\r\n\tThe sense of proprioception includes various aspects or submodalities such as position sense, motion sense (kinaesthesia; including the duration, direction, amplitude, speed, acceleration and timing of movements), force tension sense, and change in velocity sense.
\r\n\r\n\tProprioception is mediated by proprioceptors, a specialized subset of about 10-15% of mechanosensory neurons localized in dorsal root ganglia that convey information about the stretch and tension of muscles, tendons, joints and perhaps the skin. So, the neurological basis of proprioception originates from proprioceptors with contact specialized sensory organs in muscles (muscle spindles), tendons (Golgi tendon organs), joints (different morphotypes of sensory corpuscles including Ruffini’s corpuscles and Pacinian corpuscles) and the skin (cutaneous mechanoreceptors). Thereafter, the information originated in the proprioceptors forming complex nerve pathways reach the central nervous system at the level of the spinal cord, the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex for processing. Hence, proprioception can be regarded as a continuous loop of feedforward and feedback inputs between sensory receptors throughout the body and the nervous system.
\r\n\r\n\tIn limb and axial muscles, the proprioception originates in the muscle spindles. Nevertheless, the cephalic muscles, with the exception of the extraocular muscles and those innervated by the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve, lack muscle spindles. But the facial or pharyngeal proprioception plays key roles in the regulation and coordination of facial musculature and diverse reflexes. At the basis of these functional characteristics are the multiple communications between cranial nerves. Substituting muscle spindles by other kinds of proprioceptors might be at the basis.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, since the stimuli for proprioceptors are mechanical (stretch, tension, and so) proprioception can be regarded as a modality of mechanosensitivity. During the last decade progress has been made to understanding the molecular basis of mechanosensitivity. However, identity of mechanotransducers is poorly know. The mechanogated ion channels acid-sensing ion channel 2 (ASIC2), transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) and PIEZO2 have been related to mechanotransduction and have been detected in proprioceptors innervating muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs in mice. Also, mice lacking Piezo2 showed severely uncoordinated body movements and abnormal limb positions.
\r\n\tFinally, the lesion of the proprioception receptors, proprioceptors or the nerve center and pathways related to proprioception result in poor proprioception. Importantly, age-related changes also affect proprioception due to a combination of natural age-related changes to the central nervous system, nerves, joints, and muscles. Acute and long-term impairment can be related to toxicological, medical or injury conditions, but also with neuromuscular and central nervous system diseases.
\r\n\tBased on the above comments this book intends to provide a comprehensive update an overview of the anatomical, structural and molecular basis of proprioception as well as of the main causes of proprioception impairment and possible treatments.
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Vega and Dr. Juan Cobo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10554.jpg",keywords:"Muscle Proprioception, Articular Proprioception, Sensory Receptors, Cephalic Proprioception, Primary Sensory Neurons, Spinal Cord, Cerebellum, Brain, Proprioception Impairment, Mechanosensitivity, Mechano-Gated Ion Channels, Mechanotransduction",numberOfDownloads:553,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 8th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 24th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Leading researcher and head of the SINPOS research group (Sensory Organs and Peripheral Nervous System), and full professor of neuroanatomy and human embryology at the University of Oviedo. He is co-author of more than 100 publications on the peripheral nervous system.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Member of the SINPOS research group (Sensory Organs and Peripheral Nervous System), and full professor of Stomatology at the University of Oviedo. He co-authored more than 50 publications on the peripheral nervous system especially in the field of facial proprioception.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"59892",title:"Prof.",name:"José A.",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",slug:"jose-a.-vega",fullName:"José A. Vega",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/59892/images/system/59892.jpg",biography:"Dr. José Antonio A. Vega is a graduate in Medicine and Surgery that obtained PhD (with Extraordinary Prize) from the University of Oviedo, Spain. He completed his postdoctoral training at the universities of Brno and Prague (Czech Republic), 'La Sapienza' and 'Tor Vergata' in Rome specializing in peripheral nervous system and growth factors of the neurotrophin family. Currently he is a Professor of Anatomy and Human Embryology of the Department of Morphology and Cell Biology at the University of Oviedo, and Head of the research group SINPOS (Sensory Organs and Peripheral Nervous System) at the University of Oviedo. He has taught as a contracted professor, at the Universities of Messina, 'Federico II' of Naples, Rome 'La Sapienza' and Rome 'Tor Vergata', Sassari, Barí, and CEU-San Pablo at Madrid. 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A reagent in chemical science is a “substance or compound that is added to a system in order to bring a chemical reaction or is added to check whether a reaction is occurred or not.” Such a reaction is used to confirm the detection of the presence of another substance. Although the terms “reactant and reagent” are often used interchangeably, a reactant is more specifically a “substance that is consumed in the course of a chemical reaction.” Commonly, the involvement of solvents and catalysts in the course of a chemical reaction is not considered as reactants. Small organic molecules and metal salts/compounds in organic chemistry play a significant role in different organic reactions of laboratory and industrial importance [1].
Grade of chemical reagents remains very important in inorganic synthesis. Purity of a chemical agent can also be expressed in terms of the grade. Chemical reagents in scientific community are commonly found as spectroscopic grade, analytical grade (A.R. grade), synthetic grade, and laboratory grade (L.R. grade). Depending on the nature of uses, specially qualitative or quantitative, one can select the grade of reagents. Whatever the chemical substances we commonly use, a minimum quality must be maintained, and the purity of the chemical substances is determined by few organizations of international standard like ASTM International.
Inorganic chemistry, which is serving as a fundamental branch of chemistry, deals with the synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds consisting of most of the chemical bonding comprising ionic, covalent, coordinate, μ-bonding, δ-bonding, H-bonding, weak interactions, and so on. The important aspects of chemical bonding in inorganic compounds reflect their physicochemical properties and the materialistic application in industrial catalysis, therapeutic agents, optical materials, magnetic materials, and conducting materials [2]. This chapter describes an overview of chemical regents using inorganic chemical reactions for the synthesis of different compounds including coordination, organometallic, cluster, bioinorganic, solid state compounds, and so on.
A chemical reaction is basically a process in which an integral chemical change of a reactant is taken place during the conversion of reactant to products. In the chemical reactions, electronic motion involves to head a bond making and breaking. Different types of chemical reactions in inorganic chemistry may be classified more than a single way. Only some of the fundamental broad inorganic chemical reactions are categorized in the following.
This is a type of a chemical reaction in which two or more reactants react themselves to produce a product. Elemental sulfur reacts with molecular oxygen to form sulfur dioxide is an example of combination reaction.
Often, decomposition reactions are considered as an opposite type of combination reactions. A chemical entity in the decomposition reaction breaks down into two or more substances. Decomposition usually results from electrolysis or heating. An example of a decomposition reaction is the breakdown of mercury(II) oxide into its component elements.
A displacement reaction is occurred during the replacement of an atom or ion with another atom or ion in a compound. An example of a single displacement reaction is the displacement of copper ion in a copper sulfate solution by zinc metal ion to form zinc sulfate.
Inorganic chemistry includes different types of compounds comprising coordination compounds, simple metal compounds, organometallic compounds, cluster molecules, biological compounds, supramolecules, coordination polymers, catalysts, magnetic compounds, and others [3]. A brief discussion on some classes of inorganic compounds is presented.
Coordination compounds cover a wide fundamental area in inorganic chemistry and primarily deal with coordination bonding between a ligand and a metal ion. Classical coordination compounds feature metals bound to “lone pairs” of electrons residing on the main group atoms of ligands such as H2O, NH3, Cl−, and CN−. In modern coordination compounds, large numbers of ligands with different coordination motifs are available. Most of the metal complexes contain principally 3D metal ions with different ligand backbones. A. Werner, the founder of coordination chemistry showed different classes of coordination molecules. He also classified the ligands as classical/Werner type and non-classical/non-Werner type ligands. Commonly, in coordination compounds ligands are dominated by the elements belonging to groups 13–17 [4]. On the other hand, Schiff bases, a very common and widely used ligand systems, named after H. Schiff, are the condensation products between primary amines and aldehydes or ketones (RCH=NR′, where R and R′ represent alkyl and aryl substituents), which are used for the preparation of complex compounds [5].
Compounds with metal ions from group 4 to 11 are considered transition metal compounds. Compounds with a metal from group 3 or 12 are sometimes also incorporated into this group but often classified as main group compounds. Transition metal compounds also show rich coordination geometry, varying from coordination number 3 to 12, although tetrahedral, square planar, square pyramidal/trigonal bipyramid, and octahedral geometry for coordination geometries are commonly seen. A large number of transition elements are primarily responsible for carrying out different bio-functions in living systems like iron in heme proteins, zinc in carbonic anhydrase enzyme in respiration, Fe & Mo in nitrogen fixation, Mn in oxygen evolving complex in photosynthesis, Co in vitamin B12, Cu in hemocyanin and different metallo-enzymes, and so on [6, 7].
Usually, organometallic compounds are considered as a class of compound which contains at least one M─C bond which is exclusively covalent in character [8]. The metal (M) in these species can either be a main group element or a transition metal. Operationally, the definition of an organometallic compound is also more relaxed to include highly lipophilic complexes such as metal carbonyls, metal nitrosyls, and even metal alkoxides. These compounds have drawn considerable interest mainly as homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts.
Cluster compounds can be classified as metallic cluster, non-metallic cluster, and metal complex cluster. Clusters can be found in all classes of chemical compounds. According to the commonly accepted definition, a cluster consists minimally of a triangular set of atoms that are directly bonded to each other, but metal-metal bonded di-/tri-/polymetallic complexes are highly relevant to the area. Clusters occur in “pure” inorganic systems, organometallic chemistry, main group chemistry, and bioinorganic chemistry. The distinction between very large clusters and bulk solids is increasingly blurred. Few examples are Fe3(CO)12, B10H14, [Mo6Cl14]2−, and 4Fe─4S.
Bioinorganic compounds are one of the most significant classes of a compound in chemical science, which are not only integrally related to the basic processes of nature but also provided significant insights into exploring the chemistry in living world [9]. It is a branch of chemistry, which deals with the interface between chemistry and biology. Starting from DNA to RNA to photosynthesis to oxygen transport and storage to nitrogen fixation, each and every parts of the living world are engrossed with the bioinorganic compounds. Traditional bioinorganic chemistry focuses on electron- and energy-transfer in proteins relevant to respiration. Medicinal inorganic chemistry includes the study of both non-essential and essential elements with applications to diagnosis and therapies.
When bioorganic molecules or drugs are bound to metal ions, there is a drastic change in their biomimetic properties, therapeutic effects, and pharmacological properties. One such remarkable molecule is amino acid, and they form complexes with metal atoms and exhibit significant biological and enzymatic activities. Essential metal ions and their complexes are found to have antitumor, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and anti-HIV activity [10]. It was, therefore, considered worthwhile to study the complexation and to determine the biological activity of these new complexes.
This important area focuses on structure [11], bonding, and the physical properties [12] of materials. In practice, solid state inorganic chemistry uses techniques such as crystallography to gain an understanding of the structure and structural aspects that result from collective interactions between the subunits of the solid. Metals and their alloys or intermetallic derivatives are included in solid state chemistry. Related fields are condensed matter physics, mineralogy, and materials science. Examples are silicon chips, zeolites, and YBa2Cu3O7.
Solubility is one of the basic parameters that help to understand the properties of a compound. The synthesized compounds are generally tested for their solubility in various polar solvents like water, ethanol, methanol, dimethyl sulfoxide, and some nonpolar solvents like hexane, ethylacetate, benzene, etc.
Melting point determination for any compound helps to identify the level of reactivity in solid state for any synthesized ligands and metal complexes. It also helps to predict the molecular composition of the complexes.
Elemental analysis remains an important method to study the nature of elements (especially C, H, N, and O) exist in compounds. The analysis on the abundance of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen in a compound also helps to determine the class of compounds in the scientific literature.
Various spectroscopic methods are available in the determination of proposed structures for inorganic complexes. Among these, elemental analyses, FT-IR, UV-Vis, NMR, EPR, mass spectrometry, and thermogravimetric analysis are the most common techniques and widely used globally. But, the most authenticated technique in the determination of detail structural geometry is single crystal X-ray diffraction study. This particular analytical tool helps to locate the atomic position in a 3D structure with an absolute precise manner.
The UV-Vis spectra of all the complexes are recorded in spectrophotometer using different solvents in the wave range of 200–1100 nm.
Magnetic susceptibility measurements of the complexes in the solid state are determined by the Gouy balance at room temperature using metal as the calibrant.
The molar conductivity is measured with a conductivity meter.
IR spectral analysis is one of the most widely used analytical tools, which is utilized to assign different functional chromophores in the molecule. Incorporation of ligand with metal ions can be easily detected to draw a simple comparison between IR spectra of free ligand and compound. The principle involved during this spectral analysis is to examine the changes in stretching modes.
Proton nuclear magnetic resonance is probably the best analytical method to determine the geometry and structural backbone for a chemical species. Further, the involvement of the ligand with metal ions in the formation of metal complexes can also be predicted with this technique. The chemical shifts associated with the location of H-atom in the skeletal of ligand remain very important in different applications in material sciences such as proton transfer mechanism and metal organic framework.
Electron spin resonance spectral technique is one of the fundamental techniques in detecting the spin state of metal ion or free ligand in inorganic compounds. It actually helps to determine the important aspects of chemical bonding along with significant illumination on structural features for metal complexes. Not only the structural part, but also the generation of ligand centered radical in different organic transformations of laboratory and industrial significance during the investigation of catalytic pathways can also be defined with this particular analytical technique. ESR measurements for the inorganic complexes at different temperatures and in different phases bring additional importance to this technique.
The thermal behavior of the synthesized complexes has been studied to establish different decomposition processes and to confirm the proposed stoichiometry. The thermal behavior of synthesized complexes was characterized on the basis of TGA/DTG and DTA method. Thermal analysis plays an important role in studying the stability, melting point, structure, and decomposition properties of the metal complexes.
The most authenticated way to determine the 3D structure of inorganic complexes is single crystal X-ray diffraction study. It helps to locate the perfect atomic position in a molecule.
Since PC (Pre-stressed) bridges were first constructed, about 40 years has passed. Then, the degradation and problems such as no-grout-filling, rail-water-invasion, corruption, thinning and disconnection of PC bridges has revealed and been detected. In these tens years, several nondestructive and destructive evaluations have been performed. Depending on the seriousness of degradation, a few PC bridges are under reconstruction and its planning. So far, they have mainly used inspection by eyes and hammering. However, it is very hard to evaluate the problems and degradation of PC by the above methods. There are non-destructive methods to check PC such as ultrasonography, radar, X-ray transmission by X-ray tubes (200–400 kV), magnetic field detection, etc. But, practically it is difficult to evaluate PC in thicker concrete than 200 mm. We have developed portable 950 keV/3.95 MeV electron linac (linear accelerator)-based X-ray / neutron sources and applied them to inspection of PC concrete thicker than 200 mm within reasonable measuring time of seconds – minutes more than 10 times so far [1, 2, 3, 4]. Major poor-construction and degradation of PC bridges to be detected by X-rays and neutrons are unfilled grout, rainwater intrusion, corrosion and thinning and disconnection of PC wires. Unfilled grout and thinning and disconnection of PC wires can be measured by difference of X-ray attenuation coefficient by X-rays. The three types of the PC bridges and locations of X-ray/neutron source and detector are depicted in Figure 1. As for highway bridges, concrete vertical WEB wall is thick as 450–1,000 mm.
On-site X-ray/neutron inspection by 3.95 MeV system for three types of highway PC bridge.
There are of course many nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods to try to detect poor construction such unfilled grout in PC sheath and degradation such as thinning and disconnection of PC wires. RADAR, ultrasonic testing, magnetic testing, 200–400 kV X-ray tube, etc. are candidates as shown in Figure 2. However, they are available for thinner concrete than 200 mm. On the other hand, 950 keV / 3.95 MeV X-ray sources can be used for transmission testing for thick concrete of 200–400 mm and 200–1,000 mm based on the calculation and our experience so far [1, 2, 3, 4]. We think that only the 950 keV/3.95 MeV X-ray sources can enable transmission imaging of PC structures in 200–1,000 mm thick concrete within minutes.
Advantage of 950 keV/3.95 MeV X-ray sources over other NDE methods for thicker concrete than 200 mm.
Figure 3 summarizes major poor construction of unfilled grout, early degradation such as rainwater intrusion and finally serious degradation of thinning and disconnection, and suitable NDE methods and successive structural analysis. If there is unfilled grout in PC sheath, rainwater may intrude from the edges and is stored there. Then, the rainwater makes PC wires and sheath wall be corroded. Volume expansion of PC sheath due to corrosion and oxidation induces cracks in near concrete. The cracks gradually become larger and reach the concrete surface, When the sheath wall is broken, the rainwater exude out and intrude into concrete and surface. As the corrosion is enhanced, superficial oxidized iron leaves and thinning of PC wires occurs. Even, the disconnection may happen since the wires are tensile. Among the above temporal change of state, the structural changes such as unfilled grout and thinning/disconnection of wires can been detected by X-ray transmission imaging. On the other hand, material property change such as rainwater intrusion can be detected by neutron scattering in water. Since concrete vertical WEB wall is thicker than ~450 mm, 3.95 MeV X-ray source is appropriate with respect to transmission ability. Iron components of PC such as wires can be clearly seen with good contrast to concrete. Their thinning and disconnection are observed with the spatial resolution of 1 mm. Since tension is added to PC wires at its construction, they tend to be attached to the upper wall of PC sheath. Therefore, unfilled grout should be recognized under PC wires with certain change of contrast. Measured flaws such as unfilled grout and thinning/disconnection are inputted to structural analysis described in Chapter 5. Thus, initial poor construction of unfilled grout and serious thinning and disconnection of PC wires are diagnosed and then their affect to lack and degradation of strength is quantitatively evaluated by structural analysis. Finally, maintenance, repairing and reconstruction are planned. Moreover, there is a possibility to detect rainwater intrusion inside PC sheath by portable 3.95 MeV neutron source [5], which is discussed in Section 3.2.
Poor construction and degradation of PC bridges, suitable NDE methods and structural analysis.
We use X-band (9.3 GHz) linac based 3.95 MeV X-ray sources for the inspection of the actual bridge [1, 2, 3]. The systems are shown in Figure 4. The electrons are accelerated up to 3.95 MeV by radio frequency (RF) fields. We also adopted the side-coupled standing wave type accelerating structure. Electrons are injected into a Tungsten target that generates bremsstrahlung X-rays. The generated X-rays are collimated by a Tungsten collimator into the shape of a cone which has an opening angle of 17 degrees. Most important is the X-ray intensity, which is 2 Gy/min at 1 m for a full magnetron RF power of 1.8 MW. The system consists of a 200 kg (including local Pb radiation shielding) X-ray head, 100 kg magnetron box, and stationary electric power source and water chiller unit. The X-ray head and magnetron box are portable, and because they are connected to each other by a flexible waveguide, only the position and angle of the X-ray head are finely tuned. We have optimized the design with respect to X-ray intensity, compactness, and weight. The parameters of the 3.95 MeV X-ray source are summarized in the table in the figure.
3 95 MeV portable X-band linac based X-ray source and its major parameters. The system consists of four units: X-ray head, magnetron, power, and chiller units.
We place an X-ray detector on the opposite site of the X-ray source between the object and source to detect the transmitted X-rays through the object. We use a flat panel detector (FPD) by Varian Co. for the detector. The detect and its specification are given in Figure 5.
X-ray flat panel detector (FPD) and its specification.
In order to be able to perform neutron TOF measurement, a pulsed neutron source is needed. Usually this kind of neutron source were produced by large-sized, high-energy particle linear accelerator, but by using X-Band type electron linac which compensate its small size with high frequency, the size of the neutron source can be reduced greatly and even possible for mobility.
When we put a Beryllium target in from of the 3.95 MeV X-ray source, it becomes a neutron source, too (see Figure 6). 9Be, having the lowest threshold energy for photo-nuclear reaction 9Be(γ, n)8Be to generate neutrons. A beryllium photo-neutron target (50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm) has been combined with a lead beam collimator, a boric acid resin layer for neutron shielding, and a lead layer for X-ray shielding. Since mainly fast neutrons are used in the neutron source, a beam line using a high Z material that does not moderate the neutrons is used. Optimization of the beryllium target size and neutron/X -ray shielding simulation is performed using the Monte-Carlo code. The target weight is about 100 kg.
Neutron source by neutron target in front of 3.95 MeV X-ray source. (i) Photograph (ii) inner structure.
The calculated neutron yield in the neutron source is approximately ~107 n/s (neutrons/second), which is more intense than ~106 n/s of 252Cf (1 μg) moister detector used for NDE in chemical plants. The distribution of neutron energy produced is measured by 3He gas detector and TOF (Time of Flight) method, as shown in Figure 7.
Produced neutron energy distribution measured by 3He gas detector and TOF method and energy range of neutrons scattered by water.
Rainwater detection using the 3.95 MeV neutron source is performed by irradiating concrete with fast neutrons and detecting backscattered moderated neutrons due to multiple elastic scattering with light elements especially hydrogen nuclei (see Figure 8(i)). Neutron detection using the 3He gas is attributed to high reaction cross section with neutrons in the thermal region. Therefore, the count of detectors increases with the existence of water as shown in the figure.
Neutron energy profiles of 3He gas (n,p) cross section, incident neutrons and backscattered neutrons from concrete with and without water cell. (i) Neutrons scattered by water in concrete. (ii) energies of incident and scattered neutrons in water and 3He gas detector efficiency.
We plan to do NDE by 3.95 MeV X-ray source for highway PC bridge in 2020. Its goal is to detect and visualize unfilled grout via X-ray transmission imaging. Figure 9 shows transvers and longitudinal cross sections, possible location of unfilled grout and typical X-ray transmission images by 950 kV source for filled and unfilled grouts. Since tensile PC wires tends to attach the upper inner surface in PC sheath, the grout is filled in the lower space there. Therefore, in general, unfilled grout occurs in the lower space (see (i), (ii)). In construction stage, grout is pushed and filled from one side of sheaths so that unfilled grout tends to occur at an ascending part of the opposite side as shown in (iii). The unfilled grout in PC sheathe in 200–250 mm thick T girder WEB was measured and visualized at the ascending part as show in (iv). The unfilled part looks white comparing gray or black part of filling. Phase of unfilled can be evaluated by quantitative evaluation of gray value, namely X-ray attenuation coefficient. Appearing X-ray transmission imaging of filled and unfilled grout would be a goal of the coming task for highway PC bridges.
Transvers and longitudinal cross sections, possible and typical X-ray transmission images by 950 kV source for filled and unfilled grouts.
Here we consider PC bridges of box type and T girder Typical cross section, location of PC sheath, X-ray head and detector are summarized in Figure 10. X-ray head is movable 200 kg weigh component among the four. It can be accessed to the WEB with RF source via flexible waveguide for RF power delivery for electron beam acceleration. For example, the thickness of WEB of Box type and T girder are 750, 550 and 450 mm, respectively. Closed circles represent typical locations of PC sheaths. Vertical arrays of PC sheaths are arranged in the zigzag way ((i), (ii)) and at the same vertical level ((iii)). When we allocate the X-ray head and eject X-rays horizontally, PC sheaths can form separate images at the detector for two zigzag arrays (see (ii)). However, in the lower case of (i) two images of the PC sheaths at the same vertical level are overlapped at the detector. In order to obtain two transmitted images for the above case, we allocate the X-ray head higher by about 100 mm and decline it by about 10 degrees as shown in the upper case of (i) and (iii). WE have almost finalized the way of access and allocation of the X-ray head to all cases as shown in the figure.
Typical WEBs and locations of X-ray source and detector for box-type and T. (i) Box thick WEB. (ii) box thin WEB. (iii) T-girder WEB.
We have carried out the simulating experiments for real highway bridges inspection in the configuration of Figure 10(i)–(iii). In order to simulate the concrete thickness and number and location of PC sheaths, we use cut samples from real old PC bridges which were deconstructed after finishing their roles as shown in Figure 11(i).
Separate X-ray transmission images for two PC sheaths at different vertical level.
First, we explain the results of separate X-ray transmission images for two PC sheaths at different vertical level as shown in Figure 11(ii). Total concrete thickness is 750 mm and 10 iron PC wires of 70m
Second, we measured three PC sheaths at the same vertical level and horizontal X-ray ejection as shown in Figure 12. From the left X-ray source as (i), (ii), 10 wires are inserted in the lower space of the first PC sheath 1. Grout remains in the half space of the second PC sheath 2. The third PC sheath is vacant. X-ray transmission images were obtained by 10 s duration times 1 and 100 as shown in (iii), (iv), respectively. There is almost no remarkable difference as to the quality of image. Only wires in the lower space and upper vacant space, which corresponds to unfilled grout, in the PC sheath 1 can be seen and the PC sheaths 2, 3 are hidden behind it. Since PC wires are attached to the upper inner surface of sheath in a real case, real image is upside down of these images.
Image of three PC sheath at the same vertical level and X-ray horizontal ejection.
Third, the configuration and transmission images for three same vertical level PC sheaths and 100 mm up −10 degree declining X-ray ejection are given in Figure 13. Here we try to get separate images for the three same vertical level PC sheaths at the detector. Images by 10 s duration times 1 and 100 shots are shown in (ii) and (iii), respectively. Again there is no remarkable difference with respective to image quality between them. Here the three PC sheaths are becoming separate, but still partially overlapped. We can surely recognize that PC wires are inserted from the right hand side and stop in front of the left edge in the nearest PC sheath 1 to the X-ray source. Over the PC sheath 1, we can see the PC sheath 2 with partially filled grout. The oblique edge of grout is seen in the left hand side. Finally, vacant PC sheath 3 is observed over the PC sheath 2.
Configuration and transmission images of three PC sheaths at the same vertical level and 100 mm level up and – 10 degree declining ejection of X-ray source.
Now the findings are summarized in the following.
Transmission image of 750 mm thick concrete is completely obtained in 10 s by 3.95 MeV X-ray source. We should understand this fact comparing to the calculated X-ray attenuation in the upper graph of Figure 2.
In any cases, PC iron wires can be easily found due to their rather black images. Then, the existence and location of PC sheath is detected. Furthermore, thinning and disconnection can be analyzed.
In case of several same vertical level PC sheaths and horizontal X-ray ejection, only nearest PC sheath is clearly seen and others are hidden behind it.
In case of several same vertical level PC sheaths and upward shifted and declining X-ray ejection, they form separate images. Thus, we can detect and evaluate the far side PC sheath.
Unfilled grout can be evaluated by gray value with respect to rather black image of PC wires in positive image processing. We may be able to form a correlation between measured relative gray value and stage of unfilled grout.
Now we are going to explain detection of rainwater intrusion by neutrons. Images of rainwater intrusion in PC bridge and slab type bridge are depicted in Figure 14. Rainwater intrusion at unfilled grout in PC sheath causes corrosion of wires to thinning and disconnection, and finally degradation of strength of bridge. We try to detect them by the 3.95 MeV neutron source and 3He gas detector via neutron backscattering. It is expected to be monitoring of early degradation of bridge strength before corrosion of PC wires.
Images of rainwater intrusion in PC bridge and slab type bridge.
Here we have just started basic experiment on water detection by neutron backscattering considering the situations depicted in Figure 14. Figure 15 shows the experimental configuration. We just put a 50 mm thick bottle of water on a T girder concrete sample cut from a real old bridge. Neutrons from the 3.95 MeV source are scattered in water in the bottle. Backscattered neutrons are detected by the 3He detector, and the TOF method is applied to measure the time of flight from the scattering point to the detector. Flight distance divided by the measured time becomes the velocity of neutron, v and its kinetic energy is obtained as,
Experimental configuration modeling rainwater detection by neutron scattering.
Measured results of neutron counts as a function of TOF and converted energy are given in Figures 16(i) and (ii), respectively. Neutron counts as a function of measurement time and converted neutron energy in cases of unfilled and filled water are plotted in (i) and (ii), respectively. Since the neutron source with about 107 n/s is not necessarily intense, the difference with/without water is not remarkable. But we can clearly observe component of neutron backscattering below 1 eV as predicted in Figure 8. It can be understood that Proof-of-Principle has been verified.
Comparison of measured backscattered neutron count as a function of TOF with and without water. (i) Neutron counts as a function of TOF. (ii) neutron energy spectra.
As a next step, we are to perform numerical analysis using Monte Carlo code considering the case to detect rainwater in the configuration for slab bridge type. Multilayer sample with asphalt (~75 mm thick), water (more than few mm thick) and concrete (very thick) is first adopted.
In order to accurately reflect the influence of more detailed degradation conditions obtained by X-ray imaging on structural performance, three-dimensional finite element analysis is required. This chapter aims to evaluate structural strength degradation more precisely by performing structural calculation using finite element analysis software, Du COM-COM3 [7], that can simulate the nonlinear behavior peculiar to concrete with high accuracy. Effect of degradation is evaluated through stress distribution in the cross section of the bridge obtained by the analysis.
The software used for the analysis is DuCOM-COM3 which continues to be developed by the Concrete Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tokyo [7]. DuCOM-COM3 is used to calculate the mechanical behavior of structures with multi-spans from dynamic characteristics such as earthquake motion and wind vibration to long-term deformation behavior over several decades. DuCOM, which is responsible for the calculation of movement and material deterioration, is coupled to construct structures at various scales from the molecular-scale microscale to the structure-level macroscale.
We introduce an example to use DuCOM-COM3 for evaluation of strength degradation due to measured PC flaws. Figure 17 shows X-ray transmission images of thinning and disconnection of PC wires of a box type bridge and evaluation of cross section reduction. Degradation of this bridge due to salty water used in winter is rather serious. At the most serious cross section, several PC sheaths are broken and PC wires are heavily thinned and disconnected. We try to evaluate reduction of PC wire cross section as shown in the table of the figure. Then, we input the data to DuCOM-COM3 analysis. Figure 17 shows one example of box type bridge. We consider a partial block of one span of a four-span PC bridge (see Figure 17). We measured most degraded floor cross section by using our X-ray source. Several X-ray transmission images were obtained as shown in the figure. Due to long term corrosion due to salty water, several PC sheaths are broken and some PC wires are thinned and disconnected. Reduction of PC wires cross section is approximately evaluated as shown in the figure. Those data are used for the structural analysis.
X-ray transmission images of thinning and disconnection of PC wires of a box type bridge and evaluation of cross section reduction.
3D mesh model is depicted in Figure 18. The whole mesh structure corresponds to a part of one span of a four span box type PC bridge. We adopt specialized boundary condition and standard vertical load. Then, we calculate 3D distribution of bending moment, stress, strain and displacement.
3D mesh model for the box type bridge with cross section reduction of PC wires at a certain cross section of the bridge.
3D stress distribution of initial (healthy) and degraded states are given in the upper and lower images of Figure 19, respectively We can observe discontinuous distribution around the degraded part indicated by the circle. Figure 20 also shows the fracture points confirmed by the overall 3D model in this model and analysis.
Comparison of 3D stress distribution of initial (healthy) and degraded states. Circle indicates the degraded part.
Confirmation of fracture site in the 3D model.
Figures 21 and 22 show the moment-stress distribution and moment-strain distribution at the lower edge of the bridge section for the initial and degraded states. In both cases, the horizontal axis is the moment, and the vertical axis is the stress and strain. If we can eliminate the moment, we can get standard stress – strain relation. Anyway, we can clearly observe yield phenomenon and yield stress. The upper and lower curves represent the results for the initial and degraded states. Reduction of yield stress is clearly seen due to the degradation. The reduction is 5% in this case. This reduction would be rather serious for the maintenance of the bridge. Actually, it has been decided that this bridge should be reconstructed.
Moment-stress graph at bottom edge of bridge section.
Moment-strain graph at bottom edge of bridge section.
The Public Works Research Institute and the University of Tokyo are developing new technical guidelines for special inspections of bridges using 950 keV/3.95 MeV X-ray sources. An overview is provided in Figure 23 [4]. First, visual and hammer sound inspection screening should be performed based on regular inspection guidelines. Advanced hardware and software techniques such as drawn and acoustic analysis are adopted in this step. If degraded parts are found, the special X-ray transmission inspection is performed using the 950 keV or 3.95 MeV X-ray sources, depending on the thickness of the concrete containing the degraded parts (see Figure 2). Here, the states of PC wires such as unfilled grout and thinning/disconnection are quantitatively evaluated with spatial resolution of 1 mm. Especially, the state of unfilled grout can be evaluated quantitatively by measuring the gray value, namely the X-ray attenuation coefficient, under the criterion from 0 (white: vacant) through 1 (black as PC wire) (see Figure 24). NDE of unfilled grout by γ-emitter radioisotope using such a phase control and decision to proceed to destructive evaluation to obtain more precise information are under way by IFSTTAR (French Institute of Science and Technology for Transport Development and Networks) in France [8]. Then, we plan to perform 3D structural analysis to evaluate the degradation of the structural strength quantitatively as shown in Figure 25. We have introduced one example of the structural analysis and evaluation of reduction of yield stress due to thinning and disconnection of PC wires by using DuCOM-COM3 in Chapter 5. We propose regular X-ray transmission inspection and structural analysis every five years and record the change of yield stress. In order to confirm validity of numerical results, we plan to use not only DuCOM-COM3 code but also ATENA code [9]. The results by the two codes are compared and checked. If we observe remarkable change in both results, we may proceed to more careful consideration. Based on this evaluation, repair, reinforcement, or other decisions should be taken into account. We are going to start practical and commercial highway bridge X-ray inspection under collaboration with major industries. We hope to apply these guidelines to all aged bridges in Japan and finally across the world in near future.
Guidelines for special X-ray transmission inspection using 950 keV/3.95 MeV X-ray sources accompanied with visual and hammering-sound inspections, structural analysis, final repair, and/or reinforcement.
Phases of unfilled grout and relation with gray value of X-ray attenuation coefficient.
Proposal of quantitative criterion for regular X-ray inspection and structural analysis with respective to measured property of mechanical strength.
We are going to apply our 3.95 MeV X-ray source to highway PC bridge inspection in Japan in 2020. Among T-girder-, box- and slab-type bridges, we first inspect box type bridge with 550–750 mm thick WEB wall. We use 950 keV/3.95 MeV x-ray sources for thinner than 300 mm and 300–1,000 mm WEB walls, respectively. Main purpose is to visualize and evaluate unfilled grout in PC sheath. We performed preliminary experiments considering real situations to obtain X-ray transmission images of wires and unfilled grout of several PC sheaths. We successfully obtain one X-ray transmission image within 10 s. We also adopt boundary enhancement image processing to check the state of PC sheath, wires and grout. We also succeeded in obtain separate images of same vertical level PC sheaths by changing vertical location and angle of the X-ray source. In all cases, PC wires can been easily seen by black images and then we can recognize the location of PC sheath. Next, we check unfilled grout beneath the wires. We propose to use the gray value, namely relative X-ray attenuation coefficient, to evaluate of the state of unfilled grout.
Moreover, we try to apply 3.95 MeV neutron source in order to detect rainwater between surface asphalt and concrete. We successfully detected the existence of water via neutron back scattering in water. As a next step, we try to verify the rainwater detection in slab type bridge.
We also performed 3D structural analysis for box type bridge by using DuCOM-COM3 code. 5% reduction of yield stress due to thinning and disconnection PC wires via rainwater corrosion was evaluated. From now on, we are going to analyze mechanical strength reduction due to unfilled grout.
Finally, we propose a guideline for regular maintenance control by making use of 950 keV/3.95 MeV X-ray sources and structural analysis codes of DuCOM-COM3 and ATENA. After we verify the inspection of box type bridge in 2020, we plan to inspect other box- and T-girder-bridged in 2021.
This work was supported by the “Infrastructure Maintenance, Renovation, and Management program” of Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP), Cabinet Office, Government of Japan in 2015-2019. We would like to thank Mr. Yasuhiro Ishida of the Public Works Research Institute of Japan for the total management, Prof. Yasuo Tanaka of Kanazawa Institute for Technology for the structural analysis and Mr. Hiroaki Takeuchi and Mr.Jean-Michel Bereder who are the graduates of Uesaka laboratory of Department of Nuclear Engineering and Management, the University of Tokyo for their related master thesis works.
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