X-ray diffraction explores the semicrystalline morphologies of these PNCs. The FTIR, SEM, and AFM measurements of PNCs expose the development of the miscible mix, polymer-polymer and polymer-nanoparticle interactions, and the influence of CuO and MWCNTs nanofillers on the morphology aspects on the main chain of PVA/PVP blend. The nanofiller loading for x = 14 wt% in the PVA–PVP blend matrix significantly enhances the crystalline phase, diminishing the optical energy gap to 2.31 eV. The DC conductivity is found to be maximum for x = 14 wt% loading concentration. The dielectric and electrical characteristics of these PNCs are investigated for an applied frequency range from 1 kHz to 1 MHz. The dielectric permittivity values increase substantially, owing to the decrease in the nano-confinement phenomenon at low frequency. The rise in applied frequency reduces dielectric permittivity and impedance values and enhances AC electrical conductivity. These PNCs having good dielectric and electrical characteristics can be used as frequency tunable nano-dielectric material in electronic devices.",book:{id:"11464",title:"Carbon Nanotubes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Potential Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11464.jpg"},signatures:"Hassan A.H. 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Taken together, iron oxide nanoparticles are bioactive materials and may perform particular biological function in life activity.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Lizeng Gao"},{id:"82277",title:"Application of Iron Oxide in Supercapacitor",slug:"application-of-iron-oxide-in-supercapacitor",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105001",abstract:"Iron oxide nanostructures have been considered very promising material as electrode in electrochemical energy storage devices because of their lower cost of synthesis and high theoretical charge storage capacity. Iron oxide nanoparticles and their nanocomposites have performed excellent in supercapacitor. Iron oxide as negative electrode has extended the working voltage window of a supercapacitor. The main problems associated with iron oxide based electrodes are their poor electrical conductivity and cycle stability. Therefore, a conductive carbon matrix has been added to the iron oxide based electrodes to improve the electrochemical performance. In this chapter, recent progress on iron oxide and its composite with different materials as electrode in supercapacitor is summarized. The various synergistic effects of nanocomposites and compositional engineering to enhance the electrochemical performance of iron oxide are also discussed.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Rajan Lakra, Rahul Kumar, Parasanta Kumar Sahoo, Sandeep Kumar and Ankur Soam"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:26},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",value:9,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",value:8,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",value:7,count:9}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:3}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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