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Smit Sibinga \r\nMD, Ph.D., FRCP Edin, FRCPath\r\n\r\nCees Th. Smit Sibinga is a University of Groningen graduate, clinical hematologist, and specialist of Transfusion Medicine. He is a special professor of International Development of Transfusion Medicine at the University Medical Centre Groningen. He has been involved in the development of Transfusion Medicine and quality systems and management for economically restricted countries since 1980 through his work with the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Federation of Haemophilia (WFH), and the International Consortium for Blood Safety. \r\nFor 25 years he has served as the Managing Director of Sanquin Division Blood Bank Noord Nederland in Groningen, the Netherlands. Since 1993 the Blood Bank did incorporate the WHO Collaborating Centre for Blood Transfusion and the WFH International Hemophilia Training Centre in Groningen. 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He was the chairman of the organizing committee of the 1986 12th International Scientific Meeting Society for Low-Temperature Biology in Groningen, the 1990 3rd WAA congress, and vice-chairman of the 1994 International Congress of ISBT in Amsterdam.\r\nCees Smit Sibinga has served ISBT in numerous working parties and committees (e.g. Socio-economic, Education, Publications, etc) and served as the Editor in Chief of Transfusion Today from 1992 till 2004.\r\nCees Smit Sibinga is the founder of the European Society for Haemapheresis (EFSH) and a co-founder of the World Apheresis Association (WAA) and served both organizations as a President.\r\nCees Smit Sibinga is the founder of the Academic Institute for International Development of Transfusion Medicine (IDTM) at UMCG, Groningen focused on restricted economy countries. 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1. Introduction
1.1 Goat breeding in the Czech Republic
According to FAOSTAT database, approximately 1 billion goats were bred worldwide in 2018; the largest number of goats were bred in Asia (approximately 52%). The European Commission (EC) has reported a total of 74.6 million sheep and goats in 27 countries of the European Union in 2019, which represents a decrease of 15% compared to the number reported in 2000. Almost a quarter were bred in Greece (33%) and a high percentage in other countries, such as Spain (24%), Romania (14.5%), France (11%), and Italy (10%). According to the EC, approximately 0.4% of sheep and goat stocks are bred in the Czech Republic.
Goat breeding has a long tradition in the Czech Republic. Since 1941, based on the law ‘Act No. 361/1941 Coll. ‘About the Breeding of Farm Animals’, performance control has been introduced in Bohemia. According to statistical data obtained from performance control, 10 breeds of goats were bred in the Czech Republic in 2019. The most common breeds were White Shorthair and Brown Shorthair goat (both are Czech national goat breeds). The number of goats in the Czech Republic has fluctuated significantly. Since 2018, there has been a slight decrease in the number of goats reared. In 2020, 28,919 goats (the Czech Statistical Office, CZSO) were bred in the Czech Republic. According to the preliminary results of the general agricultural account for 2019 published by the CZSO at current prices, small ruminant breeding in the Czech Republic amounted to approximately EUR 8,601 thousand, which in 2019 accounted for 0.4% of animal production and 0.2% of the total output of the agricultural sector. The CZSO data show that small enterprises predominate in the Czech Republic, most breeding 1–10 goats (88.2% of enterprises) - 41.8% of the total number of farmed animals. However, with the growing demand for goat’s milk products, companies that keep more than 400 goats have been emerging in the Czech Republic in recent years. A total of 6.2% of goats were bred on such farms. In the Czech Republic, goat breeding is focused mainly on milk production and, subsequently, on manufacturing of cheese and dairy products, such as kefir and yoghurt. In 2019, goat cheese production reached 266 tonnes at a price of approximately 11.5 EUR/kg.
In the Czech Republic, goat’s milk is processed directly on farms and distributed as milk products. Although goat breeding is not one of the main areas of animal production, it is essential for the agricultural sector. In recent years, the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic has intensively supported research and development in sheep and goat breeding. Sponsored projects: P1 -‘Influence of genetic polymorphism of lipogenic enzymes on milk fat composition and fatty acid (FA) content in milk of small ruminants’ and P2 - ‘Research of factors influencing profitability, quality, and safety of milk and dairy products in small ruminant farms in the Czech Republic’—have closely monitored milk production, hygienic quality of raw milk, and composition, including by-products. Based on the results, measures were proposed to improve both microbiological and nutritional quality of milk while achieving maximum economic profit.
2. Material and methodology
As part of the projects (P1 and P2) mentioned above, milk production was monitored on a farm with shorthair goat breeding. An integral part was the monitoring of daily milk yield and the content of individual milk components. The contents of fat, protein, lactose, and non-fat solids were determined. Sampling was always performed during morning milking and took place at regular monthly intervals from April to August (during the years 2013–2017). The obtained average values of milk yield indicators and milk components content during the monitored period are presented in Table 1. Part of this monitoring (project P1) was also the screening of the composition of fat acids (FAs) in goat’s milk (Table 2).
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Daily milk yield [kg]
0,990 ± 0,050
1,540 ± 0,044
1,806 ± 0,055
1,207 ± 0,070
1,100 ± 0,047
Fat [%]
3,941 ± 0,145
2,955 ± 0,089
3,178 ± 0,080
3,019 ± 0,068
3,051 ± 0,086
Protein [%]
3,174 ± 0,046
2,913 ± 0,021
2,879 ± 0,022
2,980 ± 0,019
3,026 ± 0,038
Lactose
4,251 ± 0,027
4,381 ± 0,025
4,412 ± 0,021
4,390 ± 0,017
4,382 ± 0,038
Non-fat solid
8,332 ± 0,051
10,716 ± 0,115
11,259 ± 0,097
11,237 ± 0,070
11,165 ± 0,127
Table 1.
Average values of milk and milk components in goat’s milk.
Acid
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Mean (%)
SE
Mean (%)
SE
Mean (%)
SE
Mean (%)
SE
Mean (%)
SE
Butyric C4:0
1,58
0,045
2,4
0,082
2,42
0,079
2,5
0,064
2,3
0,029
Caproic C6:0
1,73
0,036
2,49
0,07
2,56
0,048
2,62
0,021
2,51
0,02
Caprylic C8:0
1,94
0,048
2,54
0,096
2,63
0,092
2,81
0,054
2,73
0,017
Capric C10:0
6,94
0,251
8,39
0,355
8,75
0,289
9,27
0,248
9,3
0,08
Lauric C12:0
2,99
0,123
3,19
0,148
3,42
0,108
3,79
0,146
4
0,06
Myristic C14:0
8,92
0,151
9,57
0,206
9,98
0,24
9,97
0,236
10,56
0,12
Myristoleic C14:1
0,12
0,012
0,11
0,007
0,1
0,007
0,14
0,013
0,12
0,009
Pentadecanoic C15:0
1,13
0,03
1,08
0,015
1,05
0,023
0,92
0,036
1,07
0,03
Palmitic C16:0
27,98
0,656
27,45
0,627
26,7
0,911
27,35
0,302
27,57
0,343
Palmitoleic C16:1
1,07
0,033
0,49
0,025
0,51
0,015
0,63
0,017
0,58
0,026
Stearic C18:0
11,82
0,731
10,99
0,564
11,23
0,798
8,83
0,345
9,56
0,443
SUMA t-C18:1
2,14
0,095
2,35
0,066
1,77
0,164
1,87
0,111
1,84
0,212
C18:1n9c
22,82
0,572
19,87
0,859
19,07
0,657
19,76
0,503
18,6
0,406
Linoleic C18:2n6c
2,26
0,081
1,9
0,062
2,42
0,042
2,67
0,097
2,43
0,144
Arachidic C20:0
0,31
0,012
0,28
0,014
0,26
0,009
0,2
0,006
0,24
0,013
α-Linolenic C18:3n3
1,01
0,063
1,03
0,066
1,06
0,05
1,13
0,024
1,13
0,121
CLA
0,69
0,031
0,59
0,044
0,55
0,047
0,46
0,039
omega-6
2,41
0,085
2,92
0,062
2,62
0,043
2,89
0,101
2,65
0,144
omega-3
1,14
0,07
1,2
0,003
1,27
0,047
1,31
0,026
1,31
0,123
SUFA
67,52
0,618
70,38
0,976
70,89
0,619
70,05
0,425
71,7
0,147
MUFA
28,02
0,655
24,67
0,943
34,2
1,347
24,38
0,427
23,03
0,256
PUFA
4,25
0,149
3,84
0,084
4,3
0,127
5,56
0,04
5,28
0,253
Omega6/omega3
2,11
2,43
2,06
2,21
2,02
AI
2,07
2,42
1,82
2,37
2,61
Table 2.
Profile of the essential FAa in individual samples of goat’s milk.
The overview does not include minority FAs with a content below 0.05%.
t-C18:1 = trans isomers C18:1 including e.g. vaccenic acid (t11-C18:1); CLA = conjugated linoleic acid (mixture of isomers c9,t11-C18:2 and t9,c11-C18:2; SFA = saturated fatty acid; MUFA = monounsaturated fatty acid; PUFA = polyunsaturated fatty acid.
The composition of FAs in the milk of White Shorthair goats was analyzed. The animals were monitored from 2013 to 2017 (P1) on the largest goat farm in the Czech Republic—an organic farm that maintained the same feeding strategy in all monitored years. The winter feed ration that was fed at the beginning of the study, consisted of haylage of approximately 2 kg/piece/day, hay ad libitum, and a grain mix, which was dosed during milking in the milking parlor in a total amount of 300 g/piece/day. The summer feed consisted of meadow vegetation of approximately 2 kg/piece/day (loaded into the stable), hay ad libitum, and grain mix, which was also dosed during milking in the milking parlor in a total amount of 300 g/piece/day. In 2013, only the goats in first lactation were included; in 2014, the animals in second lactation were selected; in the following years (2015–2017), only the animals in third lactation were included. The methodology for determining the FA content has been described by Borková et al. [1]. Based on the obtained results, the atherogenic index (AI) [AI = (C12:0 + 4 × C14:0 + C16:0) / (monounsaturated fatty acid + polyunsaturated fatty acid)] was calculated.
Three individual sets of milk samples (P2) were collected from 2 farms in the Czech Republic (White Shorthair goat farms) during lactation (April, June, and August; at least 30% of the animals were always taken from the farm) to monitor the occurrence of bacteria in goat’s milk. Concurrently, microbiological analysis of the pooled milk samples was performed in an accredited laboratory.
The bio-economic model EWSH1 of the ECOWEIGHT software package [2] was used to quantify the effect of udder health on the economics of goat farms. The model makes it possible to comprehensively consider the above-mentioned changes on farms. The impact on the production and the flock structure (culling rate and fertility) and the costs and sales were considered. The universal design of this software allows for widespread evaluation of production and economic farm data [3], despite the fact that it is primarily used to calculate the economic importance of traits for breeding of small ruminants [4].
3. Results and discussion
3.1 The benefits and composition of goat’s milk
The goat’s milk is very beneficial as part of the human diet, but consumption of cow’s milk significantly exceeds that of goat’s milk. Milk and dairy products are the dominant source of income (50–80%) for small ruminant farms. Therefore, the quantity and quality of milk are important for sustaining sales and breeding costs. As the demand for goat’s milk increases, so do milk quality requirements, especially those of milk components essential for higher-quality cheese production. The amount and composition of proteins and lipids are among the most important indicators of the nutritional quality of goat’s milk. Therefore, it is important to monitor the proportion of individual proteins in goat’s milk and the composition of FAs in milk fat. Goat’s milk and its products are a valuable source of nutrients for humans. A significant advantage of goat’s milk compared to cow’s milk is the composition of milk fat. Goat’s milk fat is rich in lower saturated FAs, such as caproic acid (C6:0), caprylic acid (C8:0), and capric acid (C10:0). These FAs are beneficial for treating intestinal diseases, malabsorption syndromes, cystic fibrosis, and heart disease [5, 6]. In contrast, lauric acid (C12:0), myristic acid (C14:0), and palmitic acid (C 16:0) are considered hypercholesterolemic FAs, which increase the proportion of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in plasma and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Table 2 shows that the goats in first lactation had a lower saturated FA milk content (up to 14 carbons). Similar conclusions were reached for cattle by Kelsey et al. [7]. Our result is also consistent with that of Akerlinda et al. [8], who reported a reduced production of saturated FAs in first calves due to incomplete development of the mammary gland, which may reduce the production of saturated FAs. In contrast, the first lactation animals showed the highest milk content of saturated FAs with a larger number of carbon atoms. The effect of lactation order was not significant for monounsaturated FAs, except oleic acid. From 2013 to 2017, the average PUFA content was 3.84% to 5.56% of the total FAs. The average ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 FAs was favorable in all monitored years, ranging from 2.02 to 2.43. The optimal ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 PUFA levels in human nutrition is in the range of 2:1–6:1 [9]. There was no trend in PUFA content between animals in first and subsequent lactations. However, some differences were observed from 2014 to 2017 for animals in third lactation, probably due to the animal’s individuality or environmental factors, such as hay and haylage quality.
The atherogenic index (AI) is an indicator of the nutritional value of goat’s milk; a higher value is associated with a higher risk of atherosclerosis. Stergiadis et al. [10] reported the amount of the atherogenic index in cow’s milk in the range of 2.56 to 2.69 (depending on the breed). Thus, goat’s milk shows a more favorable ratio of saturated to unsaturated FAs than cow’s milk. The best average atherogenic index (AI) value in goat’s milk fat was found in 2015. In contrast, in 2017, there was a rapid increase in the AI value comparable to that of cow’s milk.
3.2 Hygienic quality of goat’s milk
Goat’s milk must meet the hygienic standards of food safety as a raw material for incorporation into dairy products. The limiting factor should be the total number of microorganisms, the number of somatic cells, and the content of selected mastitis pathogens. Monitoring the hygienic quality of raw goat’s milk products, intended for human consumption, should be one of the basic husbandry obligations. Goat’s milk used for milk products in the Czech Republic must meet the following legislative requirements:
Raw goat’s milk used to manufacture products without heat treatment must not contain more than 500,000 CFU/mL for the total plate count (TPC) and 500 CFU/mL for Staphylococcus aureus;
Raw goat’s milk used to manufacture heat-treated (pasteurized) milk products must not contain more than 1,500,000 CFU/mL for the TPC.
Bacteria in milk intended for consumers should be effectively eliminated by pasteurization (except for spore-forming bacteria, such as Bacillus). Bacteria in raw milk can be a source of thermostable enzymes with proteolytic and lipolytic effects that survive pasteurization, reducing the quality of milk as a raw material for further processing. Such bacteria can negatively affect the composition and processing of goat’s milk, resulting in a reduced yield of dairy products, which can cause economic losses to the producers. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor mastitis bacteria in raw goat’s milk to evaluate the health status of the herd. It is also important to monitor somatic cells count (SCC) in milk, which may indicate the health status of the mammary gland and the overall health of the animal.
Somatic cells count (SCC) in goat’s milk has been the subject of many recent studies. It is known that SCC in the milk of small ruminants shows significantly higher values and variability compared to that of cows, even in the case of a healthy mammary gland [11]. High SCC levels in goat’s milk do not always indicate bacteriological contamination or inflammation of the mammary gland, but they may also indicate the animal’s overall condition. In addition, the SCC of goat’s milk is affected by factors other than infection, and it can fluctuate depending on the stage of lactation, lactation order, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the condition of the animals more comprehensively by measuring SCC in pool milk samples and to monitor the relationship between the SCC values of goat’s milk and the occurrence of mastitis pathogens, and chemical composition and technological properties of milk. The obtained information can be used to improve the quality of goat’s milk on farms, especially its technological properties, which can be economically beneficial to farmers.
The occurrence of bacteria in raw goat’s milk (pool and individual samples) was monitored on selected goat farms (P2) in the Czech Republic.
From Table 3, it is evident that the values of the total number of microorganisms in raw goat’s milk on both farms (P2) throughout the monitored period met the legislative limit of the Czech Republic for the requirement for the production of heat-treated pasteurized milk products, including the requirement for the production of raw milk products. The numbers of Staphylococcus aureus for the production of raw milk products were exceeded only in Farm B in August, in the case of Staphylococcus aureus, effectively eliminated.
Table 3 shows that the values of the TPC in raw goat’s milk from both farms met the legislative limit for the Czech Republic. The milk was suitable for the production of heat-treated pasteurized milk products and raw milk products. The numbers of S. aureus in raw milk products were exceeded only by those in milk samples collected from Farm B in August. Coliform bacteria and S. aureus were effectively eliminated by pasteurization.
The pathogens detected in individual milk samples taken during lactation from the 2 farms (P2) are shown in Table 4. The most frequently observed are the so-called environmental pathogens, of which coagulase-negative staphylococci are predominant (in 27.9% of all monitored samples). Other commonly observed pathogens are Staphylococcus PK-(delta haemolysin negative) (23.4% of samples), Staphylococcus PK-(delta haemolysin positive), Enterococcus sp., and Streptococcus uberis. Staphylococcus intermedicus and Trueperella pyogenes were detected in only 1 case. However, there was minimal detection of contagious pathogens. S. aureus was detected in both farms (5.4% of samples), and Mannheimia sp. was detected in 0.5% of cases.
Summary of the occurrence of bacteria in individual samples of goat milk.
The number of individual milks with the occurrence of bacteria in the milk (77 pcs) is lower than the number of total detected cases of bacteria (total of 86 cases), which is caused by the occurrence of 9 milk samples with the detected presence of two different bacteria.
Contagious pathogens.
Individual goat’s milk samples were divided into milk samples with and without bacteria (Table 5). Pathogenic bacteria were found in 37.4% of the samples. The mean somatic cell count value for the samples containing bacteria was found to be 1.960 × 103/mL (statistically significantly higher compared to the mean SCC value for the group without bacteria). However, goat’s milk samples that were free of mastitis pathogens also had a high value of somatic cell score. The average SCC value of goat’s milk without mastitis was 1.422 × 103/mL, which may be affected by several factors, such as the animal’s health and stress factors. Somatic cells have their own enzymes that can negatively affect the properties (mostly technological) of milk. Therefore, it is appropriate to monitor pathogenic bacteria, SCC values, and the total number of microorganisms in raw goat’s milk.
Sample frequency and somatic cells count (SCC) values in groups with or without bacteria.
Simultaneously with the bacteriological analysis of individual milk samples, the number of somatic cells in these samples was determined. For technical reasons, perform the PSB determination only on 182 samples out of a total of 222.
As part of the project’s solution mentioned in the introduction, several other indicators of the quality of the produced and processed goat’s milk were monitored. Great attention has been paid to the refinement and expansion of knowledge about the relationships between the quality parameters of milk of small ruminants, especially the microbiological quality and content of somatic cells and its technological properties. For example, a negative effect of high SCC on rennetability and thermostability was observed. For milk samples with SCC > 1,000 thousand cells/mL, a longer renneting time and lower thermostability values were found. The effect of SCC on milk components was also observed. Individual milk samples with SCC > 1,000 thousand cells/mL showed a decrease in lactose content. Furthermore, the impact of SCC on the composition of individual protein fractions and the content of chlorides, sodium, and potassium in milk was studied. The results have been published on an ongoing basis or are currently being prepared for publication [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
The implementation of the obtained results was then mediated by economic evaluation of the impact of the mammary gland health on production economics. The production and economic data were analyzed using the ECOWEIGHT program. Because of the direct processing of milk on farms and the sale of milk in the form of dairy commodities, it was possible to evaluate the indirect effect of the mammary gland health on the economy of breeding. The calculation was modeled on goats of the White Shorthair breed.
3.3 Economic aspects of udder health
Udder health, reflected by the incidence of clinical and subclinical mastitis, is an important factor that influences the quantity and quality of milk as well as animal welfare. As mentioned above, the somatic cells count (SCC) in milk, also expressed as a somatic cell score (SCS), is an indirect indicator of udder health. With an increase in SCC, the quality of goat’s milk decreases and its technological properties deteriorate, thereby causing a decline in the overall efficiency of milk and dairy commodity production [21]. Economic evaluation of the SCC (or SCS) effect can be carried out directly using basic milk price correction [22]. When milk is processed and sold as final products (e.g. cheese, yoghurt, kefir, and cottage cheese), the effect of the mammary gland health status can only be determined indirectly.
Evaluation of the udder health effect on production economy was based on the qualitative data described above and on own investigation of production and economic data provided by dairy goat farmers (P2) over the period 2015 and 2018. Production system is mostly intensive, purebred and closed, just purchasing the young bugs. Young goats needed for flock replacement are reared at farm. Goats are mated at autumn followed by kidding on February. Milking of goats starts early after kidding and a half of produced milk is used for kids’ nutrition until full weaning of kids at 47 days of age. In the basic production system presented in Table 6 the average production and economic data of White Shorthair goat farms have been taken into account. Based on the similarity between the production and economic parameters and breeding systems, it can be assumed that our findings would also be valid for local farms of Brown Shorthair goats. In terms of indirect udder health indicators, an average SCC of 710,000 cells/mL milk was recorded on evaluated farms [23]. Considering that the SCC of 1,000 thousand cells/mL milk is generally stated as a limiting value, the presented production and economic data correspond to the parameters of a healthy farm.
Selected production and economic data of dairy goat farms (own calculation).
The cumulative change in production and economic data at once was taken into account in the variant “All”.
Variation in the parameters, listed in Table 6, reflects the described relationship between the SCC and the farm’s basic production level. The average value of production parameters (milk yield per milking period, fat content, protein content, goat conception rate, and litter size) applied in the base setting was changed by −10% and then all parameters were adjusted in one calculation (variant All). To take into account the additional costs of the treatment of animals with health problems, the value of labour and veterinary costs was also increased by 10% in all variants. The bio-economic model EWSH1 of the ECOWEIGHT software package [2] was used to quantify the effect of udder health on the economics of goat farms.
Revenue from dairy commodities represents the most important source of income for dairy goat farms in the Czech Republic (92% on average). A smaller fraction comes from the sale of animals and subsidies (see Table 7). Similarly, for New Zealand farmers, Solis-Ramirez et al. [24] reported that sales of milk and dairy products accounted for up to 99% of revenue, and only 1% came from other sources (subsidies were not accounted for, and sales of farm animals were recorded only for 1 of the evaluated farms).
Production and economic data of farms according to the basic setting and studied variants (own calculation).
Based on the milk yield intended for cheese processing (0.107 kg cheese/kg milk).
Percentage of total loss (culled and death).
Revenues from other categories (bugs and reared animals) and culled goats.
Include support for performance testing, rearing and breeding of animals and conservation of genetic animal resources.
The labour and veterinary costs were of 89.98 EUR and 17.70 EUR in the base system and increased by 10% in the studied variants (described in details in Table 6). Other costs include: fixed costs (96.25 EUR/goat/year) and costs for other categories (goats and rearing of young animals) expressed per goat.
The ratio of profit (revenues - costs) and total breeding costs expressed in percent.
The most significant costs of goat farms in the Czech Republic (Table 7) are milking and processing cheese (42%), feeding (25%) and labour (17%) (other costs account for 16%). The cost of veterinary care does not exceed 3% of the total cost. For comparison, dairy goat flocks in New Zealand [24] have a comparable cost structure with high feed (21% for concentrates and minerals), milk processing (20%), and labour costs (15%). If the indirect effect of udder health on the economy of Czech goat farms (variant All) is considered, the share of other costs increases from 17–24%, reflecting the overall change in the level of production and the basic flock structure. The reduction in milk yield available for further processing (−58 kg) and the number of weaned kids (−0.21 kids per goat) resulted in a higher culling rate of goats, higher need for rearing goats for flock replacement (by 4 young goats/100 goats of the basic flock), and an overall reduction in the production lifetime of goats (by 0.5 years). Thus, there are not only additional costs (for the veterinary treatment and rearing of young goats) but also losses in sales. Consequently, farm profitability can fall by up to 1/3 owing to indirect effect of udder health problems. The profit remains positive, most likely due to the high intensity of production. However, farms with lower production levels may experience a drop in profit below the zero cost-effectiveness limit. Similarly, in the case of goat farming in New Zealand and Brazil [24, 25], high variability in farm profitability was found (from 10–179%), and the different production intensity of local farms was reported as one of the main reasons.
4. Conclusion
Goat’s milk and goat’s products are growing in popularity. At the same time, the requirements for its quantity, quality, and safety are growing. On small ruminant farms in the Czech Republic, milk usually does not go as a delivery to a dairy as in cow’s milk production, but it is processed locally into products where detailed research into the properties of goat’s milk is needed. The application with the quality limitation for internal use on farms in the quality system can contribute to the formal support of the quality system for official quality verification purposes, but above all practically to animal health, product quality, consumer food safety, and farm operational security. Our results show that mammary gland health indirectly affects economics of dairy goat farms. As in the case of dairy cattle, the additional costs associated with the treatment of sick animals (cost of medicines, veterinary treatment, and work of herdsman) and the actual decrease in milk production owing to disease incidence will be the most important factors that define economic consequences. Nevertheless, higher prevalence of subclinical infections, occurring commonly in dairy flocks of small ruminants, should be considered.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic, institutional support MZE RO0718 (V001 and V003) and MZE-RO1420.
Conflict of interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
Notes/thanks/other declarations
Thanks are due to the Czech dairy goat farmers for cooperation in the production and economic data collection.
\n',keywords:"goat, milk quality, somatic cell account, economics, farm profitability",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76440.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76440.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76440",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76440",totalDownloads:155,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 1st 2020",dateReviewed:"March 31st 2021",datePrePublished:"April 24th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 24th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Mammary gland anatomy in small ruminants is very similar to that of cows; however, milk synthesis throughout lactation exhibits many functional particularities in small ruminants compared with that of cows. Goat’s milk is beneficial for human nutrition owing to the fatty acid composition, fat globule size, and conjugated linoleic acid content. As a raw material for dairy products, goat’s milk must be safe for human consumption. The number of mesophilic microorganisms, somatic cells, and selected mastitis pathogens should be limited. A prerequisite for the production of milk of high hygienic quality is the health of the mammary gland. Goat’s milk processing into cheese and other products is in the Czech Republic mostly performed on farms, partly for direct sales to consumers and partly for supplying selected stores. Revenues from dairy commodities represent the most important source of income for dairy goat farms. Mammary gland health has an important effect on the economics of dairy goat farms. 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DOI: 10.15567/mljekarstvo.2018.0104'},{id:"B2",body:'Wolf J, Wolfová M, Krupová Z, Krupa E: User\'s manual for the program package ECOWEIGHT, Version 5.1.1. Part 2: Program EWSH1 for sheep, Version 1.1.6. 2011. Prague: Institute of Animal Science. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323583237'},{id:"B3",body:'Krupová Z, Krupa E, Wolfová M, Michaličková M: Impact of variation in production traits, inputs costs and product prices on profitability in multipurpose sheep. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 2014;12:902-912. DOI: 10.5424/sjar/2014124-6166'},{id:"B4",body:'Krupová Z, Krupa E, Wolfová M: Impact of economic parameters on economic values in dairy sheep. Czech Journal of Animal Science, 2013;58(1):21-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17221/6522-CJAS'},{id:"B5",body:'Jandal, JM: Comparative aspects of goat and sheep milk 1996;22: 177-185. doi:10.1016/S0921-4488(96)00880-2'},{id:"B6",body:'Sanz Sampelayo, MR, Chilliard Y, Schmidely PH, Boza J: Influence of type of diet on the fat constitutes of goat and sheep milk 2007; 68:42-63. DOI:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2006.09.017'},{id:"B7",body:'Kelsey JA, Corl BA, Collier RJ, Bauman DE: The effect of breed, parity, and stage of lactation on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in milk fat from dairy cows 2003; 86: 2588-2597. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)73854-5'},{id:"B8",body:'Åkerlind M, Holtenius K, Bertilsson J, Emanuelson M: Milk composition and feed intake in dairy cows selected for high or low milk fat percentage 1999; 59: 1-11. doi:10.1016/S0301-6226(99)00034-2'},{id:"B9",body:'Jirák R, Zeman M: The Functions of Omega-3 and Omega-6 at Polynusaturatted Fatty Acids on Psychic Disorders. 2007. Čes. a slov Psychiat., 103: 420-426'},{id:"B10",body:'Stergiadis S, Nørskov NP, Purup S, Givens I, Lee MRF, Comparative Nutrient Profiling of Retail Goat and Cow Milk 2019; 11: 2282. doi:10.3390/nu11102282'},{id:"B11",body:'Pirisi A, Lauret A, Dubeuf JP: Basic and incentive payments for goat and sheep milk in relation to quality 2007; 68: 167-178. DOI:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2006.09.009'},{id:"B12",body:'Kouřimská L, Vondráčková E, Fantová M, Nový P, Nohejlová L, Michnová K.: Effect of feeding with Algae on fatty acid profile of goat’s milk 2014; 45:162-169. doi: 10.2478/sab-2014-0103'},{id:"B13",body:'Borková M, Michnová K, Hyršlová I, Fantová M, Elich O.: Changes in fatty acid profile of goat butter from goats fed algae. 2015; 13: 82-89'},{id:"B14",body:'Novotná K, Fantová M, Nohejlová L, Borková M, Stádník L, Ducháček J.: Effect of Chlorella vulgaris and Japonochytrium sp. Microalgae Supplementation on Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Goat Milk2017; 65: 1585-1593. DOI: 10.11118/actaun201765051585'},{id:"B15",body:'Rychtarova J, Sztankoova Z, Svitakova A.: Association of polymorphism at BTN1A1, SCD and LPL gene on somatic cell count in czech white shorthaired goat breed. 2017; 21: 64-69'},{id:"B16",body:'Hejtmánková A, Michlová T, Dragounová H, Maroušková N, Bártová M.: Influence of somatic cell count on Cl, Na and K content in small ruminant milk. 2018; 24: 11-20'},{id:"B17",body:'Hofmannova M, Rychtářová J, Sztankóová Z, Milerski M, Vostrý L, Svitáková A.: Association between polymorphism of ABCG2 gene and somatic cell count in Czech dairy sheep breeds. 2018; 74: 489-492 DOI: 10.21521/mw.6110'},{id:"B18",body:'Hofmannová M, Rychtářová J, Sztankóová Z, Kyselová J, Milerski M, Vostrý L.: Effect of a novel polymorphism of the LF and TLR4 genes on milk yield and milk compositions in dairy goats. 2018; 19: 890-896. DOI:10.5513/JCEA01/19.4.2337'},{id:"B19",body:'Krupová Z, Krupa E, Rychtářová J.: Impact of udder health on economics of dairy goat 2018; 19: 897-905. DOI: /10.5513/JCEA01/19.4.2344'},{id:"B20",body:'Novotná K, Svitáková A, Rychtářová J, Fantová M, Nohejlová L.: Methodology of udder description and the effect on somatic cell count in Czech White Shorthaired Goat Breed 2018; 74: 497-500. DOI: 10.21521/mw.6108'},{id:"B21",body:'Kuchtík J, Šustová K, Kalhotka L, Pavlata L. Celkový počet mikroorganismů a počet somatických buněk v kozím mléce a jejich korelace. Mlékařské listy, 2015; 152:19-26'},{id:"B22",body:'Wolfová M, Wolf J, Kvapilík J, Kica J: Selection for profit in cattle: I. Economic weights for purebred dairy cattle in the Czech Republic. Journal of Dairy Science, 2007; 90: 2442-2455. DOI:10.3168/jds.2006-614'},{id:"B23",body:'Seydlová R and Dragounová H: Hygienická kvalita kozího mléka. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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\r\n\tIn order to scientifically address significant issues such as climate change, which puts into question our very survival as a species, the current pandemic with its massive physical, socio-economical, and psychological consequences, and the rise of AI which challenges our established economic structures, we need to ask insightful questions: What is truly human? How can humans develop further? The answers to these questions are necessary not only to find new solutions to the current challenges, but also to shape new visions of what can come next.
\r\n
\r\n\tNeuroscientific research linking brain functions has produced a perspective on human development that includes normal, impaired, and enhanced neurophysiological, emotional and cognitive functioning. Human development has been considered the very aim of education and of educative processes. Indeed, the capabilities built through educational training are included in the UN’s human development index, according to which such capabilities are the ultimate criteria to assess the development of a country, rather than economic growth alone. Yet a full understanding of what Human Development truly constitutes, remains open. For example, tackling the question of what distinguishes human beings from other animals, and what humans’ possible development trajectory might look like, calls for a multidisciplinary approach. Consequently, contributions to such an inquiry might come from very different scientific fields, ranging from cognitive neuroscience to socioeconomics. For instance, in the field of neuroscience, self-awareness—the most specific characteristic of human beings—has been investigated in connection with its neural correlates. Recent research points to self-awareness as the particular ability of our species, directly connecting it to our abstract thinking which in turn enables envisioning new possible futures and self-development
\r\n
\r\n\tTo achieve a broad, multidisciplinary perspective on possible human development, subjects will be considered through varied— yet related—approaches. We will provide a complex yet consistent framework through which we will explore a substantial amount and variety of theories and case studies. Our ultimate goal will be to produce useful indications for policy making in diverse contexts, assist teachers and parents with child development in an optimal way, and enhance theoretical and practical knowledge.
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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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