Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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This book provides a clear explanation of different neurodegenerative diseases with new concepts of understand the etiology, pathological mechanisms, drug screening methodology and new therapeutic interventions. Other chapters discuss how hormones and health food supplements affect disease progression of neurodegenerative diseases. From a more technical point of view, some chapters deal with the aggregation of prion proteins in prion diseases. An additional chapter to discuss application of stem cells. 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1. Introduction
The liver is a 1.5 kg reddish-brown biochemical processing plant of immense responsibilities that include protein synthesis, xenobiotic or drug metabolism, blood detoxification, and the release of bile acids for digestion. In short, the liver plays a key role in the hemostasis of the body by regulating the levels of sugar, protein, and fat that circulate in the blood. However, obesity, which must be carefully defined according to ethnic-specific BMI cut-off points, may alter normal liver physiology and lead to liver disease [1]. Obesity is at the intersection of the chronic liver disease pathway that includes diabetes, metabolic syndrome (MetS), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The complex association between obesity and liver function involving NAFLD, HCC, histopathology, and genetic factors is the subject of several collaborative research investigations [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
Over the past few decades, dramatic changes in lifestyle behaviors and health priorities have contributed to a significant rise in noncommunicable diseases such as obesity and NAFLD. Obesity is highly prevalent in the United States of America, estimated to represent between 30 and 38% of adults with a body mass index (BMI) greater than 30 kg/m2 [8, 9]. Obesity is also a risk factor for metabolic syndrome (MetS), which increases hepatic triglyceride (TGs) depositions. NAFLD is the most common cause of impaired liver function in Western countries, affecting over one quarter of the population [10, 11]. Obesity is driving the rise of NAFLD and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), the culmination of the fatty liver disease spectrum that is manifested by ballooning, scarring, cirrhosis, and finally liver failure and HCC [12]. It is estimated that globally the prevalence of NAFLD in the general population is 24–30% [13, 14]. Accounting for errors in accuracy that may exist in indirect measurement methodologies, in the United States, the prevalence of NAFLD in adults has risen from 18% in 1988–1991, to 29% in 1999–2000, to 31% in 2011–2012 [15]. However, the prevalence of NAFLD in the United States diagnosed by ultrasonography alone was estimated to be 24.13% (95% CI 19.73–29.15%) [16].
1.1 NAFLD definition
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a broad-spectrum disease ranging from fat infiltration of hepatocytes with no symptoms (simple steatosis aka nonalcoholic fatty liver, NAFL) to excess intrahepatic macroglobular and macrovesicular fat accumulation (5–10% by weight of liver) with aggravated inflammation (steatohepatitis aka nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, NASH) in the presence of little ethanol (typically <30 g per day for men and <20 g per day for women) or no alcohol consumption in the last 12 months [12, 17]. It should be noted, however, there is now convincing evidence demonstrating that even “safe” levels of alcohol consumption are associated with adverse health outcomes [17, 18, 19, 20] suggesting that future studies should include only nondrinker individuals in the “NAFLD definition” [21]. Therefore, for NAFLD classification, the patient must show evidence of hepatic fat accumulation in the absence of declared chronic alcohol consumption, or drug use that can induce steatosis, or hereditary disorders. This NAFLD designation excludes both macrovesicular and microvesicular steatosis encompassing certain drugs, toxins, viral hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV) or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections, celiac disease, α-1 antitrypsin deficiency, hepatobiliary infectious diseases, hepatolenticular degeneration, hepatic malignancies, genetic hemochromatosis, Wilson’s disease, lipodystrophy, abetalipoproteinemia, Reye’s syndrome, HELLP syndrome, or decompensated cirrhosis, which may contribute to secondary causes of steatosis and elevated liver enzymes [22, 23, 24]. Additional medications targeted for exclusion are estrogen, sodium valproate, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), calcium antagonists, perhexiline-maleate, and antiretroviral drugs [25, 26, 27]. Appropriate medical history must also be taken to exclude the uncommon causes of fatty liver secondary to treatment with drugs such as amiodarone, diltiazem, steroids, synthetic estrogens, tamoxifen, and highly active antiretroviral therapy; refeeding syndrome and total parenteral nutrition; severe weight loss after jejunoileal or gastric bypass; lipodystrophy; and other rare disorders [28]. There are also strong opinions for the exclusion of “whole-body system diseases” such as inflammatory bowel syndrome, hypothyroidism, and lipoatrophy [25] from the “secondary fatty liver diseases” category because they may also induce liver steatosis.
NAFLD can be distinguished from alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) by the absence of alcohol consumption and on histological markers such as sclerosing hyaline necrosis, hepatocyte ballooning, portal granulocytic inflammation, lobular inflammation, satellitosis, perisinusoidal fibrosis, Mallory-Denk bodies, and acute cholestasis among others [29, 30, 31]. However, it is important to note that NAFLD can also coexist with other liver diseases including HCV, hemochromatosis, and alcoholic liver disease, which can accelerate progression to end-stage liver disease (ESLD) [32].
1.2 The natural history of NAFLD
The pathophysiology of NAFLD and its variants is still incompletely understood thereby limiting the availability of effective diagnostic and therapeutic intervention. The ongoing persistence of obesity and the accompanying high rates of diabetes will increase the prevalence of NAFLD [33]. In many cases, the natural cause of the disease is the development of cirrhosis and ESLD as the population ages. Increased mortality rates have been reported in studies that compared NAFLD patients with a normal reference population [34, 35, 36]. The primary cause of death for NAFLD patients is cardiovascular disease followed by nonliver cancer, whereas the third leading cause of mortality is liver-related complications including cirrhosis [33]. The exact prevalence of fatty liver condition is not known, but population studies from the United States and China estimate that 28–30% of the general population has simple steatosis that carries a relatively benign prognosis and is measured using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (the most accurate imaging modality) and that 8% of the population has elevated alanine transaminase (ALT) [37, 38]. A follow-up of population-based studies examining the natural history of NAFLD patients in Minnesota revealed that 3.1% of the patients developed cirrhosis-related complications including ascites (2%), jaundice (2%), encephalopathy (2%), variceal bleeding (1%), and HCC (0.5%) [34]. Approximately 10–30% of those with steatosis develop NASH, and the development of NASH cirrhosis is associated with a poor long-term prognosis for 2.6% of them who will be at a risk of developing HCC [39, 40, 41]. Ten years following diagnosis, 45% will decompensate and the mortality rate for subjects with Child-Pugh A disease will be 20% [42]. Furthermore, besides having an increased liver-related mortality rate compared to the general population, patients with NASH also have an increased risk of cardiovascular death (15.5 vs. 7.5%, p = 0.04) [35]. Generally, NAFLD is a slowly progressing disease, which does not culminate in ESLD in most patients. Identifying those who will develop a complete liver failure is a difficult proposition [43]. NAFLD data are limited on predictors of clinical progression to NASH and beyond. Due to the compounding effect of obesity, prospective longitudinal studies are needed to help in the prediction of outcomes for individual patients. On the other hand, patients with NASH have a worse prognosis and attempts should be made to include them in clinical trials of novel treatments for this condition. The sequence of steps in liver disease commencing with steatosis and eventually culminating in HCC (i.e., ESLD) is presented in Figure 1 [44].
Figure 1.
The progression and stages of NAFLD (adapted from Baranova et al., [44]). Steatosis is the initial NAFLD stage and is characterized by excessive accumulation of fat in hepatocytes. Subsequent inflammatory conditions accelerate the progression to NASH followed by liver cirrhosis, which may lead to HCC. Both steatosis and NASH can reverse to NAFLD.
1.3 NAFLD diagnosis and staging
The general classification of NAFLD as stated above and accepted by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) is a hepatic fat accumulation exceeding 5–10% by weight of the liver [45]. Accordingly, NAFLD diagnosis in the liver is based on: (i) the presence of simple steatosis, as determined by histological or imaging procedure; (ii) a total weekly consumption of less than 140 g of ethanol for men and less than 70 g for women in the last 12 months; and (iii) the absence of competing etiologies for simple liver steatosis and the absence of coexisting causes for chronic liver disease [46]. An appropriate diagnosis of NAFLD, which is multifaceted, requires that there is evidence of hepatic steatosis upon imaging and histology or both and that other causes of liver disease including steatosis have been excluded [23].
The increasing prevalence of obesity in the past few decades has led to a surge in NAFLD, which manifests liver cells as bloated with droplets of fat. It has been reported that 70% of centrally obese patients with diabetes and hypertension (HTN) harbor steatohepatitis on liver biopsy [47]. Imaging has enabled the observation of central obesity in 70–80% of these subjects and in 50–80% of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). NAFLD is typically asymptomatic; therefore, diagnosis usually follows the subsidiary finding of abnormal liver enzymes or steatosis on imaging. Early diagnosis of NAFLD requires skilled and informed practitioners to halt fibrosis progression to more advanced stages. Liver needle puncture biopsy, although invasive, is the gold standard. Less-invasive methods of image detection tools may not provide consistent information due to the subjective interpretations of the data by radiologists [48]. But imaging tools such as abdominal ultrasound (US), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are beginning to meet this need. Ultrasound or sonography is very effective in diagnosing steatosis where greater than 33% of hepatocytes are steatotic but can be unreliable with lesser degrees of steatosis [49]. The other imaging modalities such as CT or MRI can also detect hepatic steatosis even though they are not used in the evaluation of steatosis. Currently, the combination of MRI and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRI/1H-MRS) is the most accurate noninvasive measuring tool of steatosis [50, 51]. 1H-MRS, which defines NAFLD as hepatic fat accumulation (steatosis) >5% of total weight of the liver, is the most reliable quantitative tool. However, due to its prohibitive cost, it is not widely available. Ultrasonography, on the other hand, is the instrument of choice for most of the clinics due to its low cost and wide availability even though it is still relatively limited in the detection of inflammation, a more important and higher risk concern than steatosis for fibrosis, cirrhosis, and HCC [52, 53].
Controlled attenuation parameter (CAP), which is a novel ultrasound-based technique that assesses liver stiffness and steatosis simultaneously by employing transient elastography (TE) [54]. This CAP technique has been shown to accurately detect steatosis although its diagnostic threshold has not yet been determined. Obesity and diabetes are the main risk factors for NAFLD [55]. It has been reported that the presence of T2DM significantly increases the prevalence of NAFLD regardless of the diagnostic tool [56]. For example, using controlled attenuation parameter (CAP), the prevalence of NAFLD is estimated at 75% in T2DM population and 40% in the general population, whereas it is 65% and about 37% respectively when measured by 1H-MRS. The prevalence rate goes down when assessed by liver ultrasound, computed tomography, and plasma ALT in that order [56].
In contrast, most global population studies base their NAFLD characterization on less sensitive and less specific surrogate markers of the disease including elevated liver-associated enzymes such as aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT >40 IU/L in males; >31 IU/L in females) [57, 58]. Furthermore, serum ALT levels are within the range currently considered “normal” in a sizeable proportion of NAFLD subjects [59]. Typically, depending on the reference values from different laboratories, the broad range for normal AST is reported between 10 and 40 IU/L and ALT between 7 and 56 IU/L. This is because ALT usually falls (and AST may rise) as fibrosis progresses to cirrhosis. Mild elevations, which are generally asymptomatic, are considered to be 2–3 times higher than the normal range, and drastic elevations are 5 times higher than the upper limit of normal, which varies according to gender [60]. Moreover, the very selective measurement of ALT level based on race or ethnicity underscores the lack of effective surrogate markers for NAFLD/NASH in the absence of biopsy [61]. Therefore, an innovative approach is needed to use metabolic risk factors to identify subjects with NAFLD/NASH rather than relying on liver enzyme abnormalities.
There is an active research that is underway to discover serum biomarkers for NASH since it is associated with increased apoptosis and therefore blood markers of apoptosis may be instrumental in distinguishing NASH from simple steatosis [62]. Apoptosis activates caspases that cleave various substrates such as cytokeratin-18 (CK-18), a key intermediate filament protein in hepatocytes, that can be detected with an ELISA test using an M30 antibody to identify patients with NASH [63, 64]. However, liver biopsy provides a superior assessment of hepatic steatosis, hepatocellular injury, inflammation, and fibrosis as well as its ability to demonstrate the presence of hepatocyte ballooning and degeneration in association with steatosis as the key histological feature that distinguishes NASH from simple steatosis. Notwithstanding its limitations such as inherent variability in histologic assessment of NAFLD stage and activity, its invasiveness, its high possibility of complications related to liver damage, its proneness to sampling error generated by the operators, and its limitations in accessibility and reproducibility, liver biopsy is still the standard criterion for the most accurate diagnosis of NAFLD and NASH. Also, because only 7–30% of NAFLD patients in the world population had an indication of biopsy for accurate measurement, Younosis et al., re-evaluated and reported the global prevalence of NASH to be between 1.5 and 6.45% and the North American rate at an average of 8.69% (between 7.2 and 14.63%) [4, 65]. Regarding obesity, reports show that NASH can be verified by histological examination in about 47% of all NAFLD cases among obese individuals [66].
Liver fibrosis is the inordinate accretion of extracellular matrix proteins that include collagen in most types of liver disease including NAFLD. Fibrosis stage is a crucial histological variable to predict mortality. There are well-known independent predictors of fibrosis, which is a subway to chronic liver disease state. Some of these risk factors are age (>45–50), BMI (>28–30 kg/m2), insulin resistance (IR), diabetes, and HTN [67]. Staging hepatic fibrosis is essential in all patients with NAFLD to identify individuals with advanced fibrosis (AF) who may later develop liver-related complications such as hepatocellular dysfunction and portal hypertension (PHTN). A noninvasive and an indirect assessment, which is performed in all liver disease patients including children, may include blood tests such as liver function tests (low albumin), complete blood count (thrombocytopenia and neutropenia), and coagulation profile (prolonged prothrombin time) [68]. Among the diagnostic tools used to measure the prevalence of AF in the setting of T2DM versus the general population, vibration-controlled transient elastography shows the highest prevalence rate followed by NAFLD fibrosis score and FibroTest in that order. It should be noted that the prevalence of T2DM significantly increases the prevalence of AF in similar ways to NAFLD [56].
The most widespread clinically implemented histological grading and staging system is the ‘NAFLD activity score’ (NAS) [6] (see Table 1). More recently, the SAF score encompassing an assessment of steatosis (S), activity (A), and fibrosis (F) has been used to produce more accurate measurements of NASH [5]. These recent developments underscore the fact that NAFLD patients can be diagnosed and staged effectively using noninvasive strategies even though liver biopsy can still be applied for individuals with dubious diagnostic tests or if noninvasive staging is unspecified [69]. However, there is no widely available simple blood test or imaging modality that can differentiate simple steatosis from NASH.
Grade
Steatosis (%)
S score
Lobular (L) inflammation
L score
Hepatocyte ballooning (B)
B score
0
<5
0
No foci
0
None
0
1
5–33
1
<2 foci per 200 × field
1
Few cells
1
2
34–66
2
2–4 foci per 200 × filed
2
Many cells
2
3
>66
3
>4 foci per 200 × filed
3
N/A
N/A
Table 1.
NAFLD activity score (NAS).
NASH activity grade = total score: S + L + B range (0–8). Score of ≥5 is equivalent to NASH; score of 3 or 4 is borderline NASH; score of ≤2 denotes non-NASH NAFLD. The NAFLD activity score is based on three pathologic features: Steatosis, hepatocyte ballooning degeneration, and lobular inflammation. Higher scoring denotes severity of NASH: >5 = NASH; <5 = No NASH; 3–4 = borderline; none (0); few (1); many (2).
In summary, early diagnosis of NAFLD is essential to halting the progression of the disease. Biopsy is intrusive and therefore cannot be routinely applied. Ultrasound (sonography) and magnetic resonance imaging tools have become alternative noninvasive detection tools that can be routinely employed in clinical practice. The NAFLD activity score is important as part of the diagnosis procedure. But the fibrosis score is just as important. Table 2 shows the fibrosis score currently used to stage the degree of fibrosis in the liver. There are a few noninvasive fibrosis imaging tests on the market such as Fibroscan that offers a liver stiffness measurement (LSM) using pulsed-echo ultrasound as a surrogate marker of fibrosis [70] and acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI), which uses conventional B-mode ultrasonography to produce an ultrasonic pulse and measure the response of the liver tissue as shear wave velocity [71]. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention projects that diabetes mellitus is likely to impact the fibrosis progression rates, given the close link between diabetes and fibrosis in those with NAFLD [72, 73].
Portal and periportal fibrosis/presinusoidal fibrosis
None (0)
2
Bridging fibrosis
Few (1)
3
Cirrhosis
Many (2)
4
Table 2.
NAFLD fibrosis score (NFS) and stage.
Fibrosis score of F1-F4 is generally considered NASH [4].
Some commercial biomarker tests include enhanced liver fibrosis (ELF), a panel of markers of matrix turnover as tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1), hyaluronic acid and PIIINP [74] and FibroTest (FT), a panel of markers of fibrosis widely used in France.
1.4 The metabolic syndrome (MetS)
Recognizing patients with the metabolic syndrome (MetS) is key to identifying patients at risk of NAFLD. MetS is a group of risk factors that raises risk of heart disease, diabetes, stroke, etc. [75] and is diagnosed when any three of the following five clinical risk factors are present [76]: impaired fasting serum glucose, low levels of serum HDL cholesterol, elevated serum triglycerides (i.e., hypertriglyceridemia), central obesity or larger than cut-off waist circumference (varies according to gender and ethnicity), and high blood pressure (HTN) (see Table 3).
Insulin resistance is also a major risk factor for the development of steatosis. Once considered benign, NAFL (or simple steatosis), which is defined as the presence of hepatic steatosis with no evidence of hepatocellular injury in the form of ballooning of the hepatocytes, is now believed to be a serious risk factor for progression to liver disease, cardiovascular disease, and mortality [37, 77]. This is because an excess of abdominal fat is most tightly associated with the metabolic risk factors [78, 79]. The duration of obesity and the presence of MetS in an individual patient are closely tied to the risk of developing NASH-related cirrhosis and HCC [80]. Some of the characteristics of MetS are present in most NAFLD individuals, with 65–71% being obese, 57–68% having deranged lipid profiles, 36–70% suffering from HTN, and 12–37% having impaired fasting glucose tolerance [81]. Approximately a third of patients with NAFLD have the full metabolic syndrome and >90% have at least one feature [47]. There is a consensus that considers NAFLD as a hepatic manifestation of the MetS [82, 83]. On the other hand, clinical signs of the disease are manifested in 70–75% of T2DM patients and up to 95% of obese patients [84]. Thus, the development of the MetS, which is an important predictor of NASH in NAFLD patients, poses a sweeping and unfavorable prognosis [85]. IR is a key mediator that links NAFLD and MetS, which is a constellation of anthropometric and metabolic abnormalities (see Table 3 above).
According to the latest data from NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) study conducted between 2011 and 2012, the prevalence of MetS has increased to 35% in American adults [86]. MetS is a risk factor for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. It induces an abnormal production of hormones such as leptin, adiponectin, and cytokines such as TNF (tumor necrosis factor)-alpha that regulate inflammatory responses and cause disequilibrium between the pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory state of the organ [86]. These are mutually antagonistic: the pro-inflammatory factors such as TNF-alpha promote pro-apoptotic processes, recruit white blood cells, and promote insulin resistance. On the other hand, adiponectin acting as an anti-inflammatory factor inhibits fatty acid uptake, stimulates fatty acid oxidation and lipid export, and enhances insulin sensitivity. Both an increase in pro-inflammatory factors and a decrease in anti-inflammatory factors cause a cytokine imbalance that would lead to steatosis (NAFL) followed by necroinflammation (NASH) and IR. There is a supporting evidence that a high TNF to adiponectin ratio promotes fatty liver and steatohepatitis in animal [87] and human [88] studies. The importance of MetS including IR is that it predicts the occurrence of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, which can further promote the development and progression of arteriosclerosis and HTN leading to significant morbidity and mortality [89]. Also, NAFLD and obesity are risk factors for the progression to fibrosis among HCV-infected patients [90, 91, 92, 93]. Furthermore, elevated levels of ferritin are common in NAFLD patients and typically reflect active IR or underlying inflammatory activity [68, 81, 94]. Therefore, because of many different correlates and etiological factors and an assortment of assessment tools associated with MetS, there are some unresolved uncertainties in the current estimates of the global and the United States prevalence of NAFLD.
1.5 The genetics of NAFLD
Genetic disorders of lipid metabolism can cause hepatic fat deposition. However, they are far less common than excess body weight and features of MetS as risk factors for NAFLD and NASH. Several genes have been associated with NAFLD. These include NCAN, which may have a protective effect for Hispanics but increases risk of steatosis for non-Hispanic blacks; LYPLAL1, GCKR, as well as PPP1R3B, which may confer increased risk for hepatic steatosis but the data of distinctive serum lipid profiles in all these genes are sparse [61, 95, 96, 97]. GCKR is reported to be closely associated with NAFLD in Chinese [98]. Another gene, Patatin-like phospholipase domain-containing 3 (PNPLA3 or adiponutrin), has emerged as the genetic factor predisposing Hispanics more at risk for fatty liver disease [99]. This adiponutrin gene is a single variant considered responsible for increased hepatic TG levels, fibrosis, and inflammation, observed among ethnic groups [100, 101]. Homozygote patients have a twofold rise in hepatic fat content than heterozygotes, and Hispanic populations exhibit the highest frequency of this polymorphism (49%) compared to 23% in European-Americans (EAs) and 17% in African-Americans (AAs) [101]. It also shows more allelic frequency with Hispanics than other ethnic groups. Romeo and colleagues [102, 103] along with Singal and colleagues published papers in 2008 in which they reported that PNPLA3 is strongly associated with hepatic steatosis and elevated ALT and also recently showed that PNPLA3 is associated with NASH, fibrosis progression, and hepatocellular cancer as well [102].
A genetic marker, TM6SF2, discovered in an exome-wide association study of liver fat content, has also shed some light on its association with hepatic steatosis. It is involved in the loss of function mutation in very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion, and its association with NASH and advanced fibrosis has been recently validated even though its precise function has not been delineated [102]. However, its mutation is associated with elevated ALT, hepatic steatosis, and lower level of alkaline phosphatase, LDL, and TGs. This gene is most prevalent in European ancestry and less in Hispanics and AAs [104].
There is a reported 52% heritability rate of NAFLD, but evidence pertaining to specific genetic mutations is scant according to multivariable models used after adjusting for sex, age, and ethnicity [13]. Although the mechanism is not well understood, genetic mutations in hemochromatosis (HFE) gene, which is responsible for iron uptake and transferrin plasma concentration, may also be associated with NAFLD development [105, 106]. Several other factors have been indicated in the development and outcomes of NAFLD including epigenetic alterations [107, 108], maternal perinatal nutrition [109, 110, 111], and gut microbiota [107, 112, 113, 114]. A recent study also reports a novel pathway in which hepatic vitamin D receptor (VDR) expression is increased in patients with simple steatosis (nonalcoholic fatty liver without inflammation), and the activated VDR upregulates angiopoietin-like protein 8 (ANGPTL8) expression, thus contributing to triglyceride accumulation in human hepatocytes [115]. At any rate, studies have reported that fibrosis-initiated fatty liver disease progresses over many years, thus providing a potential window for intervention by examining disease-progression/modifying factors in NAFLD [116, 117, 118]. It is important to note that increased BMI and insulin resistance have been associated with a more rapid progression to fibrosis [35, 119].
1.6 The epidemiology and prevalence of NAFLD
In most epidemiological studies, the prevalence of NAFLD in the general population is determined by imaging or other indirect methods. Accordingly, the epidemiology and demographic characteristics of NAFLD vary worldwide [12, 16]. In epidemiological studies, the pathophysiological aspects, the natural history, and the determinants of NAFLD are important parameters for the diagnosis and evaluation of therapeutic interventions. This section will provide global perspectives on the prevalence of NAFLD (and later HCC) with emphasis on the United States and the possible reasons for the rapid rise.
There are wide-ranging estimates of NAFLD prevalence in the general population of the United States. An estimated 17–51% of adults have NAFLD [23, 120, 121]. Analysis of liver ultrasound data collected between 1988 and 1994 from the NHANES III reported that 19% of adults have NAFLD [122], whereas a meta-analysis of studies from 2006 to 2014 estimated a NAFLD prevalence of 24% (20–29%) in the general population [65]. The prevalence of NASH is difficult to estimate as biopsy is the necessary tool for screening, but it is cost-prohibitive and impractical for a population study.
Globally, NAFLD is a growing cause of chronic liver disease and NASH is replacing HCV infection as the primary reason for LT [13, 123, 124]. The broad category of NAFLD can manifest as NAFL or NASH. Fibrosis precedes cirrhosis and is therefore used as a prognosticator of the clinical risk of progression to cirrhosis and long-term liver-related adverse outcomes and mortality [34]. Recent evidence has shown that NAFLD and NASH can progress to HCC even in the absence of cirrhosis [125, 126, 127]. In most epidemiological studies including the NHANES data set, the assumptions about NASH in the NAFLD population are based on a post-hoc application of liver enzymes (i.e., AST and ALT) and clinical measurements. In the same vein, the fibrosis stages in population-based studies reflect best estimates derived from clinical aids (e.g., fibrosis-4, ALT to platelet ratio index, and NAFLD fibrosis scores) [128, 129]. The current prevalence rates for NAFLD, NASH, and HCC based on definitive clinical manifestations are shown in Table 4.
Status
Definition
Prevalence
Prognosis
NAFLD
Spectrum of fatty liver disease with <140 g for men and < 70 g for women per week of alcohol consumption
Estimated at 24–30% of global population [13, 14, 16] and at least 31% of US population (7)
—
NAFL
>5% simple hepatic steatosis by weight of liver without evidence of hepatocellular injury (i.e., hepatocyte ballooning)
>80% of NAFLD patients
Low probability of progression to cirrhosis
NASH
>5% hepatic steatosis by weight of liver with inflammation and hepatocellular injury with or without fibrosis Confirmed histologically
Estimated at up to 21–59% of patients with NAFLD Estimated at 1.5–6.45% of US general US population [40, 96, 122]
11% progress to cirrhosis over 15 years
NASH cirrhosis
Presence of cirrhosis with current or past histologic evidence of steatosis
10–30% of patients with NASH
About 31% have liver decompensation over 8 years; about 7% develop HCC over 6.5 years
Prevalence of NAFLD and its more progressive forms, NASH and HCC.
The prevalence of NASH-HCC is not firmly established. Data in the table are the annual incidence rate of developing HCC in patients with NASH-related cirrhosis.
Certain risk factors such as advanced age, obesity, ethnicity, and T2DM increase the incidence and prevalence of NAFLD and NASH and have been consistently identified as salient risk factors for fibrotic progression to cirrhosis [130] (see Table 5).
The current global estimate is that 24–30% of the world’s population is affected by NAFLD [65] and that includes between 80 and 100 million Americans (http://www.mayoclinic.com), making it the primary etiology for liver disease in the United States; see Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Global picture of estimated prevalence of NAFLD and distribution of PNPLA3 genotypes adopted from Zobair Younossi [16]. PNPLA3 is presented as minor allele frequency in some areas (light blue section of the pie chart).
The increasing incidence of obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome in the United States and Europe may soon catapult NAFLD/NASH to become the most common cause of HCC in developed countries. In the United States, among the more than 26 million people with diabetes, the prevalence of biopsy-proven NAFLD and NASH is as high as 74 and 11%, respectively [138, 139].
1.7 The rise in burden of NAFLD/NASH
The global rise of NAFLD has exasperated the looming healthcare burden of disease. It may be difficult to accurately forecast the current and future burden of a disease that is rapidly progressing. However, there are modeling techniques and approaches that incorporate real-world surveillance data for NAFLD and NASH incidences, which are growing causes of cirrhosis and HCC. As with many models, the utility of the model is linked to the validity of the inputs into the model. One of these modeling approaches is based on the premise that public awareness and government health policies will be able to eventually level off national obesity incidences and prevalence, which in return will level off NAFLD [4]. The interpretation of the output of this and other models attempting to analyze the burden of NAFLD is constrained by the lack of accurate diagnosis of steatohepatitis with simple epidemiologic tools. Nevertheless, the proportion of individuals with NASH in the NAFLD population will probably continue to rise through the next 15 years based on the rising prevalence of diabetes mellitus [4].
Analyzing the cost and burden of disease with respect to NASH has several potential implications. First, it helps introduce strategies and treatment regimen that will stem its exponential rise in incidence and mortality rates; it will reduce the growing contribution of NASH to LT, which is expensive; and due to an oversupply of decompensated cirrhosis, matching organ availability is rare, and insurance companies have exclusive policy of qualifying subjects with NASH-induced cirrhosis based on whether they have associated co-morbidities.
The epidemiology and demographic characteristics of NAFLD vary worldwide. The rise in NAFLD and NASH will balloon the number of patients with decompensated cirrhosis and pose a major emotional and financial burden on subjects and their caregivers, thus adding to the overall cost of health care. Furthermore, the main etiologic factor adding to the burden of HCC is NAFLD [4]. In select NASH-related HCC patients, liver resection and transplantation provide potentially curative therapeutic options; however, these procedures place a significant burden to healthcare resources and utilization [140]. Currently, NASH-related HCC has replaced HCV-related HCC as the fastest growing indication for LT in HCC candidates.
2. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)
Liver cancer, which has limited therapeutic choices, has the second highest mortality rate in the world [141]. HCC, which can lead to complications such as portal vein thrombosis (PVT), accounts for the majority of primary liver malignancies and is one of the leading causes of death in patients with advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis [141, 142, 143, 144]. HCC can be caused by chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV), alcohol abuse, as well as obesity and diabetes-induced MetS. NAFLD often occurs in the setting of metabolic disorders such as obesity and T2DM. These same metabolic conditions are also risk factors for NAFLD-associated HCC, which can materialize in individuals even in the absence of advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis. NASH-HCC appears to be phenotypically different from HCC arising from other chronic liver diseases (Table 6). By all accounts, the formation and progression of HCC are multistep processes. Therefore, the specific and detailed molecular events that underlie HCC development remain only partially understood [143].
Diagnosis of cirrhosis is based on the presence of the ICD-9 codes for cirrhosis or complications of cirrhosis (gastroesophageal varices, encephalopathy, and nonmalignant ascites) recorded at least twice in any inpatient or outpatient encounter.
2.1 The epidemiology and prevalence of HCC
Primary liver cancer in 2012 was identified as the second most common cause of cancer-related death in the world. In the United States, HCC is the most common histological subtype of liver cancer that accounts for 70–85% of primary liver malignancies [145, 146]. It is also the most rapidly rising cause of cancer and cancer-related deaths with an incidence that has more than tripled over the last two decades. This high mortality reflects a poor prognosis and a poorer therapeutic intervention [147]. Compared to HCC caused by alcoholic liver disease and viral hepatitis, there is a lack of strong epidemiological data associated with the incidence and prevalence of HCC precipitating from NAFLD [140, 148]. While the prevalence of NAFLD is thought to be highest among Hispanics and Caucasians, the ethnic distribution among NAFLD-/NASH-related HCC patients has yet to be defined. Male patients are overrepresented in NASH-related HCC; however, gender has not been proven to be a statistical risk factor in NASH progression to HCC [7]. The rising incidence of NAFLD/NASH in the setting of obesity has led to a drastic growth in NASH-related HCC incidence [149]. Although NAFLD can present with HCC in the absence of NASH or cirrhosis, the cumulative annual incidence rate for developing HCC in patients with NASH-related cirrhosis is approximately 2.4–12.8% [125]. This suggests or utmost underlies that cirrhosis may be the main cause of HCC despite new emerging data suggesting that NAFLD may be an independent risk factor for HCC, even in the absence of cirrhosis [126, 150, 151].
There was also a twofold increase in the incidence of HCC in the United States over the past two decades, and it is projected to double over the next two decades. Compared to HCC in alcoholic liver disease and viral hepatitis, there is a lack of strong epidemiological data regarding the incidence and prevalence of HCC in NAFLD [148]. It is projected that in just 12 more years, HCC at its current pace of growth in the United States will outstrip breast and colorectal cancers as the third leading cause of cancer-related death. This is because the prevalence of HCC is expected to increase by 149% from 10,000 to 24,900 during 2015–2030, while the incidence of HCC cases is expected to increase from 5160 to 12,240 in 2030, an increase of 137% [4]. This alarming incidence is attributed to several different genetic and epigenetic alterations that are under investigation [4].
Modeling the epidemic of HCC suggests that in 2015, 3280 incident HCC cases were estimated to have progressed from compensated cirrhosis (64% of total), with the remaining 1880 incident cases occurring among ≤F3 (fibrosis score-3) cases [4]. By 2030, 8790 incident HCC cases are predicted to occur among compensated cirrhotic cases or 72% of the annual incidence, reflecting aging and disease progression [4].
The true prevalence of NASH and NASH-related HCC is probably underestimated. This is because in 6.9–29% of HCC cases, the underlying etiology is unknown, further questioning the designation that the liver disease is secondary to cryptogenic cirrhosis [148]. Traits of NASH are more frequently observed in HCC patients with cryptogenic cirrhosis than in age- and sex-matched HCC patients of well-defined viral or alcoholic etiology [152]. In the past several years, myriad studies have tried to determine the variability of relationships between NAFLD/NASH, cryptogenic cirrhosis, and HCC. In a recent meta-analysis, White et al. [125] estimated that 60% of HCC cases ascribed to NAFLD/NASH had cirrhosis either prior to diagnosis or at the time of diagnosis. This same analysis showed that NASH-associated cirrhosis consistently manifested an increased HCC risk. Furthermore, the study also revealed that when compared to those with chronic HCV, the risk of developing HCC is lower in patients with cirrhosis due to NAFLD/NASH (HCV, 19.7% vs. NAFLD/NASH, 26.9%) [125]. Although the prevalence of NAFLD-/NASH-related HCC is not well delineated, the growing incidence of obesity and diabetes suggests the impact of NAFLD-/NASH-related HCC will continue to grow.
2.2 The genetics of HCC
Genomic analyses promise to improve tumor characterization for the optimization of precision or personalized medicine for patients with HCC. Recent developments and molecular techniques have significantly improved our understanding of the pathogenesis of HCC and its complex genetic landscape [153, 154, 155, 156]. The integration of several profiling data from various sources may provide additional insight into the molecular mechanisms of HCC [153]. The first large-scale multiplatform analysis of HCC conducted as part of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network included valuation of somatic mutations by whole exome sequencing and DNA copy number analyses in 363 patients whose tissue and tumor specimens were obtained [157]. This high-throughput analysis also included further investigation of DNA methylation, mRNA expression, microRNA (miRNA) expression, and proteomic expression in 196 patients. To decipher the molecular landscape of HCC and extract biological insights for therapeutic targets and prognostic implications, analyses were made by integrating multiple data platforms with the available clinical data for HCC [157]. Mutational and DNA sequencing analyses identified an array of genes altered either by downregulation or by mutation. Among the significantly mutated genes were EEF1A1, SMARCA4, LZTR1, and SF3B1 [157]. Those genes downregulated by hypermethylation including ALB, APOB, and CPS1 may cause metabolic reprogramming in HCC. The analysis of integrated molecular platform also yielded the identification of a subtype linked to poorer prognosis in three HCC cohorts. This large-scale multiplatform, high-throughput analysis enabled the design of a p53 target gene expression signature correlating with poor survival. This TCGA network analysis produced potential therapeutic targets including WNT signaling, IDH1, MET, VEGFA, MCL1, MDM4, TERT, and immune checkpoint proteins PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA-4 [157]. This is significant because effective inhibitors already exit for these targets, which alter hepatocyte energy balance [157].
In exome sequencing analysis of over 200 liver tumors, investigators identified mutational signatures that are associated with specific risk factors such as alcohol and tobacco consumption and exposure to aflatoxin B1 [158]. As a result, they found that 161 putative driver genes were associated with 11 recurrently altered pathways involving CTNNB1 (alcohol), TP53 (hepatitis B virus, HBV), and AXIN1 [158]. Further analysis of tumor stage progression identified TERT as an early event, whereas FGF3, FGF4, FGF19, or CCND1 amplification and TP53 and CDKN2A alterations were prominent in aggressive tumors. The involvement of these many altered genes and pathways in the development and/or progression of HCC leads to the extensive landscape and multifaceted nature of this lethal cancer. Figure 3 shows the salient signaling pathways associated with HCC.
Figure 3.
The most reported signaling pathways in HCC. Adapted from Birgani et al. [159].
In another recent study, gene expression and DNA methylation profiles were screened to identify potential genetic biomarkers of HCC. The findings from this study suggest potential HCC biomarker roles for certain genes such as DTL, DUSP1, NFKBIA, and SOCS2 [160]. Similar to TCGA Research Network analyses mentioned above [157], these investigators also suggest that the tumor protein ‘p53 signaling’ and ‘metabolic’ pathways may serve important roles in the pathogenesis of HCC [160]. Other polymorphic variants serving as potential risk factors for HCC in high-risk patients infected with HBV/HCV have also been reported [161]. As for prognostic biomarkers, recent RNA sequencing data from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) reveal that among the 12 tissue types studied, the liver had the largest number of tissue-enriched genes, which are associated with the prognosis of patients with HCC and represent distinct physiological patterns [162]. A further study of the characteristics of liver-enriched genes showed that hypermethylation might be partially responsible for the downregulation of these genes, most of which were metabolism-related genes associated with pathological stage and dedifferentiation in patients with HCC. The authors suggest that hypermethylation might be a mechanism underlying the downregulation of these liver-enriched genes. When they overlapped the tissue-enriched and prognostic genes across cancer types, they found that, in HCC, 55% (84/188) of the liver-enriched genes were prognostic (see Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Validation of liver-enriched genes and KEGG analysis. (A) an example of liver-enriched genes. SPP2 was exclusively expressed in the corresponding nontumor tissues of HCC. (B) Four-set Venn diagram showing the overlap of the liver-enriched genes derived from the TCGA and three other databases, including HPA, PaGenBase, and TiGER. (C) Significantly enriched KEGG pathways of 188 liver-enriched genes. −log10 (adjusted p-value) was annotated on each bar of the KEGG pathway. Adapted from Binghua et al. [162].
Circulating regulatory nucleic acids like miRNA profiles can also reflect the pathogenic changes occurring in organs including the liver. Changes in miR-21, miR-122, and miR-223 were correlated with the histological status of the human liver and were specific for liver injury [163]. These miRNA levels were significantly higher in the serum of chronic hepatitis (i.e., HBV and HCV) and HCC patients compared to healthy controls [44]. Yet, the biological heterogeneity of HCC makes it difficult to clarify the key mechanisms of cancer initiation and progression, and thereby develop and implement effective therapies [164].
3. The projection of NAFLD and HCC
A recent Markov model was used to predict incidence of NAFLD and to forecast NAFLD disease progression in the United States. The model was based on historical and projected changes in adult prevalence of obesity and T2DM as well as national surveillance data for incidence of NAFLD-related HCC [4]. The report forecasts that prevalent NAFLD cases will increase to 21% (100.9 million) by 2030, while prevalent NASH cases will increase 63% from 16.5 million to 27.00 million cases [4]. Overall NAFLD prevalence among the adult population (aged ≥15 years) is projected at 33.5% in 2030, and the median age of the NAFLD population will increase from 50 (estimated at 2015 level) to 55 years between 2015 and 2030 [4]. In 2015, approximately 20% of NAFLD cases were classified as NASH and are expected to increase to 27% by 2030, a reflection of both disease progression and an aging population. The estimated prevalence of NASH in adults living in the United States is 3–5% [6, 23, 121, 165] and is projected to increase by 63% from 16.5 million in 2015 to 27.00 million cases in 2030 [4]. This prevalence of NASH was calculated based on published estimates and modeling of fibrosis progression. It was assumed that up to 5% of NAFLD cases without NASH could be NASH regressors, with most NASH regressors still in F0 stage [4]. Similarly, the incidence of decompensated cirrhosis will surge by 168% to 105,430 cases in 2030, while incidence of HCC will increase by 137% to 12,240 cases. Liver deaths are estimated to increase 178% to 78,300 deaths in 2030. During 2015–2030, there are projected to be nearly 800,000 excess liver deaths. The aging population, the continuing high rates of adult obesity, and T2DM will propel NAFLD-related liver disease and mortality in the United States. Immediate strategies are required to curtail new NAFLD cases and mitigate disease burden.
Currently, NAFLD is estimated to affect more than 80 million and up to 90 million Americans, making it the most common etiology for liver disease in the United States [16, 65]. In the United Kingdom, NAFLD has now become the most common cause of abnormal liver function tests (LFTs) [166]. Although NAFLD has emerged as a serious disease in affluent Western economies, its global prevalence encompasses the Middle East (32%), South America (31%), Asia (27%), the United States (24%), Europe (23%), and Africa (14%) [167]. Because of the increasing incidence of obesity and diabetes around the world, NAFLD has become a global public health concern. The prevalence of NAFLD varies according to age, sex, and the methodology used to measure the condition in each geographical location [61]. Currently, NAFLD is the most prevalent liver disease observed in patients with obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome (MetS), all of which can confer insulin resistance (IR) and are known risk factors for the development of HCC, a growing indicator of LT [45, 69]. While HCV infection has been the most common indication for liver transplants to date, NASH is surpassing it as obesity reaches historic highs and new direct-acting antiviral (DAA) drugs are essentially curing hepatitis C [168]. Furthermore, with the continued decline in the prevalence of HCV infection, the proportion of NASH-HCC is anticipated to increase exponentially due to the growing epidemic of obesity and diabetes [140]. Currently, NASH-related HCC is the fastest growing indication for LT in HCC candidates [140]. NAFLD and NASH are a growing cause of cirrhosis and HCC.
Globally, Asia is leading the rise in NAFLD followed by the United States. Although our understanding of NAFLD is steadily evolving, it is not an isolated disease. It is commonly associated with the leading metabolic comorbidities such as obesity, MetS, T2DM, and dyslipidemia. The potential progression of NAFLD subtypes is from fibrosis to advanced fibrosis, ESLD, and HCC (Figure 1). As the incidence of obesity and concurrently diabetes and MetS continues to surge in Europe and the United States, NAFLD/NASH may become the most common cause of HCC in developed countries in the foreseeable future [169, 170, 171].
A 2002–2012 retrospective cohort study among adult patients revealed a fourfold increase in patients undergoing LT for NASH-related HCC in contrast to only twofold increase in number of patients undergoing transplantation for HCV-related HCC. In the United States, about 6000–7000 liver transplants are performed annually, and the rapid increase in the percentage (44.9%) of obese individuals during a 14-year period (2000–2014) is expected to escalate to 55% the number of NASH patients awaiting LT by 2030 [172]. The increased morbidity and mortality, healthcare costs, and declining health-related quality of life associated with NAFLD require more in-depth analysis. Figure 5 depicts the proposed mechanisms that ties NAFLD/NASH and HCC.
Figure 5.
Risk factors and proposed mechanisms for NAFLD- and NASH-related HCC, which is multifactorial. Proposed pathogenic mechanisms include obesity, peripheral and hepatic IR from T2DM, increased hepatic lipid storage and lipotoxicity, genetic mutations, and intestinal microbiota dysregulation. HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; EMT, epithelial to mesenchymal transition; NAFLD, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease; NASH, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis; FFA, free fatty acid; IGF, insulin-like growth factor; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; PNPLA3, patatin-like phospholipase domain-containing 3; TM6SF2, transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2. Adapted from Cholankeril [140].
4. Ethnic and gender differences in NAFLD and HCC
Although still not fully resolved, the prevalence of NAFLD in the United States can vary by ethnicity. Even in this context, there are several factors that could explain the reported ethnic disparities. These include access to health care, genetic factors, environmental factors, affliction with chronic diseases, and the presence of chronic diseases such as the MetS [61, 65, 173]. In this context, the prevalence of NAFLD is reported to be highest in Hispanic-Americans, followed by Americans of European descent and then African-Americans [40, 61, 65, 122, 173]. Several studies have shown a relative sparsity of NAFLD cases among individuals of African descent living in or coming from Africa or the Caribbean region. Although the prevalence of metabolic disease and obesity is high in Afro-Caribbean ethnic groups compared to Caucasian and Hispanic groups, the frequency of NAFLD/NASH is reported to be low [61, 174]. This discrepancy might be due to an actual low number rate or biases that include low-recognition and low-referral rates in these ethnic minorities [175], as Afro-Caribbean patients are categorically less likely to be referred to other tertiary hospitals [176].
There are also ethnic differences in the incidence of HCC in the United States (see Sherif et al. for a comprehensive review) [61]. Compared to European-Americans (EAs), the incidence of HCC is higher in African-Americans (AAs) and is associated with more advanced tumor stage at diagnosis and lower survival rates overall. Assessment of changes in the levels of metabolites of samples stratified by race was made using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in selected ion monitoring mode to identify ethnically diverse biomarkers in HCC between EA and AAs [177]. Race-specific metabolites including alpha tocopherol for AA and EA combined, glycine for EA, and valine for AA exhibited better sensitivity and specificity than the standard serological marker for HCC, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) that is widely used for the diagnosis of HCC [177, 178, 179, 180]. It is hypothesized that there is a variation in HCC-associated epigenetic modifications between AAs and EAs. Thus, the identification of aberrant DNA methylation and differentially modulated miRNAs can be used to better understand the mechanisms of disparities in HCC between races. Also, identifying epigenetic markers for HCC in a specific population will enhance personalized medicine that targets specific therapeutic approaches [181, 182]. This also demands the gathering together of a highly interdisciplinary team of experts to investigate changes in both DNA methylation and miRNA expression patterns between tumor, cirrhotic, and normal liver tissues from AA and EA participants. Identifying molecular cancer gene drivers and mutations may 1 day become critical for precision oncology.
Most epidemiological studies document prevalence of individual diseases in selected tertiary hospital populations [183]. This widespread practice, particularly when imaging and liver enzyme tests are involved and when the patients may be asymptomatic in the early stage of diagnosis, leads to underestimation and underdiagnosis of NAFLD. This is especially true for minority populations in whom the natural development and progression of NAFLD and NASH are understudied and underreported as reflected by the paucity of data in the literature. Furthermore, the predictive value of the MetS may not reflect the true state of NAFLD in AAs since the criteria for the syndrome were developed for non-Hispanic whites [184] thereby influencing underdiagnosis or misdiagnosis of NAFLD and NASH in Hispanics and non-Hispanic blacks (NHB). There is also a strong relationship between insulin resistance and hypertriglyceridemia, one of the crucial components of MetS. However, NHB often have normal triglycerides (TG) level [185], which is used as a diagnostic criterion of the MetS leading to underdiagnosis of the MetS in NHB [186]. This suggests that lowering the threshold for TG level in AAs will lead to grasping the true cases of NAFLD. Moreover, the racial differences in NAFLD and NASH may be a function of the differences in TGs or the differences in the distribution of adiposity (e.g., subcutaneous vs. visceral) since AAs have relatively less VAT and lower TGs than Hispanics [119, 173, 175]. In addition, AAs may be more resistant to both the accretion of TG in the abdominal visceral compartment (adipose tissue and liver) and hypertriglyceridemia associated with IR [119].
Epidemiologic studies establish the foundational framework for the control and prevention of diseases. In the case of NAFLD and NASH, it should be done by first tracking the prevalence of the disease, characterizing its natural history, and identifying both its social and health determinants along ethnic lines. This type of study is critical for the proper diagnosis and early intervention of NAFLD especially in minority populations [61].
Genome-wide association studies have revealed several genetic variants that are associated with NAFLD and NASH. Yet, these variants either represent only a limited amount of variation in hepatic steatosis among ethnic groups or may just be markers representing a larger body of genetic variations.
There is an urgent need to gain a better understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms responsible for why some people with NAFLD are more prone to developing HCC, and the causes for disparities in NAFLD-related HCC. There is also an urgent need for a less invasive method than biopsy and for a more sensitive biomarker than ALT for large-scale NAFLD screening. The lack of high-throughput studies employing proteomics or metabolomics for the discovery of novel and reliable diagnostic biomarkers for NAFLD also hampers our understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease among the disparate ethnicities [12, 177].
One recent area of exploration is the involvement of DNA methylation and miRNA regulation. Epigenetic alterations are potentially reversible, and this possibility will facilitate the development of biomarkers and therapeutics in the prevailing disparities between AA and EA patients in HCC initiation and development. The identification and functional validation of race-specific methylation hotspots and miRNAs can be used to understand the mechanisms of disparities in HCC. This can be done by first identifying DNA methylation sites and miRNAs with statistically significant changes between HCC cases and cirrhotic or normal controls in a race-specific manner. Then, network-based methods and hierarchical integrative models can be used to integrate epigenomic data with transcriptomic, proteomic, glycoproteomic, and metabolomic data acquired from the same cirrhotic and HCC participants to select methylation hotspots and miRNAs relevant for understanding the mechanisms of disparities in HCC [177]. The selected candidates can then be validated by independent methods using frozen and formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) liver tissues collected from patients with HCC and liver cirrhosis. Finally, functional validation of race-specific epigenetic modifications discovered in this type of high-throughput study can be performed through in vitro experiments using established cell lines derived from racially diverse populations. These cell cultures may present unique opportunities for targeted functional validation of epigenetic modifications and the downstream consequences.
In addition to exploring the external environment and how it influences HCC disease status, it is also necessary to explore the intestinal environment of different ethnicities. Experimental data from the obesity epidemic have revealed that the composition and products of the gut microbiome, which is altered with obesity and/or a high fat diet, are carcinogenic to the liver [187, 188]. Studies suggest that there are ethnic differences in microbial composition in a cirrhotic population at elevated risk for HCC as a result of metabolites, which can differentiate cirrhotic with HCC from those without HCC. Therefore, a case-control study can be designed to examine the contributions of race/ethnicity, fecal microbiome, fecal metabolome, and host factors (e.g., specific dietary factors and markers of body and liver fat composition) to NAFLD-related HCC. All in all, a multiethnic study of NAFLD and HCC that encompasses all racial/ethnic groups is needed to lay the groundwork for the elucidation of factors that account for health disparities across these populations. The prevalence of NAFLD is reported to be highest among Hispanics and Caucasians as mentioned above. However, NASH was the leading cause of waitlist LT registration in 2016 among Asian, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white females, whereas HCV is still the leading cause in AA females [189].
As for gender differences in NAFLD or NASH, there are uncertainties including the role of IR in the influence of gender on NAFLD. Ruhl et al. reported that NAFLD is about 2.7 times more prevalent in men than in women [190]. One reasonable explanation for this reported gender difference in NAFLD is due to the higher waist-to-hip circumference (WHR) ratio in men [96]. Pan et al. further state that WHR is associated with visceral adipose tissue (VAT), which is correlated with both peripheral and hepatic IR. Similarly, in the Dallas Heart Study, European-American (EA) men had an approximately twofold higher prevalence of hepatic steatosis than EA women. This gender disparity has been blamed on alcohol use, sex hormones or lifestyle behaviors, and no differences in body weight or insulin sensitivity [96].
The ethnic distribution among NAFLD-/NASH-related HCC patients has yet to be defined [191]. If the increase in the number of ethnic groups waitlisted for LT from 2004 to 2016 is a good indicator of the rise in NASH-HCC, then it could be inferred from a recent retrospective study that Asian females had an 854% change in NASH waitlist registration, while Asian males had a 552% change [189]. The increase in African-American waitlist population was much less compared to the other ethnic groups. In contrast, the Hispanic females had a 3010% change in the rate of waitlist registration for NASH with HCC, while non-Hispanic white females had a 1992% change [189].
NASH-related HCC patients are primarily male even though gender is not a proven statistical risk factor in the progression of NASH to HCC. However, NASH is currently the second leading cause for LT waitlist in females, whereas in men, alcoholic liver disease (ALD) continues to be the leading cause [189]. Although old data of 698 patients from biopsy-proven NASH show that NASH patients are more likely to be female than male possibly reflecting a higher disease burden rate in women [192], it is likely that both gender and racial ethnic differences in NAFLD and NASH are attributed to interaction among genetic, environmental, and lifestyle behaviors.
5. Medical therapy for NAFLD and HCC
The biological heterogeneities of NAFLD and HCC create predicaments in deciphering the key mechanisms of development and progression from NAFLD to ESLD. Although progress is being made in understanding the molecular underpinnings of chronic liver disease and its various offshoots, there are still formidable challenges in providing effective treatment regimens. Aside from a few prophylactic agents that have shown promise in the prevention and treatment of steatohepatitis and fibrosis, there is no treatment consensus due to scarcity of data [140]. Wholesome lifestyle and behavioral changes that include regular physical activity, low caloric intake, and weight loss are the main bulwarks against NAFLD, which may progress to HCC with or without cirrhosis. However, the extent to which these modifications are effective to prevent the development of HCC is unclear. There is currently no effective chemoprevention to decrease the incidence of HCC except using nucleoside analogs to reduce viral replication for those infected with HBV [193] and direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) for those infected with HCV [194], the latter demonstrating very high cure rates but also raising concerns about the recurrence or development of HCC after the achievement of a sustained virological response [195]. Obeticholic acid (OCA), a selective agonist of the Farnesoid X receptors, was touted to be a promising pharmacological drug for the management of NAFLD. However, its low efficacy and specificity have dampened enthusiasm for its practical use. Also, the drug pioglitazone has no long-term impact on NASH. This entails a pressing need to develop more effective and safe agents for NAFLD and HCC. Several other experimental studies suggest a direct role for vitamin D in modulating liver fibrosis and inflammation by enhancing hepatic response to insulin via binding to vitamin D receptor on liver cells [196, 197, 198]. Vitamin E and carotenoids are also shown to decrease plasma levels of patients with NASH [199], whereas dietary antioxidants such as vitamin C and coenzyme Q12, trace minerals such as selenium, anticholesterol medications such as statins, antidiabetic drugs such as metformin, and methyl radical donors such as S-adenosylmethionine have all been touted as potential prophylactic agents [169, 200, 201, 202].
6. Key findings, future trends, and unmet needs
Hepatic steatosis is associated with many other morbidities. Therefore, dissecting the myriad causative agents including genetic, hormonal, or environmental factors underlying the pathogenicity of simple hepatic steatosis must be a priority to avoid the maze of complications that may arise during the development of NAFLD and its progression to HCC. The key findings are:
Global prevalence of NAFLD is at 24% but is rising to greater than 30%; highest rates to lowest rates are found in South America, Middle East, Asia, United States, and Europe.
The large volume of patients sets NAFLD apart from other liver diseases; thus, clinical care must focus on discerning highest risk of progressive liver disease.
Overweight in childhood and adolescence is associated with the risk of NAFLD later in life and increases liver-related morbidity and/or mortality.
NAFLD patients have an elevated risk of liver-related morbidity/mortality and metabolic comorbidities, which place a strain on healthcare systems.
NAFLD warrants that primary-care physicians, specialists, and health policy-makers stress prevention of excessive weight gain during childhood.
Bariatric surgery may be an alternative option to committed weight loss.
Older age, being male, and HA are independent risk factors for NAFLD/NASH.
NAFLD is linked with higher BMI, higher HTN, and lower physical activity.
MetS as currently defined is not a good predictor of NAFLD in non-Hispanic blacks (NHB); because in contrast to others, TG level is normal in this group.
Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy is currently the best proven alternative tool to biopsy for accurate diagnosis of NAFLD.
Treatment options require more robust studies on etiology of NAFLD.
There is no proven medical therapy for NASH.
Most effective therapeutic strategies include lifestyle changes including diet, exercise, modifying metabolic risk factors, early screening, and intervention.
Certain genes may be associated with disparities in lipid metabolism.
Alternative noninvasive markers of NASH may now be available even though there are no proven biomarkers for various stages of the NAFLD spectrum.
Discovery of new biomolecules during clinical trials and metabolomics studies is crucial for understanding NAFLD/NASH initiation and progression.
Patients with NASH have a worse prognosis and must be included in clinical trials of new treatments.
The biological heterogeneity of HCC makes it difficult to assess the key mechanisms of cancer development and thus implement effective therapies.
Certain genes have been identified to be associated with progression to HCC.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Grant U01CA185188.
Conflicts of interest
The author has no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
AA
African-American
AF
advanced fibrosis
ALT
alanine aminotransferase
AST
aspartate aminotransferase
BMI
body mass index
CDC
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
DAA
direct-acting antiviral
EA
European-American
ESLD
end-stage liver disease
HA
Hispanic-American
HCC
hepatocellular carcinoma
HDL
high-density lipoprotein
HTN
hypertension
IR
insulin resistance
LT
liver transplantation
MetS
metabolic syndrome
NAFL
nonalcoholic fatty liver
NAFLD
nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
NASH
nonalcoholic steatohepatitis
NFS
NAFLD fibrosis score
NAS
NAFLD activity score
NHANES
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
NFS
NAFLD fibrosis score
T2DM
type 2 diabetes mellitus
TG
triglyceride
TCGA
the cancer genome atlas
\n',keywords:"obesity, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), insulin resistance (IR), liver transplantation (LT), metabolic syndrome (MetS), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68253.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68253.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68253",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68253",totalDownloads:1748,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:8,impactScorePercentile:97,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"March 11th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 11th 2019",datePublished:"November 20th 2019",dateFinished:"July 23rd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) affects a third of the world’s population and its rapid rise parallels the increase in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). NAFLD replacing hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection as a leading indicator for liver transplantation (LT) in the United States. NAFLD is a spectrum of disease ranging from simple steatosis (NAFL) to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which can progress to advanced fibrosis (AF) and cirrhosis, culminating in HCC. The main clinical concern of public health administrators is that many patients who are unaware of NAFLD remain undiagnosed and risk developing end-stage liver disease (ESLD). Clinicians overly rely on surrogate liver enzymes to identify patients with NAFLD, allowing for substantial liver disease to go unnoticed and untreated. Furthermore, according to epidemiological studies, in patients diagnosed with NAFLD, ethnicity plays a role in complications and treatment response, and ethnic correlations with NAFLD are thoroughly underreported. Although liver biopsy is the gold standard method for appropriately diagnosing and staging NAFLD, most patients can be effectively diagnosed non-invasively with imaging modalities and integrated tests that are routinely available in the clinic today. This chapter discusses the current global rise in the rates of NAFLD and HCC; the current key findings incidences and the recommended diagnostic approaches and in therapeutic methods.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68253",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68253",book:{id:"8330",slug:"nonalcoholic-fatty-liver-disease-an-update"},signatures:"Zaki A. Sherif",authors:[{id:"264114",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zaki",middleName:null,surname:"Sherif",fullName:"Zaki Sherif",slug:"zaki-sherif",email:"zaki.sherif@howard.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Howard University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 NAFLD definition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 The natural history of NAFLD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 NAFLD diagnosis and staging",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4 The metabolic syndrome (MetS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"1.5 The genetics of NAFLD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"1.6 The epidemiology and prevalence of NAFLD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"1.7 The rise in burden of NAFLD/NASH",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"2. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.1 The epidemiology and prevalence of HCC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.2 The genetics of HCC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. The projection of NAFLD and HCC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Ethnic and gender differences in NAFLD and HCC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Medical therapy for NAFLD and HCC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Key findings, future trends, and unmet needs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Conflicts of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lear SA, Humphries KH, Kohli S, Birmingham CL. The use of BMI and waist circumference as surrogates of body fat differs by ethnicity. Obesity. 2007;15:2817-2824'},{id:"B2",body:'Dongiovanni P, Anstee QM, Valenti L. Genetic predisposition in NAFLD and NASH: Impact on severity of liver disease and response to treatment. 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1. Introduction
Replace the entirety of this text with the introduction to your chapter. The introduction section should provide a context for your manuscript and should be numbered as first heading. When preparing the introduction, please bear in mind that some readers will not be experts in your field of research.
Cultural heritage is situated in both natural and semi-natural environments, as well as in highly urban environments, where various activities can accelerate the transformation of the area and have a negative impact on the quality and use of the cultural heritage. Therefore, spatial development policy is crucial in protecting, managing and increasing the value of such areas, primarily through the adoption and implementation of appropriate planning solutions and measures. In addition, the interaction between different sectoral policies and the coordination of their territorial impacts is important.
These generally accepted positions point to the key role of spatial and urban planning in the sustainable development and protection of cultural heritage. With these starting points, the authors use spatial plans as the research subject in this paper, analyzing the methodology of their development and content. The hypothetical assumptions of this research are that the method of planning in an area of cultural heritage differs depending on the type and level of the spatial plan. Furthermore, it is possible to identify aspects of protection and sustainable development in the plans, with the protection of cultural assets clearly dominating in planning practice. Finally, the hypothetical assumptions are concluded with the authors’ views that the protection and the development of cultural heritage are not integrated with landscape planning, and that the aspect of implementation is insufficiently addressed in plans.
One of the basic principles of sustainable spatial development is the principle of increasing cultural heritage stock as a development factor [1, 2], which includes increasing the value of cultural heritage. This is one of the most significant contributions to economic development and the strengthening of regional identity, achieved by means of increasing the attractiveness of sites for investors, tourists and the public. Spatial development policy should contribute to the integrated management of cultural heritage, based on the idea of the development process of protection and conservation, while respecting the needs of modern society. Many countries in Europe have monuments that follow the traces of different schools of art and artistic movements, which requires the development of a common approach in conservation, restoration and use, initiating programs of “great cultural routes”. In many countries, there are types of cultural heritage that, due to historical changes, events and changes in borders, do not belong to only one but to a larger number of nations, language communities and religious groups, some of which no longer live in those regions. Spatial development policy must preserve and respect the memories of each nationality, language community and religious group, which have created a specific type of cultural heritage.
International documents adopted in the last decade [3] which refer to the protection, planning and management of cultural heritage emphasize a contextual approach that considers the expansion of the object of protection, from individual monuments to wider spatial units. They underline the need for integrating conservation, management and planning strategies for historic urban areas with development and planning documents. In addition, the concept of protecting areas of cultural heritage and their surroundings is closely connected to the issues of planning and protecting landscapes, with special significance given to the integration of landscape development into spatial planning and other sectoral policies, as well as the implementation of integrated policies aimed at the protection, management and planning of areas of cultural heritage.
Based on the above, it seems that the current procedures for protection and planning with regard to cultural heritage can and must be improved, particularly concerning the development aspects of protection, implementation, coordination with other sectoral policies and others. The analysis of previous experiences and the possibility of improving the process of spatial planning in the field of cultural heritage are the main goals of this paper.
2. Literature review
Consulting the most recent scientific literature, i.e., papers published in the last five years, the authors consider that the greatest preoccupation is on themes related to planning within protected natural areas, while studies covering the relationship between planning actions and restrictions related to the protection of cultural and historical heritage are scarce. On the other hand, it is clear that this topic is by no means exhausted and requires further analysis, especially from the aspect of developing sustainable tourism and strategies for actively protecting and promoting valuable monuments.
Some studies concentrate on the topic of the cultural landscape as the broadest concept: “Cultural landscapes are poorly inventoried and evaluated in protected natural areas. But there is a novel procedure to assess cultural landscape features and their cultural values in the major protected areas. After identifying a set of culturally modified land cover types and habitat types the GIS-based survey, with a set of 12 cultural attributes (involving cultural heritage values, traditional land uses and aesthetic quality) indicators were scored to assess these “cultural values” in each site. Gradient maps were produced to express an initial nation-wide site ranking profile. Heatmaps help link instead of solely rank culturally valuable sites that are in proximity to each other, showcasing site clusters of outstanding value. These analyses help define the level of “culturalness” of each site based on human-modified landscape and habitat types and provide a baseline review of cultural values in protected natural areas. This screening-level survey identifies the protected areas that may require special attention for managing cultural elements-of-diversity” [4].
Other authors focus on the use of modern GIS technologies for displaying locations and their overlapping areas of interest and restrictions, as well as for tracking the number of visits: “New technologies are used in mapping not only of heritage locations but also about visitation and expressed interest” [5]. Massiveness certainly brings profit, but it reduces the quality of the experience, so it is necessary to change the concept and approach: “Visitor management planning is a new concept, tool and strategy of sustainable tourism and ecotourism. The importance of this concept is in the new approach to tourism in natural and heritage protected areas of the country, which means implementing a completely different philosophy of tourism” [6].
It is the number of visits that has become a key factor for some locations, because the excessive crowds resulting from the huge interest of tourists, so-called “overtourism”, causes negative effects, and instead of contributing to the presentation and sustainability of valuable monuments, it leads to its degradation [7]. The authors cite a number of examples and offer recommendations for overcoming such situations. One of the causes of excessive tourism can be cruising destinations, if the distribution of visitors is not properly dosed. On the other hand, tours on the Danube Corridor can be seen as having great potential as an opportunity, which has contributed to the strategic planning of 9 new locations for passenger ports, in addition to the existing 5, primarily in the immediate vicinity of cultural and historical sites: “In the Podunavlje area in Serbia, significant attractions are located in vibrant urban centers such as Belgrade and Novi Sad, with seven fortresses from north to east downstream, including Bač, Petrovaradin, Beograd, Smederevo, Ram, Golubac, and Kladovo (Fetislam). There are also 21 archeological sites, the most significant of which are the Vinča and Lepenski Vir sites from prehistoric times, along with the city of Viminacium, Emperor Trajan’s road, bridge and stone board with inscriptions from the Roman period. Apart from these landmarks, two national parks (Fruška Gora and Ðerdap), several other parks, special nature reserves, nature monuments, and areas with significant characteristics are situated in the surrounding areas and are protected areas” [8].
Participation of the public and stakeholders in the planning process itself, and the harmonization of the needs of contemporary life and development of tourism with the limitations arising from protection regimes are also significant issues: “Most studies on community participation in tourism planning only advocate the importance of the concept and/or identify barriers without articulating the required actions or strategies to actually promote community participation. Six strategies emerged as major prerequisites to achieve full and active community participation in tourism planning associated with protected areas are: public awareness and education; capacity building; creation of linkages; use of appropriate participation methods; involvement of appropriate local community organisations and decentralisation and coordination of relevant management organisations” [9]. Proper implementation of the participation procedure and transparency of the planning process are the guarantee of quality implementations of plans in the future [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The general conclusion is that some global topics, as well as practical experience, can be used with certain adjustments to the situation and systemic frameworks in the Republic of Serbia.
3. System of sustainable development and protection of cultural heritage in the Republic of Serbia
The basic framework for the protection and sustainable development of cultural heritage in the Republic of Serbia is determined by the Law on Cultural Property [15] and the Law on Planning and Construction [16]. In accordance with the Law on Cultural Property, cultural heritage is made up of objects and creations of material and spiritual culture of general interest, which are under appropriate protection. They are divided into movable and immovable cultural heritage. Depending on the physical, artistic, cultural and historical characteristics, immovable cultural heritage is: cultural monuments (buildings/architectural objects or units), whole cultural and historical spatial units (part of an urban or rural settlement in which there are multiple cultural assets), archeological sites and landmarks (space related to an event or person of significance in history).
According to their significance, they can be: uncategorized cultural heritage, cultural heritage of great importance and cultural heritage of exceptional importance. Cultural heritage of exceptional importance has one of the following characteristics: special significance for the social, historical and cultural development of the people; it testifies to crucial historical events and personalities; it presents unique examples of the creativity of its time; it has a great influence on the development of society, culture, technology and science; or it has exceptional artistic and esthetic value. Cultural heritage of great importance has one of the following characteristics: it is significant for a certain area or period; it testifies to the phenomena or conditions of social, cultural and historical development; it testifies to significant events and prominent figures in history.
When an architectural object is declared as immovable cultural heritage, its protected environment is determined, which has the same protection status as the object itself.
These elements indicate the dominant aspect of protecting cultural heritage. However, the issue of their sustainable development (presentation, use), spatial aspects and integration with other activities and functions in space are determined by the Law on Planning and Construction. As basic principles in the arrangement and use of space, the law defines the protection and sustainable use of immovable cultural heritage, and the preservation of customs and traditions, as well as the specifics of the landscape.
The system of planning documents consists of the spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia, regional spatial plans and spatial plans for special purpose areas adopted at the national or regional level, as well as the spatial plans of local self-government units and urban plans adopted at the local level. Each of the listed plans in the hierarchy must be harmonized with the higher order plan (wider area).
The spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia is the basic planning document for spatial development, which has a strategic development function, and contains measures for the protection, arrangement and improvement of cultural heritage (scale of graphic attachments 1: 300,000). Regional spatial plans are prepared for larger spatial units of an administrative character and are focused on regional development goals and projects (scale of graphic attachments 1: 50,000). Spatial plans for special purpose areas are prepared for areas of national interest that require a special regime of organization, arrangement, use and protection of space, and especially for areas of cultural and historical units and environmental value. Their specificity is that they can contain all the detailed elements of urban plans (different sizes, up to 1: 1,000) and that they are directly implemented by applying the rules of arrangement and construction, with the possibility of resolving property relations if necessary.
Bearing in mind the basic elements of this system, the authors conducted research on a case study of three spatial plans which in terms of their methodology and content make up the planning system of protection and sustainable development of cultural heritage in Serbia.
Further, the paper presents only some of the key elements that indicate the aspect of protecting immovable cultural heritage and its surroundings in plans, while the analysis included the entire spatial plans and the documentation on which their development was based.
4. Analysis of the sustainable development and protection of the cultural heritage in spatial plans
4.1 Spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2035
The Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2035 [17] concerns the entire territory of Serbia, which covers 88,488 km2. As one of the important aspects of spatial development, it deals with cultural heritage. According to the available information of the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments from 2020 [18], it consists of a total of 2592 immovable cultural assets of various types and significance (Table 1, Figure 1).
Importante Cultural assets
Exceptional importante
Great importante
Untategorized tultural assets
Total
Cultural monument
155
512
1566
2233
Spatial cultural/historieal unit
11
28
47
86
Arclieological site
18
25
151
194
Landmark
16
17
46
79
Total
200
582
1810
2592
Table 1.
Immovable cultural assets in Serbia by type and category in 2020.
Figure 1.
Thematic map of the protection of immovable cultural heritage in the spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2035. Source: Spatial plan of the republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2035 – Draft, Ministry of Construction, transport and infrastructure, April 2021.
In addition to these, there are 12 sites (or 6 entries) under UNESCO protection in Serbia: Stari Ras medieval complex of monuments and Sopoćani Monastery, 4 medieval monasteries of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Kosovo and Metohija (Visoki Dečani, Patriarchate of Peć, Bogorodica Ljeviška, Gračanica), the remains of the Felix Romuliana Palace (Gamzigrad) and three sites of medieval tombstones known as the Stećak tombstones. In addition, 11 more sites have been suggested for entry: 1 monastery, 3 national parks and 1 nature reserve, 1 archeological site, 1 historical location, 1 settlement, 1 fortress, 1 rare natural phenomenon, and one cultural belt (the Danubian Limes).
The general aim of spatial development in the field of the protection, arrangement and use of cultural heritage is the affirmation of cultural heritage as a valuable resource for sustainable development and as a factor of national and regional, urban and rural identity. Some of its specific objectives are the development of an integrative and territorial approach to the protection, arrangement and sustainable use of cultural heritage as well as the introduction of a typological approach, and the characterization of space at the level of areas, settlements and smaller units.
This spatial plan treats cultural heritage as an inseparable part of the living environment (natural and created), seeing it in correlation with its immediate environment and the way it fits into the functions that meet the needs of modern users. The following are recommended: applying the concept of protection in urban planning, introducing contextual analysis and valorizing building stock, and the spatial audits of individual locations. In order to preserve the identity of urban and rural settlements in Serbia, it is necessary to protect, present and affirm the material remains and influences of various civilizations that inhabited the Balkan Peninsula (Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and modern European civilizations, including the socialist period).
Bearing in mind that this is a national planning document that is indirectly implemented through other spatial plans, this plan defines a set of guidelines for the lower levels of planning.
Guidelines for cultural monuments - chronological and topographic gaps should be a priority in the valorization and revalorization of cultural monuments which, perhaps more than other immovable cultural heritage, provide a cross-section of complex civilizational trends in the area. Their preservation, study, restoration and popularization will be performed in a coordinated and integrated manner through the process of spatial and sectoral planning (in tourism, the protection of cultural monuments, etc.).
Guidelines for spatial cultural/historical units - when determining spatial cultural/historical units and their treatment in planning documents, it is necessary to respect the criteria of scientific assessments with regard to the artistic, cultural, historical and other values of the immovable cultural heritage that belong to the unit. Alongside the protection, arrangement and sustainable use of cultural heritage, it is necessary to include categories in accordance with international recommendations and standards [19, 20], such as: historic buildings and ensembles; urban and rural settlements/historic towns and villages; agricultural, industrial and technological properties; military properties; cultural landscapes, parks and gardens; cultural routes; burial monuments and sites; modern heritage, etc.
Within the current planning procedures, it is necessary to valorize the wider environment of cultural heritage in order to determine the space that is relevant for experiencing and presenting it. In that sense, it is necessary to protect the appearance, scenery, spatial configuration of the entire area, landscape and units that belong to the protection zones. Cultural heritage can be spatially connected by defining cultural areas and cultural routes at the international, national, regional and local levels.
Guidelines for archeological sites - indicate an approach to site protection which must be adapted to the site’s specific characteristics. For sites in areas that are not developed, there is an option of implementing protection by preparing a planning document. No construction or buried infrastructure can be planned in these areas. Preventive archeological research is also recommended as part of the planning process in response to proposed development solutions that could jeopardize archeological resources. Preventive archeological research should also be carried out in order to identify and record elements of archeological heritage that would be abandoned and/or destroyed as a result of development, especially when it comes to the construction of dams, roads, railways and other similar structures.
Guidelines for landmarks - it is necessary to conduct a revalorization of both already identified landmarks and landmarks whose memorial and historical value is dominant. As traces of historical events, all immovable cultural heritage of this kind should be treated equally.
The concept of the protection, arrangement and sustainable use of landscapes can be added to the mentioned elements in the planned treatment of immovable cultural heritage. One of the key elements in this is the protection and sustainable use of natural resources, natural and cultural assets, and their connection in space (local, regional, national ecological and cultural networks).
Depending on the degree and type of modification, the dominant processes that control a given space, and the character of human influence on the landscape, the territory of Serbia is classified into natural and cultural landscapes.
Cultural landscapes are divided into rural and urban landscapes, depending on the character of the modification of the landscape structure, the predominant manner of land use, the network, the type of settlement and the population density. Rural landscapes, in a structural sense, show natural characteristics that are close to the landscape. They have a lower population density and extensive land use, and rural settlements are an organic part of the natural environment. Urban landscapes are completely modified natural or rural landscape that are formed and function in relation to the needs of the urban way of life. They are zones of urban development (metropolitan areas, agglomerations, urban centers of the development axis).
Cultural landscapes may belong to the following categories: (1) designed cultural landscapes; (2) organic and relict cultural landscapes; and (3) associative cultural landscapes that possess esthetic, symbolic and spiritual value for the human community.
The spatial plan further defines guidelines for achieving the target quality of rural and urban areas. In rural areas, sustainable development is based on recognizing, protecting and improving their specific character, existing value and landscape capacities. In the development of spatial and urban plans, it is necessary to ensure: the preservation of the landscape pattern based on the specific composition and configuration, land use, the ratio of built and open space, regulation of construction and landscaping in accordance with tradition; an appropriate purpose of space and protection of the local identity; the integral protection of cultural and natural heritage and their adequate presentation for tourism, taking protection regimes into account; the affirmation and creation of the architectural identity of a settlement, based on the preservation and revitalization of traditional architecture, as well as on new construction that increases attractiveness; the formation of an ethno settlement as a museum of rural vernacular architecture, which is typical for the character of the landscape and its use for tourist purposes; prescribing morphological, ecological and landscape-shaping rules of arrangement and rules of construction.
The development of urban landscapes is based on the fact that these will continue to be the landscapes with the greatest dynamic of change. In the development of spatial and urban plans, it is necessary to provide: regulated construction and spatial planning in accordance with the target quality and character of the landscape, the specifics of the development of the urban landscape as a whole and development of individual settlements; directed expansion of urban settlements and planned construction in accordance with the demands of preserving cultural and natural heritage, the rational use of urban construction land and giving priority to urban renewal, recycling and construction within the already existing urban matrix; the preservation of open spaces and elements of nature in urban centers, the activation of abandoned and devastated spaces and the formation of a network of public spaces that connect natural and cultural assets.
4.2 Regional spatial plan of the Kolubara and Mačva administrative districts
The Regional Spatial Plan of the Kolubara and Mačva Administrative Districts [21] covers an area of 5,746 km2, i.e. an area of 14 local government units. One of its basic aims is to define the protection, preservation and presentation of cultural assets, in order for them to be included in the tourist offer and to establish a regional and local cultural identity.
In the area of the spatial plan a total of 219 immovable cultural assets are protected, of which 7 are of exceptional importance, 20 of great importance and 192 are uncategorized (of which there are 190 cultural monuments, 6 spatial cultural/historical units, 16 archeological sites and 7 landmarks).
Its main aim is elaborated through a number of specific objectives, such as: establishing integrative protection and cultural property management; undertaking urgent action to conserve, restore and revitalize the most valuable and most endangered heritage; determining and arranging the protected environment surrounding the immovable cultural heritage; integrating the protection and presentation of cultural assets in the development of the tourist offer of an area (transit and touring of cultural routes).
The basic planning commitment is the adequate protection of cultural heritage, which includes taking general measures. For archeological sites - categorizing the most valuable sites; more efficiently protecting cave archeological sites within the integral protection of natural areas of river canyons; infrastructural equipping and arranging the space covered by archeological sites; establishing archeological parks for individual sites; and determining the zones of archeological sites of regional significance.
For cultural monuments - complete technical protection, along with the renovation of individual buildings; preserving the basic properties and constructive, stylistic and typological characteristics, especially of buildings of sacral and technical architecture; presenting cultural monuments without disturbing their cultural and historical properties; recording and valorizing immovable cultural heritage, with priority given to valorizing vernacular buildings, commercial buildings, technical culture buildings and newer urban architecture; recording, valorizing and determining cultural monuments dedicated to the liberation wars of the Republic of Serbia, primarily during World War I; bringing sacral cultural monuments to an exclusively sacral purpose and liturgical needs; etc.
For spatial cultural/historical units - revalorizing and determining the categorization of individual units, as well as re-examining the validity of the boundaries of the wider protection zone for the old bazaar (City of Valjevo); implementing measures for the technical protection of a whole village (Bebića Luka), remediating and reconstructing buildings of vernacular architecture, with the introduction of modern construction and architectural elements that do not violate the integrity and authenticity of the buildings or the whole unit; defining the degree of reconstructive and remedial interventions and conservation conditions for the technical protection and presentation of buildings within individual cultural and historical units; defining restricted traffic zones and pedestrian zones in urban areas; etc.
For landmarks - intensive and systematic research and documenting of landmarks, memorials, cemeteries and tombstones; identifying commercial users; stimulating the construction of a complex within the area of a landmark to which endangered objects of vernacular architecture would be transferred; removing unplanned objects in the wider protection zone of the landmark; etc.
In addition, the basic planning commitment is to adequately present and affirm the immovable cultural assets as generators of tourism and overall development. The plan singles out particular heritage and areas that should enjoy special treatment, regardless of their current status of protection. This refers to the characteristic objects and traditions that are part of the architectural heritage - vernacular architecture (design elements, building materials, method of use), traditions and the intangible associations connected with them.
A special role in the integration of a comprehensive tourist offer is played by the possibility of forming “cultural routes” which will present immovable and intangible cultural heritage, and make connections with other types of tourist offers. Two cultural trails of international importance are planned, one through the towns of Sabac and Loznica and the other which partly follows the course of the Drina River. In addition, the plan identifies potential cultural routes of national, interregional, regional and local significance, such as the routes insurgents took during the First and Second Serbian Uprising, routes of battles and victims during the First World War, rural life through time, old mining routes and more.
This plan does not define more detailed measures, rules of arrangement or construction in the vicinity of cultural heritage, neither does it define any significant elements regarding the implementation of these solutions.
4.3 Spatial plan for the special purpose area of the landscape of outstanding features: Ovčar-Kablar Gorge
This spatial plan [22] covers a total area of 97.5 km2, i.e., the Ovčar-Kablar Gorge landscape of outstanding features (protected natural heritage) and the Ovčar-Kablar Monasteries (22.8 km2 of protected area, 74.7 km2 of unprotected area).
Unlike the previously analyzed plans, which were prepared for administratively determined areas and in which the protection and development of cultural heritage is only one of many aspects, the following are the specific focus of this spatial plan:
The Ovčar-Kablar Gorge landscape of outstanding features, protected as a natural asset, with a level III protection regime on an area of about 1,700 ha and a level II protection regime on about 550 ha within six separate spatial units;
The buildings and surroundings of the cultural monuments of great importance (monasteries) and other cultural/historical heritage within the unit of the Ovčar-Kablar Monasteries (future spatial cultural/historical units);
Spaces with the purpose of: (1) tourism, recreation and sports, especially paragliding on Ovčar Mountain; (2) integral presentations of the most attractive areas, especially the Zagrađe meander zone of the West Morava River, which is considered to be a center of cultural, natural and tourist potential.
In the area of the spatial plan, in the Ovčar-Kablar Gorge, there are 11 shrines (nine active monasteries), which is why it is often called the Serbian Mount Athos. Four monasteries have the status of established cultural monuments, which are categorized as immovable cultural heritage of great importance.
It is envisaged that the sustainable development of the special purpose areas will be based on the protection, improvement and use of natural and cultural heritage, the development of tourism, sports and recreation and the functional integration of the protected area and the wider environment.
This ensures the permanent and integrated protection of the buildings and surroundings of cultural monuments and other cultural and historical heritage, as well as their traffic and infrastructural arrangement and equipment, the creation of other spatial conditions for their presentation to the public, and the development of religious tourism.
The spatial plan analytically determines the space for declaring the future spatial, cultural and historical unit of Ovčar-Kablar Monasteries as immovable cultural heritage. It establishes measures of protection within three regimes that are spatially identified as: level I protection regime (strict protection) – courtyard of the cultural monument, with a total area of about 1.12 ha; level II protection regime (ambiental protection) – the courtyard and surroundings of the other monasteries, with a total area about 66.66 ha; level III protection regime (general protection) - the remainder of the Ovčar-Kablar Monasteries unit, with an area of about 2,211.22 ha.
The main measures in the level I protection regime are: banning the construction of facilities, except for the reconstruction, extension and maintenance of monastic housing and auxiliary facilities, technical protection, restoration and maintenance of church buildings, and the reconstruction and maintenance of energy and communal infrastructure; prohibiting other works, except for the appropriate landscape and horticultural arrangement, and protection from the harmful effects of water and landslides; controlled visits to church festivals and cultural events.
The main measures of the level II protection regime are: banning the construction of facilities, except for monastic farm facilities; the reconstruction and maintenance of traffic, energy and communal infrastructure; maintaining weekend facilities; the prohibition of works, except for agriculture, forestry, landscaping and protection from the harmful effects of water and landslides; conducting archeological, natural and other research; arranging and maintaining hiking and other walking trails; banning activities, except for church festivals, cultural events, controlled tourist visitor movement, hiking and cycling, limited and controlled motor vehicle traffic, etc.
The main measures of the level III protection regime are largely in line with the measures established for the level III protection regime for natural heritage, which include: banning the construction of facilities that may cause damage or destroy the material contents of the cultural heritage or may have adverse effects on the landscape features; banning the opening of quarries and the exploitation of mineral resources other than thermal waters and banning or restricting the use of other natural resources.
Archeological sites and buildings of vernacular architecture are an important segment of cultural heritage, and their properties, chronology and significance can be judged with certainty only on the basis of systematic archeological research or the appropriate research of their architecture and construction, as well as their cultural and historical features. For these reasons, detailed and systematic research of the overall cultural heritage of the protected area is recommended.
The cultural and religious tourism zone is formed by all of the monastery complexes with level I and II protection regimes, including the access roads, and the hiking, and bicycle paths that connect them. In the cultural and religious tourism zone, the reconstruction and equipping of the existing parking lots and construction of new ones on the access roads is planned, as well as equipping the local, forest and field roads with signs. For monasteries along the river, providing access from the water area should be considered, which can be done by setting up a pier for adequate vessels.
In the area of the monastery, which is covered by a detailed planning elaboration (Figure 2), the basic purpose of the space is religious buildings and complexes. This primary purpose also includes the detailed purposes of the courtyard and the monastery farm. Within the detailed purpose of the courtyard, there are temples, bell towers and monastery residences - residential buildings with accompanying auxiliary buildings. The detailed purpose of the monastery farm covers economic and agricultural buildings and areas of the monastery. The immediate surroundings of the monastery largely consist of monastery forests, in which no construction is allowed.
Figure 2.
Map of the detailed planning of the Blagoveštenje monastery. Source: Regulation on determining the spatial plan for the special purpose area of Ovčar-Kablar Gorge landscape of exceptional features (official gazette, No. 46/19).
Having these protection regimes in mind, the plan gives more detailed rules of arrangement and construction, which mostly refer to roads and infrastructure systems, while all further rules relating to cultural monuments are determined through conditions set by the competent protection institute.
5. Discussion on the implementation of sustainable development and protection for the cultural heritage in spatial plans
In order to consider the issues of implementing the sustainable development and protection of cultural assets in the spatial plans analyzed, the authors use and build on previous research on the implementation model for spatial plans [11, 12, 23], as follows:
The theoretical definition that the model of implementation of a spatial plan is a simplified representation of a set of related planning decisions on actions in the future, which reflects logical, functional and time coherent planning action, depending on the type and methods of planning;
The model of implementation has its own elements, which are determined by a set of planning actions in the broadest possible sense, starting from general decisions, through relatively firm target propositions, to very definite statements in terms of content, time and space. The elements of the model go beyond the plan itself as a document (phase of the planning process), and in addition to the mentioned planning elements, they also include “postplanning elements” defined by the plan (carried out later) and all the necessary elements of monitoring;
Depending on the type and method of planning, several types of spatial plan implementation models have been singled out, and the implementation model of spatial protection has been analyzed and applied in practice for the purpose of spatial protection.
According to the authors, the research presented in this paper has a special significance, because it refers to the issues of sustainable development and protection of cultural property that have not been subject to such analyses so far. Previous analyses of the implementation model have included protected areas of natural resources and water sources, but not protected areas of cultural heritage.
Furthermore, in their analysis, the authors thematically separate and analyze three aspects (Table 2), namely: (1) the protection of cultural heritage and its environment in a narrower sense (P); (2) the development of cultural heritage, i.e. primarily those elements related to the rules of their arrangement, presentation and inclusion in tourist activities (D); and (3) integrating the protection and development of cultural assets into landscape planning and protection (L).
Spatial Plans
I Planning elements
II Post-planning elements
III Monitoring eL
Strategic framework
General goals
Specific goals
Planning solutions
Dynamic framework
Measures and instruments
Participants (subjects)
Monitoring system
Evaluation (indicators)
Institutional and organzational aspects
Priority planning solutions (4 years)
Medium-term and long-term stages
Planning-programming
Organizational
Normative-legal
Financial
1.
Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2035
P D L
P D L
P D L
P D L
P D
P D L
P D L
P L
P L
P
P
P
2.
Regional Spatial Plan of the Kolubara and Mačva Administrative Districts
P D
P D
PD
P D
P D
P D
P
P D
P D
3.
Spatial Plan for the Special Purpose Area “Ovčarsko-kablarska klisura”
P D L
P D L
P D
P D
P D
P D
P D L
P D
P
P
P – protection, D – development, L – landscape.
Table 2.
Elements of the implementation model for the protection and development of landscapes in the spatial plans analyzed.
The Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia has applied the largest number of elements of the implementation model, those relating both to protection and to developing cultural heritage and landscape planning (a total of 27 elements). The specificity this plan is the large number of recognized elements relating to landscapes from all three plans, as well as the definition of the monitoring elements that are missing in other plans. Therefore, it can be concluded that a general approach has been applied in this plan, which is justified having in mind that it belongs to the national level of planning.
In The Regional Spatial Plan for the area of Kolubara and Mačva administrative districts, the fewest elements of the implementation model were applied (a total of 17 elements). The specificity of this plan is that it does not integrate the protection and development of cultural heritage in the planning and protection of landscapes, that is, there is a complete lack of any elements related to the theme of landscapes. Elements of the protection and development of cultural heritage are equally applied in this plan. Since this type of plan is focused on the goals and projects of regional development, i.e. the regional approach to planning, further elaboration on all missing elements is possible and necessary through the local level of planning.
In The Spatial Plan for the Special Purpose Area of the Landscape of Outstanding Features Ovčar-Kablar Gorge, a combination of the implementation elements of all three aspects (a total of 21 elements) was applied. However, the fewest elements are related to the integration of cultural heritage in landscape planning and protection, and they refer only to the general strategic framework, general goals, and planning and program measures for implementation, indicating that these were not sufficiently considered. Elements that relate to the protection and development of cultural goods are relatively evenly distributed. This kind of approach to planning can be characterized as special (as indicated by the name and subject of the plan) and is determined by the need to protect and plan the development of both the protected natural area and the future protected area of cultural monuments.
After analyzing all three plans, the basic conclusion is that general planning elements (strategic framework, goals, planning solutions) are dominant, that there are fewer post-planning elements (dynamics, implementation measures), and that there is a marked lack of elements related to the implementation of monitoring. Further analysis in this direction is not necessary, as it would be largely focused on the legislative framework, procedures and assessment of the quality of the plans, which is not the subject of this paper.
In the opinion of the authors, the most important conclusion concerns the relationship between aspects of protecting cultural heritage, its sustainable development and its integration into planning and protecting landscapes. Out of all these elements recognized in the plans, most concern the protection of cultural heritage, of which there are 31, followed by the elements of development (rules of arrangement, presentation and tourism), of which there are 23, but only 11 elements concerning the integration of cultural heritage in landscape planning and protection. This points towards the basic conclusion of the research, that protecting cultural assets and their environment in the narrower sense dominates the planning practice of Serbia, which is in itself justified and necessary. However, this does not sufficiently consider and plan for the sustainable development of cultural heritage, because there is insufficient elaboration of elements that would indicate the rules of construction and spatial planning in their environment, along with their unification and further planning development integrated with tourism (cultural routes, tourist areas, etc.). This is even more pronounced when considering the aspect of integrating the protection and development of cultural heritage into the planning and protection of landscapes, which is not developed in the practice of planning in Serbia. Indeed, it is considered only in a general and declarative manner, and only in individual cases.
6. Conclusions
Alongside the starting point that spatial (and urban) planning is of key importance for the sustainable development and protection of cultural heritage, this paper aimed to, based on the analysis of previous experiences, point out the need and possibilities for further improving the spatial planning process.
The fact is that in the current practice, cultural heritage is not clearly articulated as a development resource, and the connection and harmonization of policies for protection, arrangement and use of cultural heritage has not been achieved, especially in the case of the cultural landscapes and areas mentioned here. The Law on Cultural Property is not sufficiently harmonized with international recommendations, and does not recognize categories of the cultural landscape. The plans mainly include data on the number and category of cultural assets, as well as measures for their protection, obtained from the competent protection services.
The case study of three spatial plans confirmed the basic hypothetical assumptions of the research, that the methods used to plan areas of cultural heritage differ depending on the type and level of the spatial plan. The plans identify aspects of protection and the sustainable development of cultural heritage, and also in part their integration with landscape planning, but with obvious important shortcomings.
A key conclusion was reached based on this analysis, namely that there is no dominant and developed concept of protecting cultural heritage that has evolved into a system of comprehensive and adequate planning for its sustainable development. Therefore, in the coming period, it is necessary to improve planning methods and techniques in order to fully consider the sustainable development of cultural heritage in spatial plans. The first step in this can be the detailed planning and definition of all of the necessary rules for the arrangement and construction of space (urbanistic rules) in the vicinity of cultural heritage (protected or wider), the application of which would enable the construction of traffic and infrastructure systems, tourist facilities and infrastructure, and even those elements which reinforce the very aspect of protection from new activities in the environment. This would enable adequate presentation of cultural heritage, and the spatial connection and definition of cultural areas and cultural routes at the international, national, regional and local levels.
Such spatial planning would be a really key instrument in the implementation of European policies, which emphasize a contextual approach and expansion with regard to the subject of protection, from individual monuments to wider spatial units, as well as the need to integrate conservation and protection strategies with development and planning documents, and others.
In addition to the above, it can be further concluded that the lack of integration between protection policy and the development of cultural heritage in the planning and protection of landscapes is even more pronounced. It is interesting to note that the analysis indicated that this type of integration is only found in the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia, i.e., at the national level of planning. The planning and protection of landscapes are not considered in other spatial plans. This further raises issues and needs for improvement, not only with regard to planning, but also legal regulations that should make integrated aspects of protection and development of cultural assets mandatory in landscape planning.
Based on the examples analyzed here, one gets the impression that in practice only the integration of the protection and development of cultural heritage with the protection of natural heritage has been truly achieved, that is, the integration of different aspects of protection.
Finally, all the above findings presented by the authors in this paper need to be further researched and scientifically shaped. The shortcoming of this research could be its small scientific sample of three spatial plans. With an increase in the number of spatial plans analyzed, i.e. the number of cultural assets and the area where they are located, it is certain that the research results would be more precise and significant. Indeed, that is the imperative of the planner in the period ahead.
Finally, in the opinion of the authors, this analysis of models and elements of implementing plans also highlights those general shortcomings in the plans that need to be eliminated and solved by improving planning methodology. This relates not only to the issue of the protection and sustainable development of cultural heritage, but also to numerous other aspects and subjects of planning (the economy, traffic, settlement networks, regional development, rural development, etc.). It especially refers to the concretization of planning solutions, determination of priorities, measures and instruments of implementation, and in particular elements for monitoring the implementation of spatial plans. The more precisely defined the implementation framework of spatial plans, the greater their role in integrating the protection and sustainable development of cultural heritage with other aspects of development.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Cultural heritage, spatial plan, protection, sustainable development, landscape, implementation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78130.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78130.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78130",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78130",totalDownloads:145,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 31st 2021",dateReviewed:"June 24th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 17th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"August 17th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The starting point in this paper is the position that spatial and urban planning has a key role in sustainable development and the protection of cultural heritage. The planning method used in areas of cultural heritage differs depending on the type and level of the spatial plan. It is possible to identify aspects of protection and sustainable development in plans, with the protection of cultural heritage dominating in practice. Research was carried out on a case study of three spatial plans at different levels, which both in terms of their methodology and content make up the planning system for the protection and sustainable development of cultural heritage in Serbia. The comparative analysis of the plans includes three aspects: protection, the sustainable development of cultural heritage, and the integration of cultural heritage into the planning and protection of landscapes. The implementation models of the spatial plans were considered. The main conclusion of the paper is that the concept of protecting cultural heritage has not evolved into a system of comprehensive and adequate planning for its sustainable development, nor is it sufficiently integrated with the planning and protection of landscapes. The paper provides guidelines for improving both the methodology of spatial planning and the concept of the sustainable development and protection of cultural heritage in spatial plans.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78130",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78130",signatures:"Nebojša Stefanović and Nataša Danilović Hristić",book:{id:"10660",type:"book",title:"Heritage - New Paradigm",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Heritage - New Paradigm",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10660.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-621-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-620-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-622-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"176482",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Turcanu-Carutiu",slug:"daniela-turcanu-carutiu",fullName:"Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. System of sustainable development and protection of cultural heritage in the Republic of Serbia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Analysis of the sustainable development and protection of the cultural heritage in spatial plans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2035",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Regional spatial plan of the Kolubara and Mačva administrative districts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Spatial plan for the special purpose area of the landscape of outstanding features: Ovčar-Kablar Gorge",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Discussion on the implementation of sustainable development and protection for the cultural heritage in spatial plans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'European Spatial Development Perspective ESDP (Towards Balanced and Sustainable Development of the Territory of the European Union), Agreed at the Informal Council of Ministers responsible for Spatial Planning, Potsdam, may 1999. – Published by the European Commission'},{id:"B2",body:'Guiding Principles for Sustainable Spatial Development of the European Continent", 12th Session of the European Conference of Ministers responsible for Regional Planning (CEMAT), September 2000, Hanover'},{id:"B3",body:'Territorial Agenda of the European Union 2020, 2011'},{id:"B4",body:'Vlami, V., Kokkoris, I. P., Zogaris, S., Cartalis, C., Kehayias, G., Dimopoulos, P. Cultural landscapes and attributes of “culturalness” in protected areas: An exploratory assessment in Greece. 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Sustainability, Special Issue "Cultural and Creative Tourism Developments: Past, Present and Future" 12, 10297: 1-19 DOI: 10.3390/su12241029, ISSN 2071-1050'},{id:"B9",body:'Bello, F. G., Lovelock, B., Carr, N. Enhancing community participation in tourism planning associated with protected areas in developing countries: Lessons from Malawi. Tourism and Hospitality Research 2018, Vol. 18(3): 309-320 DOI: 10.1177/1467358416647763'},{id:"B10",body:'Danilović Hristić, N., Stefanović N. The Role of Public Insight in Urban Planning Process: Increasing Efficiency and Effectiveness. Spatium International Review, 30, 2013: 33-39, ISSN 14 50-569X'},{id:"B11",body:'Stefanović, N., Danilović Hristić, N., Milijić, S. (2015) Implementation Model of Planning Rules in Spatial Plans. Spatium International Review, 33, ISSN 14 50-569X, No. 33, 2015: 62-68 DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1533062S'},{id:"B12",body:'Stefanović N., Danilović Hristić, N., Krunić, N. (2017) Comparative analysis of elements and models of implementation in local-level spatial plans in Serbia. Spatium International Review, No 37: 58-67. DOI:10.2298/SPAT1737058S'},{id:"B13",body:'Stefanović N., Danilović Hristić, N., Srnić D. (2018) A Methodological Framework for the Integrated Planning of the Protection and Development of the Natural Resource Areas in Serbia - Case Study of the Spatial Plans for the Special Purpose Area for the Protected Natural Areas. Spatium International Review, No 40: 25-32. DOI: 10.2298/SPAT18400255'},{id:"B14",body:'Graovac, A., Danilović Hristić, N., Stefanović N. Technical and Logical Methods for Improving the Process of Urban Planning in Serbia, SPATIUM International Review, No 38, 2017: 27-34. DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1738027G'},{id:"B15",body:'Law on Cultural Heritage, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 71/94, 52/11-and other laws, 99/11-and other laws, 6/20-and other laws. Original in Serbian [Zakon o kulturnim dobrima, "Službeni glasnik Republike Srbije" br. 71/94, 52/11dr. zakon 99/11dr. zakon, 6/20dr. zakon.]'},{id:"B16",body:'Law on Planning and Construction, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 72/09, 81/09-amendment, 64/10-US, 24/11, 121/12, 42/13-US, 50/13-US, 98/13-US, 132/14, 83/18, 31/19, 37/19-and other laws, 9/20. Original in Serbian [Zakon o planiranju i izgradnji, "Službeni glasnik Republike Srbije" br. 72/09, 81/09-ispravka, 64/10-US, 24/11, 121/12, 42/13-US, 50/13-US, 98/13-US, 132/14, 83/18, 31/19, 37/19-dr. zakon 9/20.]'},{id:"B17",body:'Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia from 2021. to 2035. – Draft, Ministry of civil engineering, traffic and infrastructure, April 2021, Belgrade. Original in Serbian [Prostorni plan Republike Srbije od 2021. do 2035. godine – Nacrta, Ministarstvo građevinarstva, saobraćaja i infrastrukture, april 2021, Beograd]'},{id:"B18",body:'Conditions of the Republic Institute for Cultural Heritage Protection, 2020'},{id:"B19",body:'Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape, UNESCO, 2011'},{id:"B20",body:'The World Heritage List: Filling the Gaps-an Action Plan for the Future, An Analysis by ICOMOS, 2004'},{id:"B21",body:'Regional Spatial Plan of the Kolubara and Mačva Administrative Districts, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 12/14. Original in Serbian [Regionalni prostorni plan za područje Kolubarskog i Mačvanskog upravnog okruga, "Službeni glasnik Republike Srbije" br. 12/14]'},{id:"B22",body:'Spatial Plan for the Special Purpose Area of the Landscape of Outstanding Features "Ovčarsko-kablarska klisura", Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 46/19. Original in Serbian [Prostorni plan područja posebne namene predela izuzetnih odlika „Ovčarsko-kablarska klisura“, "Službeni glasnik Republike Srbije" br. 46/19]'},{id:"B23",body:'Stefanović, N., Josimović, B., Danilović Hristić, N. (2018) Models of Implementation of Spatial Plans – Theoretical Approach and Case Studies for Spatial Plans for the Special Purpose Area, In: Ergen, Y. (Ed.) An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning, IntechOpen, London, Chapter 4, pp. 59-81, ISBN 978-1-78984-835-9, Print ISBN: 978-1-78984-834-2, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78242'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nebojša Stefanović",address:null,affiliation:'
Institute of Architecture and Urban and Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Institute of Architecture and Urban and Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. 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He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. 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Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. 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This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"83073",title:"Dental and Orofacial Trauma Impacts on Oral-Health-Related—Quality of Life in Children: Low- and Middle-Income Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105845",signatures:"Yolanda Malele-Kolisa, Nazia Khan, Mpho P. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
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\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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