The polarization of elliptic silicon grains evaluated by fixed
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1490",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Affinity Chromatography",title:"Affinity Chromatography",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Most will agree that one major achievement in the bio-separation techniques is affinity chromatography. This coined terminology covers a myriad of separation approaches that relies mainly on reversible adsorption of biomolecules through biospecific interactions on the ligand. Within this book, the authors tried to deliver for you simplified fundamentals of affinity chromatography together with exemplarily applications of this versatile technique. We have always been endeavor to keep the contents of the book crisp and easily comprehensive, hoping that this book will receive an overwhelming interest, deliver benefits and valuable information to the readers.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0325-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4319-2",doi:"10.5772/1959",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"affinity-chromatography",numberOfPages:358,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"b605cd690ec61005a6b6b27c934de321",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",publishedDate:"March 21st 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1490.jpg",numberOfDownloads:106042,numberOfWosCitations:83,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:88,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:193,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 27th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 25th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 29th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 28th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/123648/images/475_n.jpg",biography:"Sameh Magdeldin is senior researcher in the Medical School,\nNiigata University, Japan, and academic associate professor in\nthe Physiology Department, Suez Canal University (SCU), Egypt.\nHe received his M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. in Physiology and his second\nPh.D. in Proteomics in July 2012. He has expertise in shotgun proteomics analysis, reversed-phase chromatography and label-free comparative proteomics\napproaches. Dr. Magdeldin has published outstanding articles on aquaporin research using proteomics technology. He also created the outstanding “All and\nNone” methodology for analyzing large-throughput proteomics data published\nin a highly respected proteomics journal. He currently serves as a guest editor,\nassociate editor and peer reviewer for several international journals. Dr. Magdeldin received several grants and awards, such as the national encouraging prize,\n8th HUPO congress young investigator award, JSN award, grant-in-aid for young\nscientists and young researcher overseas grant from the Japan Society for the\nPromotion of Science (JSPS).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Niigata University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"33046",title:"Affinity Chromatography: Principles and Applications",doi:"10.5772/39087",slug:"affinity-chromatography-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:48621,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:21,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sameh Magdeldin and Annette Moser",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33046",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33046",authors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"},{id:"136483",title:"Dr.",name:"Annette",surname:"Moser",slug:"annette-moser",fullName:"Annette Moser"}],corrections:null},{id:"33047",title:"Affinity Interactions as a Tool for Protein Immobilization",doi:"10.5772/36438",slug:"affinity-interactions-as-a-tool-for-a-protein-immobilization",totalDownloads:3442,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Eva Benešová and Blanka Králová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33047",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33047",authors:[{id:"108347",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Benešová",slug:"eva-benesova",fullName:"Eva Benešová"},{id:"108368",title:"Prof.",name:"Blanka",surname:"Králová",slug:"blanka-kralova",fullName:"Blanka Králová"}],corrections:null},{id:"33048",title:"Affinity Chromatography of Lectins",doi:"10.5772/36578",slug:"carbohydrate-affinity-chromatography",totalDownloads:8324,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jure Pohleven, Borut Štrukelj and Janko Kos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33048",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33048",authors:[{id:"108911",title:"Dr.",name:"Jure",surname:"Pohleven",slug:"jure-pohleven",fullName:"Jure Pohleven"},{id:"109429",title:"Prof.",name:"Borut",surname:"Štrukelj",slug:"borut-strukelj",fullName:"Borut Štrukelj"},{id:"109432",title:"Prof.",name:"Janko",surname:"Kos",slug:"janko-kos",fullName:"Janko Kos"}],corrections:null},{id:"33049",title:"The Difference of Lectin Recovery by Sugar-Bound Resin",doi:"10.5772/35509",slug:"the-difference-of-lectin-recovery-by-sugar-bound-resins-",totalDownloads:2332,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mitsuru Jimbo, Shin Satoh, Hirofumi Hasegawa, Hiroshi Miyake, Takao Yoshida, Tadashi Maruyama and Hisao Kamiya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33049",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33049",authors:[{id:"104773",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitsuru",surname:"Jimbo",slug:"mitsuru-jimbo",fullName:"Mitsuru Jimbo"},{id:"105475",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Miyake",slug:"hiroshi-miyake",fullName:"Hiroshi Miyake"},{id:"127527",title:"Dr.",name:"Takao",surname:"Yoshida",slug:"takao-yoshida",fullName:"Takao Yoshida"},{id:"127528",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadashi",surname:"Maruyama",slug:"tadashi-maruyama",fullName:"Tadashi Maruyama"},{id:"127529",title:"Prof.",name:"Hisao",surname:"Kamiya",slug:"hisao-kamiya",fullName:"Hisao Kamiya"},{id:"127530",title:"Mr.",name:"Hirofumi",surname:"Hasegawa",slug:"hirofumi-hasegawa",fullName:"Hirofumi Hasegawa"},{id:"127531",title:"Mr.",name:"Shin",surname:"Satoh",slug:"shin-satoh",fullName:"Shin Satoh"}],corrections:null},{id:"33050",title:"Immunoaffinity Chromatography: A Review",doi:"10.5772/35871",slug:"immunoaffinity-chromatography-a-review",totalDownloads:8276,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Daad A. 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By increasing in external electric field value there are numerous structural changes will be generated. Some of them will produce such great local fields that will destroy all material or change its physical properties. The studying the nature of local electric fields will open new tendency in electronic device producing, from one side, and, help to change materials’ properties according to our needs, from another side.
\nDescription of local electromagnetic fields is a continuously durable through the all history of physics and was began with publication of first articles written by Maxwell Garnett which were devoted to colors in metal glasses and metallic films [1], Lorentz [2], and later in works of Brugeman [3] was developed by Edmund Stoner from University of Leeds [4] and Osborn from Naval Research Laboratory [5]. For a complicated medium such as the binary system with components A and B the dielectric function can be estimated as following [5]:
\nIn a case that one component is included in another dielectric component and polarized media with averaged value of polarizability of \n
Structural properties of material may be strictly different as for surface and thin films, as for nanostructures such as clusters or nanocrystals, as for bulk material. However, it is obviously that most amounts of media in the universe is nanostructured or even in nanocrystal phase. For example, interplanetary dust was observed charged coupled devices (CCD) detectors and infrared space telescope [6]. They observed a cometary coma of Hale-Bopp comet. The dust destruction in space (Cygnus Loop supernova) was observed by using a Spitzer Telescope tuned in infrared (IR) range from 22 to 36 μm [7] and shows us the chemical properties, such as dust chemical compositions. These observations show the great fraction of silicon in all space dust. Space dust destruction and ion formation was studied by Mann and Czechovsky [8], which results from model calculations in silicate grains, carbon and ice grains. Grain destruction in a supernova remnant shock wave was investigated by astronomers of Harvard University [9]. It was observed by Spitzer telescope in IR 24 μm range of wave length. The case of impact of nanoscopic dust grain with solar wind of spacecraft already was estimated by using the dimensionless parameter equals to ratio between Debye length and radius of dust cloud spherical shell with radius R [10]. It was shown that the dust particle with mass 10−20 kg produces by impact 107 charged particles.
\nFrom the other physical scientific trends we have an observations of local field by a nonlinear spectroscopic experiments with nonmaterial and nanocomposites, particularly, semiconductors. By using semiconductor materials have been made numerous types of devices, such as electronic devices and photon detectors, integrated circuits and thin film transistors, optoelectronic devices and others. Every time when the device is developed the problem of reproducibility of its work regimes and durability of their realization is appeared. The solution of this problem is very important for device manufacturing, and it depends on properties of used active semiconductor materials. The electrical properties often are not so transparent due to slightly nonlinear behavior of their characteristics. Figure 1 shows the current-voltage and resistance-voltage characteristics for two silicon films prepared by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition technique with gas mixture of silane diluted by hydrogen and silicon tetra fluoride gas: amorphous and nanocrystallized [11]. It is seen, than their current-voltage characteristics are similar in this voltage range, but resistance-voltage characteristics are strictly different. Such difference can be explained by the disorder of amorphous phase and generating of numerous point defects by applying external electrical field. It is clear, that the voltage is varied in the range from the −10 to 10 V. Hydrogenated amorphous silicon was widely used in last decades in electronics. In recent years the nanocrystalline silicon are studying for many technological applications. The structural transformation from crystal to disordered materials, however, is investigated very poor, mainly resulted in Staebler-Wronski photo-stimulated effect. However, the electric field applied to the nanostructured silicon thin film gives the new possibility to change structural order. Such kind of structural transformation is caused because of there are numerous defects inside the silicon film.
\nThe current-voltage and ohm-voltage characteristics for two silicon films: amorphous and nanocrystallized.
The anomalous characteristic of resistance-voltage can be explained by random distributed the point defects inside the amorphous film along with the hydrogen atoms, and existing the dipoles Si-O which turn to compensate the external electric field. But, for the nanocrystalline silicon film, the point defects are incorporated into silicon nanostructured net and cannot move freely, because there is a stabile electric characteristic for nanocrystalline silicon film, and anomalous for amorphous.
\nThe other new area of scientific interests is crystal-amorphous phase transformations by applying electric fields and role of local fields in phase transition from order to disorder. Because, it is important to investigate the point defects which can be responsible for local electrical fields generation in polarized media, such as dielectric silicon oxide media or semiconductor thin film of silicon. The main role plays here the silicon-oxide bonding in side thin film of silicon. Si-O dipoles play a dramatic role in crystal phase destruction by applying electric fields. The induced dipole moment by applied electric field can be written in the following form [12]:
\n\n\n
\n\n
The present work is devoted to the nature of local field appearance in silicon nanoscopic material and role point defects in phase transformation of material.
\nNonlinear polarization associated with the phonons can be written as \n
Raman effect is result from the interaction of an electromagnetic field and optical phonon mode. The vibration wave \n
The microcrystal wave function is a superposition of Eigen functions with \n
the normalized first-order correlation function \n
For a microcrystalline and nanocrystalline silicon with sizes of crystals L if the weight function is Gaussian the first-order Raman spectrum is following [14]: \n
where local field factor can be written as
\nwhere
For the silicon nanocrystalline and microcrystalline films the phonons can be generated in crystals by laser field or annealing. The wave of deformations can be generated by picoseconds laser pulse [16]. The acousto-electric effect was observed in n-type germanium [17]. The electric field which was appeared by ultrasound waves can be estimated by using the formula \n
Raman spectra from nc-Si film with nanocrystal mean size 24 nm.
The nanocrystalline film was made by me using CVD method of silane diluted by hydrogen (gaze flow rates ratio is 1:10) at low temperature of substrate (80°C). The RF power was 20 W. Working pressure was 0.2 Torr. The crystalline volume fraction was 66%. The crystal orientations for nanocrystals were determined by means of X-ray diffraction technique (111) and their average size was 24 nm. The thickness of silicon film was more than 300 nm. Figure 5 shows the changes in Raman scattering spectral data by applying the external electric field. It is seen, that there is phase destruction by the relatively high voltage. It is assumed that the nanocrystals which have grain boundary with oxygen atoms incorporated into silicon were destroyed in their crystal structure by Si-O dipoles reorientations caused by applied field. The initial crystal orientation was (111). The incorporated oxygen atoms are adsorbed in determined places. Their position results the appearance of numerous dangling bonds which are multiplied by the electric field and create the deep cracks in crystals. The crystal order is damaged along the axis that is perpendicular to (111). According to the Raman data for SiO2 [18] the Raman spectrum of SiO2 has the variation modes D1 (at 490 cm−1) with defects and activation energies 0.14 eV and pure mode
ΔE = μEext, μeV by the Eext = 106 V/m | \nΔE = μEext, μeV by the Eext = 107 V/m | \n||
---|---|---|---|
1017 | \n1.1 | \n20 | \n200 | \n
1018 | \n10.8 | \n200 | \n2000 | \n
The polarization of elliptic silicon grains evaluated by fixed
It is necessary to note that the fractal structure of several kinds of nanocrystals may cause the dramatically changes (four orders of magnitude) in intensity of Raman scattering due to existing of plasmon resonance into the gaps between the fractals [19]. The Raman intensity by these conditions can be expressed as
\nwhere α is a polarizability and σ is a local conductivity of a fractal structure.
\nIn addition, the light irradiation of amorphous silicon film causes the point defects generating and, mainly for amorphous hydrogenated silicon films, causes the appearance new dihydride configurations: (H‐Si Si‐H)2(H‐Si Si‐H) and SiH2 [20]. The two atoms of hydrogen in the SiH2 unit show an average proton separation of 2.39 Å. Because, for the hydrogenated silicon nanocrystalline films under influence of applying the external electric field the hydrogen diffusion increases and polysilane chains are created, surely.
\nFor poly-Si films with nanocrystals the values of densities of SiO and SiH bonds varies in wide range from 1019 to 1021 cm−3. The density of bonds were estimated for the poly-Si films prepared by using PECVD as following: for Si-Si bonding the density of bonds is equals to 51022 cm−3, but densities of SiO and SiH bonds are 1021 cm−3. In these films there is an oxygen contamination on the 2% level. The S/V ratio is 1.25%. I suppose that all the oxygen is concentrated around crystals in their grains boundaries. By these values of densities the dipole moments causes by surface charges can be estimated as
For very small nanocrystals with sufficient ration S/V the mechanism of three elements simultaneous interaction is important for precise calculations. The energy shift due to the stress appearance for crystal orientation (111) is less than 0.14 eV for the vacancy-oxygen (VO) complex by a stress 0.3 GPa. The Hamiltonian of such system of n atoms as for example,‐Si‐Si‐Si‐ and, particularly the Hamiltonian of interaction between atoms with indexes k−1 and k + 1 can be explained in matrix form is given by using the operators of creation and elimination of boson particles, such as phonons: \n
Here, the matrix elements \n
\n
Scheme of Raman scattering of photons on phonons (a) and Raman spectra for silicon film without external field (b) and by applied external electric field with additional spectral peak at 540 cm−1 which was created due to the defects generating by electric field (c).
The probability of changing the polarization state from one to another can be described by using Golden rule of Fermi
\nwhere \n
where V is a nanocrystal volume (Figure 4).
\nSilicon nanocrystals with different sizes by applying external electric field have various electronic structure: with polaron state in all volume of nanocrystal, and partially polarized nanocrystal according to relation between the values of size and “skin”-layer or depth of field penetration.
The second-harmonic generation is forbidden for center symmetric crystal such as bulk silicon because the sum dipole moment is zero, but is possible due to the surface breaking symmetry and quadruple terms contributions. The opposite situation is for nanostructured oxidized silicon film, the surface area for a great amount of nanocrystals is significant, the breaking symmetry is permanent and lateral isotropic. The oxygen atoms with concentration up to the values of 1020–1021 cm−3 show the sharp increase in SHG by increase in polarization properties of material, that have its properties as silicon nanocrystals, as silicon oxide inclusions. Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the SHG spectra of radiation reflected from silicon films.
\nSHG spectra for χ(2)xxx component of susceptibility.
SHG spectra for
The reflected SHG response was measured by using the radiation of optical parametric oscillator/amplifier pumped by the third harmonic (355 nm) of a Q-switched Nd: YAG laser (Spectra-Physics, MOPO 730) at a 10 Hz repetition rate with spectral range between 440 and 1700 nm. The bandwidth of radiation is 0.3 cm−1. The SHG response was detected by a photomultiplier tube and gated electronics with an average of 100 pulses. The linear polarized radiation was focused on the surface of the sample at the angle 45° and detected SHG signal was observed at the angle 45°, too. Such optical scheme arrangement was useful for surface contributors’ detection from the silicon surface (111). The diameter of irradiated spot was 0.5 mm. The energy of the primary laser beam was 4 mJ. The second-harmonic intensity can be written as
\nwhere the L(ω, ρ) value is a local field factor of film with crystalline volume fraction equals to ρ = 70%.
\nThe SHG intensity as a function of the average grain size in poly-Si films, with crystalline volume fraction 70%, is presented in Figures 5 and 6 where
\nis normalized SHG signal, \n
The contribution of point defects as deviations of local fields and external applied electric field for a phonon generation in silicon nanocrystalline can be described by using the perturbation theory. The model Hamiltonian’s matrix for two-level system including the point defect as small perturbation
The changes in Eigen values from the
It is assumed, that the field value
From the other side, for drift of particle, such as hydrogen atom, by driving forces in condensed matter can be expressed by using formula for force \n
I propose the modular group translation (MGT) model for crystal phase destruction by applied electric field for explanation the Raman data which are on Figure 7 and show the dramatic changes in silicon crystal phase related spectral component at 520 cm−1 due to the applying electric field.
\nScheme of dipole’s and electric field vectors location on 2D plate.
It is assumed that the electric fields of external field and local polarized field can be written as \n
For analysis of deformation by applying the external electrical field it is clear to use ratio between free energy components for different bonding and directions:
\n\n\n
Scheme of arrangement of dipole vectors along the axis.
Scheme of nanocrystal’s destruction by external electric field.
Accordingly, the ratio between the polarization charges for two dipoles inside the electric field is given by
\n\n\n
The first dipole is devoted to the description of electrical polarization properties of Si‐Si bond, but the second – Si‐O bond. By substituting the expression for Si‐O polarization charge in expression for free energy we can easily to obtain the following expression
\nThe relation between the deformation values along the 1 and 2 axis can be used for analysis the translations consequences of modular group.
\n\n\n
Scheme of silicon nanocrystal film with orientation (111) and precipitate of crystal growth on silicon dioxide substrate with nuclear silicon-oxide dipole in the top of pyramid.
Transformations which create the low dimensional model structure are illustrated on Figures 11 and 12 and are explained as combination of modular group transformation of two-dimensional nanocrystal and Knop triangular transformations into Kantor dust set or fractal structure with low dimension. The surface and interface point defects and impurities cause the local electric fields which can generate by applying external field great values of field.
\nScheme of geometrical transformation the primary triangle with L and H parameters into triangle 1 with parameters L1 and H1.
Scheme of charges density for anisotropic and non-homogeneous media.
Model of phase destruction by modular group substitution [26] which consists of arc series and Knop transformation of two-dimension area under arc through the triangular decomposition [27] to one dimensional structure. The down picture illustrates the creation of Kantor dust by dividing the triangular angle on the top and neglecting the area of triangle in the middle of primary triangle area. Such nonlinear triangular transformations can be caused by a point defects and impurities which were included in bulk silicon net of nanocrystal.
\nFor such transformation the equations for triangular quantities XN = 2XN + 1 and for areas SN + 1 = 0.38*SN. The estimated value of Hausdorf dimension for such mathematical set is \n
We have to propose the new model that is more suitable to explain electric properties of nanometrical scale media with strong anisotropic and non-homogeneous properties (see Figure 12). It will be necessary to describe the further possibility to design new nanoelectronic devices based on quantum conductivity properties and atomic scale sizes.
\nFor current density of homogeneous media with charge density ρ in classical theory we usually use the formula
\nFor ρ value of non-homogeneous anisotropic media it is possible to use the expression:
\n\n\n
\n\n
It is clear, that such approach is approximate and can be applicable to study the electric properties of point defects.
\nNonlinear polarization concludes as linear as nonlinear terms: \n
It is supposed that currents which was created due to the electromagnetic field of second harmonic generation and induced in nanocrystals dominate in surface layers and grain boundaries. Because, such currents can be explained by the first term in equation and relate to absorption and emission of photons. Equation (17) can be written in suitable form:
\nBecause, the surface current can play a significant role in nanostructured silicon film and the current density can be written as following J:
\nBy a symmetrical form of wave functions \n
For two energetic levels (A and B) which are situated closed to each other the expression for the current density is following:
\nThe values of currents for two energy states А and В are different due to the difference in their energies, and their occupations are also varied because they depends on Boltzmann distribution for unperturbed case, and for the laser excitation of carriers they distributed according to the Gauss distribution. Because, the current of charges depends strictly on energetic location of defects levels which are closed to the bottom of conductivity band of silicon. Therefore, the nonzero current is appeared because the field of SHG is applied in silicon nanocrystals. The current spectrum has a resonant energetic peak by the electron energy became equal to the energy of defect level:
\nThe dipoles-field interaction causes the appearance of oscillations on frequencies \n
The free energy for nanocrystal with volume V can be expressed as following: \n
The estimated value of free energy to destroy the silicon crystal phase is following
Free energy is determined as energy \n
For estimation the ratio between the energy of deformation and weak bond length which can be appeared by applying the external electric field we can use the Einstein relation for relation between the drift velocity and applying force \n
where
Analytical solution of system of differential equations results in the following expression for density of dangling bonds
\n\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
Evolution of density of dangling and weak bonds for different degrees of atomic sites order apart from the central of local electric field. It is assumed, that the values are
It is known the model of defects generating by light irradiation in amorphous silicon which was proposed by the scientists of Ames Laboratory [33] which calculated the evolution of density of dangling bonds according to their proposed model. It is seen, that the evolution which was shown in Figure 14 has the same increasing tendency as evolution stimulated by light irradiation. By the values \n
Evolution of density of dangling bonds for different degrees of atomic sites order apart from the central of local electric field, by the ratio between the values
By the ratio between rates \n
Evolution of density of dangling bonds for different degrees of atomic sites order apart from the central of local electric field, by the ratio between the values
By the ratio between rates \n
Evolution of density of dangling bonds for different degrees of atomic sites order apart from the central of local electric field, by the ratio between the values
Berries with a high antioxidant activity have drawn the attention of scientists due to their potential antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective-related effects, identified in in vivo studies [1]. It is well established that many species of berries, for example, strawberries (
Food is considered as a functional food if, in addition to its basic nutritional, it generates a beneficial effect in the physiological processes in the organism [6]. In the same way, a nutraceutical is a food or part of a food that produces health benefits besides its nutritional content [7, 8]. In the present chapter, we discuss the potential beneficial effects of berries and their derivatives on some central nervous system diseases.
\nEnhanced consumption of fruits and vegetables is highly recommended in dietary guidelines. Specially, the consumption of berries is recommended due to their antioxidant properties [1]. Berries, in botanical terms, are defined as fleshy fruits that emerge from the plant ovary that encloses the seeds; due to this, berries include grapes, blueberries, black currants, and coffee beans [9].
\nIn this chapter we will focus on strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, chokeberries, black currants, and blackberries, among other endemic fruits. We selected these fruits because, in addition to being rich in polyphenols and anthocyanins, they are the most consumed in human diet; therefore, more studies related to their supplementation and chemical composition have been published.
\nBerries (i.e., blackberry, black raspberry, blueberry, cranberry, red raspberry, and strawberry) are popularly consumed either fresh, frozen, or processed as yogurts, beverages, jam and jellies, as well as dried or canned. Furthermore, berry extracts have been used as a functional food or dietary supplement [1].
\nBerries (blueberry, strawberry, blackberry, and Brazilian berries {
Berry | \nEffect | \nMetabolite involved | \nRef | \n
---|---|---|---|
Blueberry | \nAntioxidant | \nAnthocyanins (1202 mg) | \n[9] | \n
Strawberry | \nAntioxidant | \nPolyphenols (13550 mg) | \n[9] | \n
Blackberry | \nAntioxidant | \nAnthocyanins (870 mg) | \n[9] | \n
Blueberry | \nModulate neuroinflammation | \nFlavonoids: various concentrations of blueberry (50-500 μg) | \n[10] | \n
Blueberry Highbush | \nGlucoregulation | \nAnthocyanins-flavonols (220 mg) | \n[11] | \n
Blueberry | \nSynaptic plasticity | \nAnthocyanins (10.2 mg)/ Total phenolics (33 mg) | \n[12] | \n
Blueberry | \nHippocampal neurogenesis | \nBlueberry extract diet (20 g) (*NS anthocyanins or polyphenols) | \n[5] | \n
Rasperry | \nAnti-cancer | \nAnthocyanins (314 mg) | \n[14] | \n
Strawberry Beverage | \nAnti-inflamatory/ hypoglycemic | \nTotal phenols (94.7 mg)/ Anthocyanins (39 mg) | \n[15] | \n
Grape ( | \nGenoprotective | \nAnthocyanins (1576.5 mg)/ Total phenolics (2750.4 mg) | \n[16] | \n
Blueberry Highbush | \nNeuroprotection/Proneurogenesis | \nAnthocyanins (4968·3 ng) | \n[17] | \n
Cranberry | \nVascular | \nPolyphenols (835 mg)/ Anthocyanins (94 mg) | \n[18] | \n
Rabbiteye Blueberry | \nMotor and cognitive function Anxiolytic Genoprotective | \nAnthocyanins (2.6-3.2 mg) | \n[19] | \n
Berries: effects and metabolites involved.
NS: not specified; Ref: reference
Even though the composition and the content of these compounds are dependent on the plant species, production status, agricultural processing, and storage, berries are an excellent source of polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins [20, 21], which have been related to their potential beneficial effects on health.
\nBerries are rich in phytochemicals such as minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, and dietary fibers and specifically contain provitamin A, minerals, vitamin C, and B complex vitamins. Additionally, fruits contain soluble solids, fructose, and chemopreventive agents as A, C, and E vitamins, folic acid, calcium, and selenium. Carotene and lutein are present in berries as well as phytosterols such as sitosterol and stigmasterol and also contain triterpene esters, and there is an excellent source of phenolic molecules such as flavonols, flavanols, proanthocyanidins, ellagitannins, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins specially cyanidin-3-glucoside, gallic acid, pelargonidin, delphinidin, peonidin, and malvidin, among others [22].
\nThe metabolism, bioavailability, and biological effects attributed to berries depend specifically on the type of chemical structure contained in its phenolic compounds that individually or synergistically exert protection against several health disorders [23]. Table 2 shows the main phytochemical compounds present in berries and their representative chemical structures.
\nTotal polyphenols, anthocyanins and characteristic structure content of berries.
Chemical structure was determined according to berry bioactive compound. TP: total polyphenols; TF: total flavonoids; TA: total anthocyanins; FW: fresh weight; DW: dry weight.
Polyphenols or phenolic compounds are phytochemicals that result from the secondary metabolism of plants coming from the metabolic pathway of shikimic acid and acetate-malonate. They are composed of various chemical structures characterized by an aromatic nucleus of benzene substituted by a hydroxyl group called phenol [21]. Differences between subclasses are given by the number of phenolic rings and the elements attached to them, thus creating several families of compounds, such as flavonoids, anthocyanins, flavones, tannins, and coumarins, among others [21, 27, 28, 29].
\nPolyphenols are present in fruits, vegetables, leaves, nuts, seeds, flowers, and barks [30] and act as inhibitors or activators for a wide variety of mammalian enzyme systems and as metal chelators and oxygen free radical scavengers [31, 32]. Moreover, it has been reported that some flavonoids rise ion chlorine flow at the GABAA receptor in male rats [33, 34]. They can act as positive or negative modulators by direct actions on the effect of GABA [35, 36]. Considerable scientific evidence has shown that flavonoids are able to cross into the brain and influence brain function [37, 38]. They have a variety of effects like relief of anxiety, antidepressant actions, and neuroprotective [29] and sedative actions [39].
\nThe ability of polyphenols to modulate the activity of different enzymes and consequently interfere in signaling mechanisms and different cellular processes may be due, in part, to the physicochemical characteristics of these compounds, which allow them to participate in different oxide-reduction cellular metabolic reactions [40].
\nA diet rich in polyphenols has been shown to augment health [41]. It is best known for its biological effects in humans as anti-inflammatory [42] and anticarcinogenic [43]; in vitro as antiviral [44]; and in animals as gastroprotector [45] and antibacterial [46]; among others. More than 8000 phenolic compounds are known in nature [47], which according to their chemical composition are divided into 2 groups: phenolic acids (benzoic and cinnamic) and flavonoids (flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins) [48]. For the purposes of this chapter, we will focus on describing flavonoids in a general sense and anthocyanins in a particular manner.
\nTheir name derives from the Latin
The main subgroups of flavonoid include flavonols, flavones, flavanones (dihydroflavones), isoflavones, and anthocyanins [50]. The flavonoid quercetin (4 mg/day) produces antineoplastic effects [51] and cholesterol-lowering effects in Japanese women aged 29–79 years old (9.3 ± 7.4 mg/day) [52], and at preclinical research in rats, quercetin (25 and 50 mg/kg) produces antithrombotic effects [53], while a hepatic regenerative effect was detected with supplementations of silymarin (100 mg/kg/day) [54].
\nAmong the most reported effects of flavonoids on the central nervous system are their participation in learning and memory mechanisms in Sprague Dawley rats supplemented with nobiletin (725 mg; extracted from
Anthocyanins are an important group of water-soluble flavonoid compounds responsible for the red, purple, and blue colors in flowers, fruits, and other parts of plants that are not toxic for human consumption [48]. Their name derives from the Greek
They are polyhydroxy- or polymethoxy-glycosides derived from the basic structure, 2-phenyl benzopyryllium [61]. They consist of structures known as anthocyanidins or aglycones, which consist of an aromatic ring attached to a heterocyclic ring containing oxygen which, in turn, is linked to a third aromatic ring. When anthocyanidins are found in glucosylated form, they are then known as anthocyanins and are mainly accompanied by glucose, rhamnose, galactose, arabinose, xylose, and other disaccharides and trisaccharides [62]. These carbohydrates are always bound to anthocyanidin position 3, and glucose is often found additionally in position 5 and, less commonly, in positions 7, 3′, and 4′ [63].
\nAnthocyanins are less water-soluble than when they are found in glucosinolates and rarely exist in free form in food. Today, about 19 natural anthocyanidins are known, although the most commonly found in foods are six: pelargonidin, delphinidin, cyanidin, petunidin, peonidin, and malvidin [64], names derived from the plant source from which they were first isolated. In the same sense, a measure of the antioxidant capacity of anthocyanin pigments revealed that cyanidin-3-glucoside and delphinidin-3-glucoside have the highest antioxidant activity [65] and have been identified in fruits coming from the berry family [66], specifically in blackberries [67, 68].
\nIt is important to mention that anthocyanins resist passage through the digestive tract of mammals and are absorbed in the stomach and in the middle portion of the small intestine, reaching the bloodstream almost intact [69]; they reach organs such as the liver, eyes, and brain, thus accumulating in them [14, 70].
\nThe biological functions of anthocyanins can be classified into two types: those related to their antioxidant capacity and those involved in the modulation of cell signaling pathways [71]. In general, they are attributed with effects such as the prevention and/or reduction of atherosclerosis [72]; reduction in the incidence of cardiovascular disease [73]; anticancer [74] and anti-inflammatory activity [75]; hypoglycemic effects [76]; and augmented visual acuity [77] and cognition [78].
\nSpecifically, anthocyanins cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in brain regions related to learning and memory, such as the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, modifying behavior [2]. It has been observed in in vitro studies that consumption of these compounds inhibits the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO), in which increased activity is related to AD and other neurological disorders [79]. In addition, they display antioxidant capabilities, such as decreasing free radicals and stress signals controlling calcium homeostasis in the brain [80, 81], as well as the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and radicals peroxide (ROO) and superoxide (O2) [82, 83]. They also exert protective effects against oxidative stress in cellular models of PD [84] and promote optimal neurotransmission, primarily in advanced age [21].
\nIt has also been observed that anthocyanins ameliorate anti-ocular-inflammatory in male Lewis rats supplemented with crude aronia extract (
The recent increase in life expectancy worldwide has augmented the incidence of age-related diseases, particularly neurodegenerative diseases and psychiatric disorders.
\nBelow, we will describe the effects of berry consumption and the relationship between diseases such as anxiety, depression, Alzheimer’s and Pasrkinson’s diseases, as well as human cognition, because those are the most common mental illness and neurodegenerative diseases [5].
\nIn addition, you will find in Table 3 the most recent research carried out related with supplementation in humans and in animal models and, additionally, study design and summarized findings.
\nTopic | \nAuthor/location | \nStudy design | \nIntervention | \nSummarized findings | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Anxiety | \nFernández-Demeneghi | \nn=45, 21 days treatment, Wistar male rats (200- 250 g) | \nFive groups were used: Veh (control group administered with 8.7 ml/kg), BL (low dose group of blackberry juice, 2.6 mg/kg of anthocyanins, 14.57 mg/kg of polyphenols) BM (medium dose group of blackberry juice, 5.83 mg/kg anthocyanins, 27.10 mg/kg polyphenols) BH (high-dose blackberry juice group 10.57 mg/kg anthocyanins, 38.4 mg/kg polyphenols) DZP (diazepam group administered 2 mg/kg). | \nThe intermediate dose of blackberry juice (5.83 mg/kg of anthocyanins, 27.10 mg / kg of polyphenols) had an anxiolytic effect similar to DZP, improving coping strategies at the behavioral level. These results were supplemented by the forced swim test, where medium and high doses improved the response to acute stress. | \n
Depression | \nChang | \nn=82643 women. Prospectively, the study examined the associations between the estimated usual intake of flavonoids in the diet and the risk of depression. Semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire was applied (FFQ). | \nTwo samples were used: Nurses\' Health Study (NHSI) (from 1976 nurses aged 30-55) and NHSII (from 1989 nurses aged 25-42). | \nHigher flavonoid intakes may be associated with lower depression risk, particularly among older women. | \n
Khalid | \nn=21 university students (18-21 years)/The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-NOW (PANAS-NOW) was used to assess current mood. | \nTwo groups were used: The flavonoid-rich wild blueberry (WBB), which administered 253 mg of anthocyanins, a combination of 30 g of lyophilized WBB, 30 ml of Rocks Orange Squash and 220 ml of water), placebo (4 mg of WBB, 30 ml of Rocks Orange Squash and 220 ml of water were combined). | \nIn both studies, an increase in positive affection was observed after 2 hours of consumption of the WBB drink. Flavonoid supplementation can play a key role in promoting positive mood and are a possible way to prevent dysphoria and depression. | \n|
n=50 children (7-10)/child version of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS-C). | \nTwo groups were used: The flavonoid-rich wild blueberry (WBB) 253 mg anthocyanins, combination of 30 g lyophilized WBB, 30 ml Rocks Orange Squash and 170 ml water); placebo (4 mg WBB, 30 ml Rocks Orange Squash and 170 ml water were combined). | \n|||
Nabavi | \nn=40, 7 days treatment, balb/c strain mice (5 weeks old, 20-25 g). | \nFour groups were used: control (healthy group), BCCAO (group with bilateral occlusion of the common carotid artery) 10 mg/kg (group with lesion + 10 mg/kg of aqueous extract of red berries of | \nThe protective effects of WE in post-stroke depression in a mouse model were demonstrated | \n|
Di Lorenzo | \nn=50, 7 days treatment i.p., balb/c strain mice (2 weeks old, 20-25 g). | \nFive groups were used: 1) control: healthy group, 2) BCCAO (group with stroke common carotid artery bilateral occlusion), 3) 25 mg/kg (lesion + 25 mg/kg Maqui berry extract (MBE)), 4) 50 mg/kg (lesion + 50 mg/kg MBE), 5) 100 mg/kg (lesion + 100 mg/kg MBE). | \nThe results showed that the antidepressant-like activity provided by the extract, which was found to restore normal mouse behavior in both despair swimming and tail suspension tests, could be linked to its antioxidant activity, leading to the conclusion that maqui berries might be useful for supporting pharmacological therapy of Post-stroke depression by modulating oxidative stress. | \n|
Alzheimer’s disease | \nGutierres | \nMale Wistar rats (3-months-1-year-old, 350-400g), 7 days of treatment with 200 mg/kg anthocyanin (ANT) the rats were injected with intracerebroventricular streptozotocin (3 mg/kg) (STZ), and four days later the behavior parameters were performed. | \nFour different groups: control (CTRL), anthocyanin (ANT), streptozotocin (STZ) and streptozotocin + anthocyanin (STZ + ANT). | \nA memory deficit was found in the STZ group, but ANT treatment showed that it prevents this impairment of memory. This work demonstrated that anthocyanin is able to regulate ion pump activity and cholinergic neurotransmission, as well as being able to enhance memory and act as an anxiolytic compound in animals with sporadic dementia of Alzheimer\'s type. | \n
McNamara | \nn=76, 24 weeks treatment, study conducted in men and women aged 62-80 with cognitive impairment. They used the Dysexecutive Questionnaire. | \nFour groups were used: FO (fish oil + placebo powder), BB (blueberry [ | \nIt was demonstrated that supplementation with FO and BB showed a reduction of self-reported inefficiencies in daily operation, by the BB group showed less interference in memory. | \n|
Parkinson’s Disease | \nFan | \nn= 11 male patients with Parkinson’s disease and older than 40 years old. 2 sessions where samples of plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were taken (in both sessions a 12-hour low anthocyanin diet was requested before taking the samples). | \nStudy of pre and post treatment samples, where patients were supplemented with 300 mg blackcurrant capsules (35% anthocyanins, Super Currantex® 20) twice daily for four weeks. | \nThe neuropeptide cyclic glycine protein (cGP), a natural BCA nutrient, was shown to be effectively absorbed in the brain after supplementation. The increase of cyclic glycine proline (cGP) in plasma and cephalorachidian fluid in Parkison patients is mainly due to central uptake of the neuropeptide in plasma. Thus, the role of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) improves in patients with Parkinson’s disease. | \n
Qian | \nn=45, 3 weeks treatment, 6-week old male C57BL/6 mice (18-22 g). This study was designed to investigate the effects of the ANC rich blueberry extracts (BBE) on behavior and oxidative stress in the mouse model of PD induced by 1- methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6- tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). | \nFive groups were used: 1) control (received i.p. saline), 2) MPTP (received i.p. MPTP 30 mg/kg for 5 days and saline, 3)BBE 50 mg/kg (received i.p. MPTP 30 mg/kg for 5 days and 50 mg/kg blueberry extract (BBE), 4) BBE 100 mg/kg (received i.p. MPTP 30 mg/kg for 5 days and 100 mg/kg of BBE) and 5) i.p MPTP and fed daily with levodopa and benserazide (10 mg/kg/day). | \nBBE improved motor function in MPTP- induced Parkinson\'s mice through a possible mechanism of their antioxidant capacity to eliminate free radicals and reduce oxidative damage to neurons. | \n|
Other effects | \nDevore | \nn=16,010 women, aged ≥70; follow-up assessments were conducted twice, at two-year intervals. | \nFollow-up questionnaire on eating habits (2-year period) and assessment of congenital impairment. Six cognitive tests were administered: Telephone Interview of Cognitive Status, a telephone adaptation of the Mini-Mental State Examination; East Boston Memory Test – immediate and delayed recalls; category fluency; delayed recall of the Telephone Interview of Cognitive Status 10- word list; and backwards digit span. | \nIncreased consumption of berries and anthocyanidins, as well as total flavonoids, was shown to be associated with slower progression of cognitive impairment in older women. | \n
Watson | \nn=36 healthy, young participants (18-35 years). The battery used was formed: digit vigilance, stroop, rapid visual information processing (RVIP) and logical reasoning. | \nThree intervention drinks were used: 1. control (containing 0 mg polyphenols), 2. Blackadder (7.78 mg/kg anthocyanins from an extract of Ribes nigrum). 3. DelCyan (trademark) (8.05 mg/kg anthocyanins from a blackcurrant extract). | \nIt was demonstrated that the consumption of drinks supplemented with blackcurrants produce a cognitive benefit in healthy young people, evidenced by greater accuracy in the RIVP test; likewise, Blackadder improved reaction times in the task of monitoring digits. Clinically significant inhibition of monoamine oxidase-B and monoamine oxidase-A was identified using a commonly consumed fruit. | \n|
Whyte & Williams (2015) [95]/United Kingdom | \nn=16 children (8-10 years), 7 days of treatment. Two hours after consumption, the children completed a battery of five cognitive tests comprising the Go-NoGo, Stroop, Rey’s Auditory Verbal Learning Task, Object Location Task, and a Visual N-back. | \nTwo intervention drinks were used: 1. blueberry (prepared by mixing 200 g of Star variety blueberries with 100 ml, which contained 143 mg of anthocyanins). Control (combined with blueberry drink for sugars and vitamin C by adding 0.02 g of vitamin C powder, 8.22 g of sucrose, 9.76 g of glucose and 9.94 g of fructose to 100 ml of semi-skimmed milk). | \nIt was identified that anthocyanins (143 mg) present in blueberry juice have memory benefits in children aged 8 to 10 years, however, little evidence in attention, visuospatial, working memory were observed. | \n
Recent research in humans and animal models related to supplementation with berries.
Anxiety is a common and chronic psychiatric disorder that is a source of suffering and impairment [96]. In 2017, the World Health Organization reported that more than 260 million people suffer from an anxiety disorder [97]. Its pharmacological treatment is based on the use of benzodiazepine drugs, as well as some antidepressants with anxiolytic activity [98]. Unfortunately, these drugs are accompanied by severe side effects such as sedation, pharmacological tolerance, and drug dependence [99, 100]; in this sense, some patients complement their therapies with natural compounds coming from plants.
\nThe study of the potential effect of berries on anxiety, due to their high content of polyphenols and anthocyanins associated with anxiolytic activity at the preclinical level, has attracted important interest [101, 102]. It has been observed that these compounds, present in blueberries, have shown anxiolytic effects in animal models and their possible mechanisms of action are related to the antioxidant properties of anthocyanins [103] which inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidases (MAOs), decreasing its activity and providing neuroprotection [77, 104].
\nSupplementation with blueberries in mice for 30 days has shown to increase the time spent in the open arms (anxiolytic effect) in the elevated plus maze test (EPM); in addition, it is shown to reduce oxidative damage to neural DNA, and this antioxidant neural protection has been proposed as a mechanism for the anxiolytic property of berries [19].
\nOne of the most studied berries for anxiety at the preclinical level is the black chokeberry (
On the other hand, this berry fruit has been evaluated in different concentrations and behavioral tests such as the EPM and the social interaction test [102]. Likewise, a methanolic extract of blackberry (
Our working group [4] recently reported the anxiolytic effect from blackberry juice (doses intermediate: 5.83 mg/kg anthocyanins, 27.10 mg/kg polyphenols) on EPM in male Wistar rats, and the design was accompanied by the forced swim test (6 min). A decrease in the anxiety index was observed, without alterations in locomotor activity. This was similar to the group administered with the anxiolytic drug diazepam. Results revealed a better response to behavioral stress in the rats treated with blackberry juice, reinforcing the effects previously reported in EPM (Table 3).
\nThe anxiolytic effect of some flavonoids and anthocyanins has been identified by affinity to GABAA receptors [89, 110]. However, its antioxidant capacity is still considered the main mechanism of action [106], since oxidative stress has been proposed as an important contributor to anxiety generation [79].
\nDepression is the most prevalent psychiatric disorder; according to the World Health Organization, it affects 300 million people worldwide [97]. Depressive disorders are characterized by the presence of a sad and irritable mood accompanied by somatic and cognitive changes that negatively impact everyday life function [97] and result in high financial costs [111]. A great variety of drugs exist for its treatment [112], in which therapeutic effects are driven by actions on diverse neurotransmission systems (serotonergic, dopaminergic, and noradrenergic), exerting long-term changes which can restore neuronal function, for example, restoration of basal levels of neurotransmitters mainly serotonin, increase in neurotrophic factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor) that can indirectly modify neuronal microarchitecture, reduction of oxidative stress, as well as neuroinflammation processes in structures related to the pathophysiology of depression which can impact at the affective level exerting favorable effects on the quality of life of the subjects. These drugs include tricyclic antidepressants (i.e., imipramine), selective serotonin recapture inhibitors (i.e., fluoxetine), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (phenelzine), and dual antidrepressant drugs (venlafaxine), among others [113]. Most of these drugs have a late onset and are often accompanied by side effects when taken for prolonged periods. This has encouraged a search for new substances with potential antidepressant effects and, most importantly, the use of possible natural alternatives.
\nAn association between the role the hippocampus and the etiology of depression has been suggested, given that a reduction in hippocampal neurogenesis has been observed in depressed patients with respect to the non-depressed control group, which is accompanied by a decrease in the hippocampal volume [114]. In this sense, antidepressants such as fluoxetine have been shown to ameliorate neurogenesis in the hippocampus [115].
\nAt the preclinical level, the administration of
In addition, human studies related to blueberry and red berry supplementation have shown that a higher intake of these foods is associated with a lower risk of depression [85, 86]. Similarly, studies in mice have shown similar effects with the consumption of red berries, observing a reduction in depressive-like behaviors [87, 88] (Table 3).
\nAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory loss, as well as cognitive decline [117] in which prevalence augments with age [118]. The neuropathologic changes underlying AD include senile plaques formed by the peptide β-amyloid and neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyperphosphorylated Tau protein that promotes synaptic dysfunction and neuronal death early and consistently [119].
\nOxidative stress has been associated with the onset and progression of AD [120]. This is supported by the high vulnerability of neurons to reactive oxygen species (ROS) [121]. Oxidative stress can induce damage to membrane lipids, changes in glial and neuronal function, structural damage to DNA, synaptic dysfunction, and apoptosis [122].
\nSeveral studies have demonstrated the potential protective effect of blackberry fruits (
Extracts of black currant have been shown to inhibit the formation and spread of β-amyloid [124] and ROS fibrils. Supplementation of blackberry in in vitro studies has been reported to exhibit potent anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties [125, 126]; also, the consumption of blueberries is related to neuronal augment in the hippocampus [5].
\nRecently a neuroprotective effect of anthocyanins has been observed in a model of AD induced by streptozotocin that resulted in a cognitive deficit (in short-term memory and spatial memory), as well as dysfunction in the activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, while inducing lipid peroxidation and a decrease in antioxidant enzymes in the cerebral cortex [127]. These alterations were attenuated in the group administered with anthocyanins. Similarly, it has been observed that blueberry powder (
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by tremors, stiffness, and akinesia. It is caused by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and the presence of Lewy bodies. Many Parkinson’s risks and preventive factors have been investigated. The onset of this disorder has been associated with exposure to certain pesticides and heavy metals [128], tobacco consumption [129], and coffee consumption [130], among other environmental factors. While current treatments have shown effectiveness in early management of the motor symptoms of the disease [131] and both surgery and deep brain stimulation are useful, PD is currently not yet curable [132]. A diet enriched in phenolic compounds has been shown to have some efficacy in relieving Parkinson’s symptoms [133]. Most of the studies related to fruit consumption and disease focus on supplementation with blueberries, strawberries, black currant, and grapes, due to their powerful antioxidant effects related to their high content of polyphenols and anthocyanins [134].
\nCell models have reinforced studies of neurodegenerative disorders, recently demonstrating that anthocyanins from grape seed, blueberry, and mulberry enhance mitochondrial function [135] and suppressed dopaminergic cell death caused by rotenone (insecticide and pesticide) in mitochondrial respiration. This has suggested that anthocyanins may alleviate neurodegeneration in PD by improving mitochondrial function. In addition, polyphenols are able to ameliorate inflammatory responses associated with glial activation [136]. Phenolic compounds are known for their ability to eliminate reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to their antioxidant action; however, since their concentrations in the brain are lower than those of endogenous antioxidants, it has begun to be seen that they also exert their neuroprotective effects through additional mechanisms [137, 138], highlighting the inhibition of MAO, in its two forms, A and B [77, 104]. At the preclinical level, one of the most widely used models in PD research is the administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), a neurotoxin that causes a severe Parkinson’s-like syndrome in humans, monkeys, and mice [139, 140, 141, 142]. It has been observed that daily administration of resveratrol (red wine polyphenol) in male mice C57BL/6 prevented a decrease in striatal dopamine and maintained striatal tyrosine hydroxylase levels. In addition, mice that received resveratrol as pretreatment showed a greater number of immunopositive tyrosine hydroxylase neurons, indicating the protective role of resveratrol over nigral neurons [143]. In the same disease model, it was observed that blueberry extract attenuated behavioral impairment (motor coordination) as well as decreased levels of malondialdehyde in the brains of mice [92]. These data reveal the ability of resveratrol and polyphenols present in blueberry extract to counteract the toxic effects of MPTP administration and in the near future may be used as a complementary neuroprotective therapy (Table 3). Current PD therapies act by controlling the disease’s symptoms, but do not slow the underlying neurodegeneration in the brains of PD in patients [135]; this is an opportunity to use functional foods as adjuvant therapy in the presence of disease.
\nPolyphenols present in berries have also been associated with cognitive amelioration and neuronal function, as is the case with grape juice, which in both young [144] and older adults [145] ameliorate neurocognitive functions of memory, attention, and calmness, compared to the placebo group. In this same regard, in mothers (40–50 years) of preadolescent children, an association of grape juice consumption has been observed (≥30 h/week 355 ml, during 12 weeks) with subtle augment in immediate spatial memory and safer driving behavior in a virtual simulator [146]. At the same time, it was found that, in a double-blind crossover design of children (7 and 10 years old), supplementation of 15 or 30 g freeze-dried wild blueberry powder significantly ameliorates word acquisition and recognition, as well as the ability to overcome the effects of response interference [147].
\nIn a pilot study in healthy young adults in both genders (18–35 years old), it has been observed that the acute administration of black currant juice (500 mg/day of polyphenols, supplemented only 1 day per week, during 31 days) exerts an anxiolytic-like effect, as well as ameliorates alertness, less fatigue, and reaction speed [94].
\nIn a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial, dietary blueberry of 24 g/day for 3 months raised the cognition in tests of executive function in adults between 60 and 75 years old of both sexes by increasing accuracy during task switching and reduced repetition errors during word-list recall [148]. The positive effects on cognition have been related to activation of the prefrontal cortex using functional magnetic resonance imaging [149]; therefore, the administration of blueberry to have the same effects on these tasks could be exercising greater activation of this structure to raise cognition. Another study found that daily consumption of 6 and 9 ml/kg for 12 weeks of blueberry (
Furthermore, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study showed that the daily administration of two capsules (10o mg) of a purified extract of blueberry (wild blueberry extract) for 3 months raised episodic and working memory in older adults of both sexes [151]. Additionally, a randomized, single-blind, parallel group design showed that the acute consumption of 200 ml of wild blueberry drink (253 mg anthocyanins) in healthy children aged 7–10 years significantly enhanced the memory and attentional aspects of executive function with respect to the placebo group 2 h after consumption; therefore, the consumption of the wild blueberry drink during the critical period of development (as is the case of childhood) could provide acute cognitive benefits [152]. Therefore, a double-blind, counterbalanced, crossover intervention study showed that acute supplementation with haskap berry extract “
These findings support that the consumption of berries produces beneficial effects on cognition in humans, which are probably related to the effects of the berries on the nervous system. For example, blueberry diets are associated with enhanced working memory which is accompanied by an increase in the neurogenesis of the hippocampus [17]. A randomized, controlled, double-blind, crossover studio showed that the administration of 766 mg total blueberry polyphenols in healthy young men reduced neutrophil NADPH oxidase activity at 1, 2, 4, and 6 h after consumption [154]. In this sense, NADPH oxidase has been shown to play an important role in oxidative stress induction in the brain [155], because it uses oxygen and NADPH to generate superoxide [156]. Therefore, the administration of blueberry could be generating a reduction of superoxide and indirectly preventing oxidative stress events a long term. The mechanisms by which flavonoids and polyphenols exert these actions on cognitive performance are still being studied, including evidence suggesting that they can increase brain blood flow, as well as modulate the activation state of neuronal receptors, signaling proteins, and gene expression [157].
\nAccording to our knowledge, there are some reports relating berry consumption in humans with side effects or toxicity. Data of toxicity in vivo was reported in 1997, in a study of the relation between flavonoid intake and subsequent cancer risk in 9959 Finnish men and women, aged 15–99 years and who are initially cancer free. Food consumption and dietary history method calculated the consumption of lingonberries, blueberries, black currants, raspberries, and gooseberries. People with higher consumption of berries were found to have a high risk of lung cancer. Apparently, the phenolic compounds produce toxicity proliferating cancer cells, but are not toxic in healthy cells [49].
\nAnother study of 5-weeks-old Swiss Webster male mice, supplemented with lyophilized nightshade berries (
Another report was in 2009, when dozens of dead cedar waxwings in Thomas County, Georgia, USA, were found. In this case report, after evaluating five birds, the investigation group observed pulmonary, mediastinal, and tracheal hemorrhages and also found berries (
Regarding berries supplementation and synergy, it is recently reported that gallic acid, quercetin, ellagic acid, and cyanidin have a market antioxidant activity [161, 162], due to the synergistic effects between the numbers of aromatic ring mixtures. In addition, polyphenols present in berries can interact between them, improve their antioxidant properties, and, therefore, increase human’s health benefits [162]. According to our knowledge, no studies were found related with pharmacological interactions and berry supplementation. It is necessary to carry out studies involving pharmacological molecules, berries’ activities, and their phenolic compounds in order to generate new therapies and identify the existence of side or toxic effects.
\nAccording to the research reported in this chapter, the supplementation of berries and their bioactive compounds as flavonoids, polyphenols, and anthocyanin suggests a potential health benefit for human nutrition.
\nThe objective of this research is to contribute with knowledge to the development of new strategies for the treatment of diseases such as anxiety, depression, AD, and PD, which includes natural products, particularly berry fruits that work as preventive or coadjuvant therapy in the treatment of these diseases.
\nA further evaluation of fruits berry supplementation in neural processes is required, as well as the identification of the effect of each particular bioactive compound on psychiatric and neurological disorders. More studies will be necessary to identify the mechanisms of action of this substance. It is also important to understand the scope in other neural processes and their application, effectiveness, synergy, pharmacological interaction, and side or toxic effects at clinical and preclinical levels of studies.
\nThe present chapter evidenced a number of investigations in vivo related with the use of different berry fruit supplement doses, not only in humans but also in animal models. These results suggest the potential health effect of berries due to bioactive compounds mainly flavonoids, polyphenols, and anthocyanins, used commonly for its antioxidant capacity. According to our knowledge, the cases reported in the literature by animal toxicity are related with the consumption of wild berries. In humans the relationship between phenol compound consumption and lung cancer has been reported; however, there is no evidence of side or toxic effects related with berry supplementation or their bioactive compounds, and pharmacological interaction related to their consumption due to no dietary intervention studies has been reported.
\nIn addition, berry consumption has shown to be effective in a number of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, and also recent investigations are proposed for the management of berry fruit supplementation as neuroprotector and the reduction of symptoms in diseases such as anxiety, depression, AD, and PD, among others. The use of this biological berry compounds might promote an alternative for prevention and give excellent opportunities for human nutrition as a functional food and nutraceutical. Future research in this field is necessary, in order to clarify and support the evidence of the effects of flavonoids, polyphenols, and anthocyanins at the brain level, as well as their potential direct and indirect mechanisms of action.
\nThe authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from CONACyT (Scholarship no. 592714, 628503, 297410, 713495).
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
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\\n\\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
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\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
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\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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DeRosa",authors:[{id:"47354",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"DeRosa",slug:"maria-derosa",fullName:"Maria DeRosa"}]},{id:"66031",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84139",title:"Biosensors for Determination of Heavy Metals in Waters",slug:"biosensors-for-determination-of-heavy-metals-in-waters",totalDownloads:2728,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biosensors are nowadays a powerful alternative to conventional analytical techniques for controlling the quality of not only natural water but also process water used by the food industry during the production process, as well as wastewater prior to release into natural watercourses. The goal is to provide the required quality and safety of water from the standpoint of heavy metal contamination. The basic and most important characteristics of biosensors are high sensitivity, short response time, specificity, and relatively low production cost. Biosensors can detect the presence and measure the content of various toxic substances (pesticides, heavy metals, etc.) not only in water but also in food. Detection of contaminants, primarily heavy metals in water used in food production processes, is a potential area of biosensor application in the food industry. Biosensors can be adapted for direct and continuous (online) monitoring by measuring certain analytes that can affect the quality and safety of water. This chapter will give an overview of the development and application of biosensors in order to control the quality and safety of water from the standpoint of the presence of heavy metals.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Amra Odobašić, Indira Šestan and Sabina Begić",authors:null},{id:"16445",doi:"10.5772/20154",title:"Biosensor for Environmental Applications",slug:"biosensor-for-environmental-applications",totalDownloads:11273,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Andrea Medeiros Salgado, Lívia Maria Silva and Ariana Farias Melo",authors:[{id:"37632",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Medeiros Salgado",slug:"andrea-medeiros-salgado",fullName:"Andrea Medeiros Salgado"},{id:"37653",title:"Dr.",name:"Lívia Maria",middleName:"da Costa",surname:"Silva",slug:"livia-maria-silva",fullName:"Lívia Maria Silva"},{id:"37654",title:"Mr.",name:"Ariana",middleName:null,surname:"Farias Melo",slug:"ariana-farias-melo",fullName:"Ariana Farias Melo"}]},{id:"65873",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84220",title:"Electrochemical Biosensors Containing Pure Enzymes or Crude Extracts as Enzyme Sources for Pesticides and Phenolic Compounds with Pharmacological Property Detection and Quantification",slug:"electrochemical-biosensors-containing-pure-enzymes-or-crude-extracts-as-enzyme-sources-for-pesticide",totalDownloads:1095,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system is based on a biochemical mechanism. They perform the specific component detection in a sample through an appropriate analytical signal. Enzyme-based biosensors are the most prominent biosensors because of their high specificity and selectivity; besides being an alternative to the common immunosensors, they are more expensive and present a limited binding capacity with the antigen depending on assay conditions. This chapter approaches the use of enzymes modified electrodes in amperometric biosensing application to detect and quantify pesticides and phenolic compounds with pharmacological properties, as they have been a promising analytical tool in environmental monitoring. These biosensors may be prepared from pure enzymes or their crude extracts. Pure enzyme-based biosensors present advantages as higher substrate specificity and selectivity when compared to crude extract enzymatic biosensors; nevertheless, the enzyme high costs are their drawbacks. Enzymatic crude extract biosensors show lower specificity due to the fact that they may contain more than one type of enzyme, but they may be obtained from low-cost fabrication methods. In addition, they can contain enzyme cofactors besides using the enzyme in its natural conformation.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Flavio Colmati, Lívia Flório Sgobbi, Guilhermina Ferreira Teixeira, Ramon Silva Vilela, Tatiana Duque Martins and Giovanna Oliveira Figueiredo",authors:null},{id:"16449",doi:"10.5772/16250",title:"Biosensors Applications on Assessment of Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidants",slug:"biosensors-applications-on-assessment-of-reactive-oxygen-species-and-antioxidants",totalDownloads:2770,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Simona Carmen Litescu, Sandra A.V. Eremia, Mirela Diaconu, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu"},{id:"24427",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra A.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Eremia",slug:"sandra-a.v.-eremia",fullName:"Sandra A.V. Eremia"},{id:"24428",title:"BSc.",name:"Mirela",middleName:null,surname:"Diaconu",slug:"mirela-diaconu",fullName:"Mirela Diaconu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu"},{id:"47095",title:"Ms",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",slug:"andreia-tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66031",title:"Biosensors for Determination of Heavy Metals in Waters",slug:"biosensors-for-determination-of-heavy-metals-in-waters",totalDownloads:2722,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Biosensors are nowadays a powerful alternative to conventional analytical techniques for controlling the quality of not only natural water but also process water used by the food industry during the production process, as well as wastewater prior to release into natural watercourses. The goal is to provide the required quality and safety of water from the standpoint of heavy metal contamination. The basic and most important characteristics of biosensors are high sensitivity, short response time, specificity, and relatively low production cost. Biosensors can detect the presence and measure the content of various toxic substances (pesticides, heavy metals, etc.) not only in water but also in food. Detection of contaminants, primarily heavy metals in water used in food production processes, is a potential area of biosensor application in the food industry. Biosensors can be adapted for direct and continuous (online) monitoring by measuring certain analytes that can affect the quality and safety of water. This chapter will give an overview of the development and application of biosensors in order to control the quality and safety of water from the standpoint of the presence of heavy metals.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Amra Odobašić, Indira Šestan and Sabina Begić",authors:null},{id:"68700",title:"Principle and Development of Phage-Based Biosensors",slug:"principle-and-development-of-phage-based-biosensors",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Detection and identification of pathogenic bacteria is important in the field of public health, medicine, food safety, environmental monitoring and security. Worldwide, the common cause of mortality and morbidity is bacterial infection often due to misdiagnosis or delay in diagnosis. Existing bacterial detection methods rely on conventional culture or microscopic techniques and molecular methods that often time consuming, laborious and expensive, or need trained users. In recent years, biosensor remained an interesting topic for bacterial detection and many biosensors involving different bio-probes have been reported. Compared to antibodies, nucleic acids and enzymes etc., based biosensors, bacteriophages can be cheaply produced and are relatively much stable to elevated temperature, extreme pH, and diverse ionic strength. Therefore, there is an urgent need for phage-based biosensor for bacterial pathogen detection. Furthermore, bearing high affinity and specificity, bacteriophages are perfect bio-recognition probes in biosensor development for bacterial detection. In this regard, active and oriented phages immobilization is the key step toward phage-based biosensor development. This chapter compares different bacterial detection techniques, and introduces the basic of biosensor and different bio-probes involved in biosensor development. Further we highlight the involvement and importance of phages in biosensor and finally we briefed different phage immobilization approaches used in development of phage-based biosensors.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Umer Farooq, Qiaoli Yang, Muhammad Wajid Ullah and Shenqi Wang",authors:null},{id:"69216",title:"Challenges and Applications of Impedance-Based Biosensors in Water Analysis",slug:"challenges-and-applications-of-impedance-based-biosensors-in-water-analysis",totalDownloads:1201,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Monitoring of the environment is a global priority due to the close connection between the environmental pollution and human health. Many analytical techniques using various methods have been developed to detect and monitor the levels of pollutants (pesticides, toxins, bacteria, drug residues, etc.) in natural water bodies. The latest trend in modern analysis is to measure pollutants in real-time in the field. For this purpose, biosensors have been employed as cost-effective and fast analytical techniques. Among biosensors, impedance biosensors have significant potential for use as simple and portable devices. These sensors involve application of a small amplitude AC voltage to the sensor electrode and measurement of the in-/out-of-phase current response as a function of frequency integrated with some biorecognition element on the sensing electrodes that can bind to the target, modifying the sensor electrical parameters. However, there are some drawbacks concerning their selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. The aim of this paper is to give a critical overview of literature published during the last decade based on the development issues of impedimetric biosensors and their applicability in water analysis.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Kairi Kivirand, Mart Min and Toonika Rinken",authors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"},{id:"62780",title:"Prof.",name:"Mart",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"mart-min",fullName:"Mart Min"},{id:"174179",title:"Dr.",name:"Kairi",middleName:null,surname:"Kivirand",slug:"kairi-kivirand",fullName:"Kairi Kivirand"}]},{id:"63693",title:"The Modeling, Design, Fabrication, and Application of Biosensor Based on Electric Cell-Substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) Technique in Environmental Monitoring",slug:"the-modeling-design-fabrication-and-application-of-biosensor-based-on-electric-cell-substrate-impeda",totalDownloads:1111,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this research, the modeling, design, fabrication, and application of ECIS sensors in environmental monitoring are studied. The ECIS sensors are able to qualify the water toxicity through measuring the cell impedance. A novel mathematical model is proposed to analyze the distribution of electric potential and current of ECIS. This mathematical model is validated by experimental data and can be used to optimize the dimension of ECIS electrodes in order to satisfy environmental monitors. The detection sensitivity of ECIS sensors is analyzed by the mathematical model and experimental data. The simulated and experimental results show that ECIS sensors with smaller radius of working electrodes yield higher impedance values, which improves signal-to-noise ratio, which is more suitable in measuring the cell morphology change influenced by environments. Several ECIS sensors are used to detect the toxicant including, phenol, ammonia, nicotine, and aldicarb, and the decreasing cell impedance indicates the toxic effect. The gradient of measured impedance qualitatively indicates the concentration of toxicants in water.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Xudong Zhang, William Wang and Sunghoon Jang",authors:null},{id:"65873",title:"Electrochemical Biosensors Containing Pure Enzymes or Crude Extracts as Enzyme Sources for Pesticides and Phenolic Compounds with Pharmacological Property Detection and Quantification",slug:"electrochemical-biosensors-containing-pure-enzymes-or-crude-extracts-as-enzyme-sources-for-pesticide",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system is based on a biochemical mechanism. They perform the specific component detection in a sample through an appropriate analytical signal. Enzyme-based biosensors are the most prominent biosensors because of their high specificity and selectivity; besides being an alternative to the common immunosensors, they are more expensive and present a limited binding capacity with the antigen depending on assay conditions. This chapter approaches the use of enzymes modified electrodes in amperometric biosensing application to detect and quantify pesticides and phenolic compounds with pharmacological properties, as they have been a promising analytical tool in environmental monitoring. These biosensors may be prepared from pure enzymes or their crude extracts. Pure enzyme-based biosensors present advantages as higher substrate specificity and selectivity when compared to crude extract enzymatic biosensors; nevertheless, the enzyme high costs are their drawbacks. Enzymatic crude extract biosensors show lower specificity due to the fact that they may contain more than one type of enzyme, but they may be obtained from low-cost fabrication methods. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. 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