Characteristics of eco-cultural tourism.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5736",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Evolution of Media Communication",title:"The Evolution of Media Communication",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Media communication is a young discipline, if we compare it with others. It has been studied scientifically from the last century in social sciences. This topic, as it is a human process, is complex, and it is changing because of new technologies. It transforms our society too. It is recognised that we are in a communication society. The management of knowledge is settled in business area too. Communication skills are recognised as competences in education for preparing future citizens. Media communication feeds from different disciplines and it keeps their attention. This book is an attempt to provide theoretical and empirical framework to better understand media communication from different point of views and channels in various contexts. The international authors are specialised on the issues. They cover a wide range of updated issues. They span from deepening about behaviour of media or trends to national cases related to social net and to new phenomena - as it is mindfulness applied to creativity. So in this book, two sections are presented. The first section focuses on the behaviour of media, when it is applied in education field and reception research. The second section provides three case studies about the Internet: platforms and social nets developed and applied to different publics.",isbn:"978-953-51-3198-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3197-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4811-1",doi:"10.5772/65166",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"the-evolution-of-media-communication",numberOfPages:102,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"91d4565f6cae93b6e6bce537c2cf7616",bookSignature:"Beatriz Peña Acuña",publishedDate:"May 31st 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5736.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14775,numberOfWosCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:57,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 12th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 8th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 31st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 28th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 30th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"194887",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Peña-Acuña",slug:"beatriz-pena-acuna",fullName:"Beatriz Peña-Acuña",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194887/images/system/194887.jpg",biography:"Beatriz Peña-Acuña enjoys discovering scientific and human\naspects of reality. She is an Assistant Professor (Tenure). She teaches in the Faculty\nof Education of the University of Huelva. Her interests are\ninterdisciplinar. She has an\nExtraordinary Doctorate Award (2012) with European mention\nin English. Her scientific production is prolific. She participates as a editorial board in several\njournals of impact (Isi Web and Scopus). She has visited several international universities (New York\nUniversity, UEA, University of London, etc.). She also gives international conferences. The academic has been awarded the President’s Lifetime Achievement Award (2015). She also received an Honoris Causa from UFA University (Russia, 2016) and Catholic\nUniversity of New Spain (USA, 2019).Actually she participates in an European Cost Project. Beatriz is an expert evaluator of\nErasmus plus programs in the Spanish SEPIE agency.",institutionString:"University of Huelva",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Huelva",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1329",title:"Media",slug:"media"}],chapters:[{id:"54896",title:"Online Journalism: Current Trends and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/68086",slug:"online-journalism-current-trends-and-challenges",totalDownloads:4190,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the past 25 years, the journalistic sphere has gone through radical changes and transformations, progressively adapting to the contemporary global trends in news‐making. Traditional understanding of journalism as a profession has changed significantly, mostly due to the fact that digital media environment has brought new opportunities but also challenges related to the journalistic practice. The text aims to offer a theoretical reflection on the issue of online journalism. At the same time, the chapter discusses specific forms of Internet‐delivered journalistic production and professional requirements placed on journalists who specialise in online news‐making, taking into consideration the current development tendencies of digital communication forms. The authors work with a basic assumption that many aspects related to form and content of online news need to be discussed in the light of much needed terminological and paradigmatic revisions related to both the general theory of journalism and our practical understanding of journalism as a continual, creative and highly professional, publicly performed activity.",signatures:"Ján Višňovský and Jana Radošinská",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54896",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54896",authors:[{id:"196996",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ján",surname:"Višňovský",slug:"jan-visnovsky",fullName:"Ján Višňovský"},{id:"197484",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",surname:"Radošinská",slug:"jana-radosinska",fullName:"Jana Radošinská"}],corrections:null},{id:"54943",title:"Mindfulness Based on the Perceptive Consciousness as Pedagogical Link Between Technology and Education",doi:"10.5772/68085",slug:"mindfulness-based-on-the-perceptive-consciousness-as-pedagogical-link-between-technology-and-educati",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Our research is focused on the effects of an experimental study that examines in depth the discovery of a new methodological paradigm of teaching and esthetic-visual deconstruction, called Mindfulness Composition in Cervantes. Our research line is based, on the one hand, on the esthetic processes of contemporary art by Cervantes of persuasive graphic and visual communication. On the other hand, it is based on Mindfulness as a sophisticated method that allows us to find a way to calm and rescue the potential and maximize the value and effects of communicative and artistic compositions. Innovative analytical method of the communicative process of visual artistic communication establishes, and raises, in our chapter, a connection with sophisticated concepts of Mindfulness applied to visual and graphic composition, efficient, and its application to contemporary art in the theme of Cervantes.",signatures:"José Jesús Vargas Delgado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54943",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54943",authors:[{id:"204406",title:"Dr.",name:"José Jesús",surname:"Vargas Delgado",slug:"jose-jesus-vargas-delgado",fullName:"José Jesús Vargas Delgado"}],corrections:null},{id:"55035",title:"Mixed Messages for Our Next Generation of Scientists",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68605",slug:"mixed-messages-for-our-next-generation-of-scientists",totalDownloads:1346,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Scientists have been in the media ever since Frankenstein in 1931. Today’s youth may not have seen the original movie or read the book, but they have seen cartoon reiterations of the famous classic as the work has inspired numerous films, television programs, video games, characters in books and movies. The concept of the “mad scientist” creating a creature, monster, or weapon that eventually falls out of his control, leading to the scientist's eventual defeat or ruin, is a common theme in science-fiction and comic books. Draw-A-Scientist protocols have been utilized by science education researchers to investigate learners’ perceptions of scientists. This chapter discusses historical perspectives of scientists in the media, the methods for analyzing students’ perceptions of scientists and how aspects of their illustrations relate students’ perceptions of scientists. The discussion presented here is framed in the context in which young children hold a range of perceptions that are based on cultural influences, and sometimes these images are limited, and sometimes they compete within the individual. The position of this author is that each of these three are interconnected with the others, support each other, and must be considered along with students’ cultural background and science identity if these illustrations are to fulfill any promise of its utility for research or instructional purposes.",signatures:"Donna Farland-Smith",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55035",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55035",authors:[{id:"197003",title:"Dr.",name:"Donna",surname:"Farland-Smith",slug:"donna-farland-smith",fullName:"Donna Farland-Smith"}],corrections:null},{id:"55225",title:"Internet and Social Media in Malaysia: Development, Challenges and Potentials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68848",slug:"internet-and-social-media-in-malaysia-development-challenges-and-potentials",totalDownloads:4767,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The penetration of the Internet and social media has helped Malaysia abreast with the other developed countries. Nonetheless, being a multicultural country, Malaysia has to ensure her multiracial population lives in harmony and peace. This happens with the integrated help of media control and regulations exercise in Malaysia: the Printing Presses and Publications Act (PPPA), Film Censorship Act, Broadcasting Act, Communication and Multimedia Act (CMA), and media ownership control. Many researches have been conducted pertaining to the Internet and social media that have been published locally in line with the development of the Internet and social media in Malaysia. Similarly, new media is also subjected to being controlled through methods such as controlling the Internet, blocking and filtering, and content removal. The chapter also looks into the impact of the Internet and social media on civil society, thus creating a momentum to promote toward giving suggestions for future research involving not only theories but also models using more sophisticated analyses. More research can be done and the future of research is bright. Other areas that can be looked at are the impacts of the Internet and social media on the young populace of the nation.",signatures:"Saodah Wok and Shafizan Mohamed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55225",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55225",authors:[{id:"201019",title:"Dr.",name:"Saodah",surname:"Wok",slug:"saodah-wok",fullName:"Saodah Wok"}],corrections:null},{id:"54575",title:"Opportunities for a New Type of Dialogue with the Organisation’s Publics: A Case Study on How Political Parties Are Adapting in the Basque Country",doi:"10.5772/67937",slug:"opportunities-for-a-new-type-of-dialogue-with-the-organisation-s-publics-a-case-study-on-how-politic",totalDownloads:1360,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The organisational websites and second-generation web-based technologies like social media have led organisations to alter their activities and strategies both internally and externally. This marriage between Internet and organisations is especially relevant in the case of political organisations like parties. Politics in our society is basically media politics, based on socialised communication and the capacity to influence people’s opinions. Online communication has had a direct influence on the parties’ publics and the relations with them: on one side, the citizens, and on the other, the mass media and journalists. While top-down adaptations by organisations generally prove more costly or are even non-existent, what we are witnessing is a horizontal type of adaptation [2]. This gives the political class and press offices the opportunity to descend to ‘street level’ using the tools provided by the web, as well as to become direct communicators that replace the media’s traditional work of interpretation. In this context, this chapter offers results from a study (EHUA13/10) centred on understanding how political parties have adapted their communication strategies to meet the challenges of the multimedia paradigm. For that purpose, it focuses on a concrete case and on political parties with representation in the Basque autonomous parliament.",signatures:"Ainara Larrondo and Irati Agirreazkuenaga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54575",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54575",authors:[{id:"200692",title:"Dr.",name:"Ainara",surname:"Larrondo",slug:"ainara-larrondo",fullName:"Ainara Larrondo"},{id:"200844",title:"Prof.",name:"Irati",surname:"Agirreazkuenaga",slug:"irati-agirreazkuenaga",fullName:"Irati Agirreazkuenaga"}],corrections:null},{id:"55320",title:"“Google It”: Towards Virtual Knowledge and the Influence of Social Media on Education in Ghana",doi:"10.5772/67820",slug:"-google-it-towards-virtual-knowledge-and-the-influence-of-social-media-on-education-in-ghana",totalDownloads:1701,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter attempts to assess the opportunities social media (SM), particularly Facebook, WhatsApp and YouTube, bring to the classroom and how students in Ghana and by extension West Africa use social media to advance learning. Social media continue to influence and reshape teaching and learning in and outside the classroom. In West Africa, just as elsewhere, social media remains a catalyst in developing critical sectors such as health, security and education by eliminating boundaries and providing alternative means of engagement. Research on SM influence in the classroom has received great attention from scholars, what remains is the assessment of proactive use of social media in the classroom. This chapter argued that the youth in Ghana are using SM to improve learning and attaining academic success.",signatures:"Dennis Moot",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55320",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55320",authors:[{id:"200227",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Dennis",surname:"Moot",slug:"dennis-moot",fullName:"Dennis Moot"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9357",title:"Narrative Transmedia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a807a1b8bf5959b85ffc4a4e67269186",slug:"narrative-transmedia",bookSignature:"Beatriz Peña-Acuña",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9357.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194887",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",surname:"Peña-Acuña",slug:"beatriz-pena-acuna",fullName:"Beatriz 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Both are responsible for approximately 3 million deaths annually [1].
Either HIV or TB, when present as a single infection, irreversibly affects and exhausts the immune system of the infected person. Moreover, if they simultaneously coexist in an individual (coinfection), they act in synergy to deteriorate the defense mechanisms of the host’s immunity and to accelerate the fatal scenario.
In this chapter, we will review current knowledge of innate and adaptive immune responses against TB and HIV infections. We will discuss in detail the immunological basis behind the dual threat of TB/HIV coinfection.
HIV infection is a viral disease that affects host immune system and makes the host strongly susceptible to opportunistic infections. It spreads among human population via sexual contact, sharing needles during drug injection, transfusion of contaminated blood products, or during births from HIV-infected women.
Since the late 20th century, HIV infection has become a global pandemic and a major challenge for public health authorities at the national and international levels. At the end of 2013, 35 million people were living with HIV worldwide [2]. During the same year, approximately 2.1 million people were newly infected with HIV. Sub-Saharan Africa is the most affected region in the world—almost 70% of the prevalent and the new HIV-positive cases are diagnosed there. The socio-economic status of the countries in the core of HIV pandemic determines the low number of infected people currently on adequate antiretroviral therapy (only 36% of overall cases).
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacterial species grouped in
The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes TB as “a global public health emergency” and “one of the world’s deadliest communicable diseases” [1]. At least one-third of the world population (approx. 2 billion people) is currently infected with latent mycobacteria and has a risk, although low (5–10%), to develop an active disease during the life course [1]. In 2013, 9 million new TB cases occurred worldwide (TB incidence: 126 cases per 100,000 population) and the prevalent cases were 11 million (TB prevalence: 159 cases per 100,000 population). Despite the efforts at the international, national, and regional level and the significant progress in the detection and management of TB infection, still the incidence, prevalence, and mortality rate of TB are unacceptably high.
People living with HIV have 26–31 times higher risk to develop active TB than the normal population [1]. Both diseases are epidemiologically and biologically connected—TB is the leading cause of death in HIV-positive patients and in turn HIV infection exacerbates the gravity of TB. Due to the global circulation of HIV, the incidence of TB —an infection previously thought to be almost eliminated at least in developed countries—is still high in both developing and high-income countries. HIV disrupts the host immune system through significant depletion of CD4+ lymphocytes, a mechanism that readily facilitates the reactivation of latent TB to an active disease. Therefore, HIV is the strongest risk factor for the development of new or the reactivation of dormant TB disease, including multidrug-resistant TB, an infection resistant to at least two of the first choice drugs for TB treatment, isoniazid and rifampicin. HIV infection predisposes TB-infected patients to antibiotic (rifampicin) resistance through gastrointestinal malabsorption of TB medications [4]. On the other hand,
As one-third of the total world population is currently infected with latent
WHO recommends regular screening of TB for all people living with HIV at every visit to a health care specialist [7]. WHO also recommends that routine HIV testing should be offered to all patients with presumptive and diagnosed TB, as well as to partners of known HIV-positive TB patients.
In addition to the increase in TB incidence, the worldwide HIV pandemic changed the average age of TB-infected people. In contrast to normal populations where TB is most prevalent among elderly people, in regions with significant number of HIV-positive cases, the most affected age by TB is the reproductive age (20–45 years). This leads to the consecutive increase in the number of TB-infected children [8].
Primary infection with
In most cases, the non-immune mechanisms do not allow the development of the infectious process. If infection occurs, the immune system in the lungs activates the first-line innate defense and then, several weeks later, an adaptive anti-mycobacterial immune response is activated. The strong immune response against
The early stages of TB infection consist of inhalation of tubercle bacilli and initial encounter between the immune system and the pathogen. Alveolar macrophages and sometimes nonprofessional phagocytic cells (alveolar epithelial cells) are the first to recognize
If bacteria survive bactericidal macrophage action, they can multiply intracellularly to destroy the infected macrophage and to release attractants for monocyte and dendritic cells accumulation. The attracted monocytes will differentiate into macrophages that in turn can recognize new
Macrophages and dendritic cells bind
The interaction between
A fundamental characteristic of
The matured dendritic cells move to the regional lymph nodes where they initiate specific cell immune response by presenting the ingested mycobacterial antigens to the naïve T cells. Dendritic cells are a primary target for
The concentration of macrophages, T-lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and other immune and lung cells (epithelial, giant multinuclear Langerhans’ cells, plasma cells, neutrophils, fibroblasts) in the place of infection is known as granuloma. The process of granuloma formation limits the spread of
Both human and animal granulomas contain giant multinuclear Langerhans’ cells produced after the fusion of macrophages [18, 19]. In these cells, tubercle bacilli cannot multiply and survive successfully.
Neutrophils are important for early control of acute bacterial infection [20] as they immediately migrate to the place of mycobacterial infection and start bacterial phagocytosis [21]. Infected neutrophils produce IL-8 and TNF for activation of alveolar macrophages and limitation of the infection [22].
Both CD4+ and CD8+[23] contribute to the stimulation of macrophages and lysis of chronically infected macrophages (via INF-gamma action). The principal role in cell-mediated immunity against tuberculosis is played by CD4
CD8+ cells play an important role in IFN-gamma release, cell lysis and bacterial killing [27]. Some CD8+ lymphocytes may also recognize surface antigens presented by Class I MHC molecules—MHC class I-restricted cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL). They are able to eliminate infected macrophages and also to kill intracellular bacteria via production of granulysin (a cytolytic and proinflammatory substance) [28].
Other immune cells—CD1 restricted T cells, γ/δ-T cells, and cytotoxic T-cells—also protect lung tissue against tuberculosis. T cells of type γ/δ are the first line of defense against microbial antigens and the connection between innate and adaptive immune response [29]. They have cytotoxic activity and may present mycobacterial antigens to CD8+ and CD4+ lymphocytes. In response to IL-23 secreted from infected dendritic cells, the γ/δ-Т cells start to release IL-17 for accumulation of additional immune cells in the place of infection.
Activated macrophages represent higher phagocytic activity against extracellular mycobacteria. On the base of T-lymphocyte stimulation, two types of macrophages are known: classically activated macrophages (САМ) and alternatively activated macrophages (ААM). During the immune response against tubercle bacilli, activation of macrophages by T-lymphocytes is achieved mainly through release of IFN-gamma and other Th-1 cytokines. The Th-1 cytokines (INF-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-1beta) induce САМ to kill tubercle bacilli via production of nitric oxide synthetase (iNOS). This enzyme catalyzes synthesis of nitric oxide (NO), a powerful antimicrobial substance. The Th-2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-13) activate ААM to produce anti-inflammatory cytokines and arginase. They both compete for arginine utilization with iNOS [30]. The increased arginase activity stimulates tissue repair but at the same time restricts bacterial killing [31].
In addition to cell-mediated immunity, humoral immune response plays a major role in TB infection control. The formed antibodies cannot transfer immunity but have an opsoning role and facilitate the phagocytosis by the macrophages and the cytotoxic function of T-lymphocytes [33]. Besides their antibody synthetic function [34], B-lymphocytes can present mycobacterial antigens to T cells [35]. They stimulate proliferation and differentiation of T-lymphocytes by the production of different cytokines. Specific effector B1-cells secrete Th1-cytokines—IFN-gamma and IL-12—while B2-cells secrete IL-4, typical for Th2-cells. Furthermore, activated B cells can produce IL-6 for T cell stimulation and IL-10 for inhibition of dendritic cells and macrophages.
The late stage of TB infection represents a prolonged (in many cases lifelong) suppression of mycobacterial cells as a result of the dynamic balance between the pathogen and the host immunity.
The principal route of HIV entry into the human body is through the mucosal epithelial surfaces (mainly genital or rectal). The virus prefers to infect immune cells expressing CD4+ receptors on their surface—CD4+ helper T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells—all present in activated state in the mucosal lymphoid tissues.
HIV crosses the intact epithelial layers via interaction with dendritic cells and/or CD4+ helper T cells. The CD4+ receptor of these cells recognizes the viral envelope glycoprotein 120 (gp120) and causes its conformational change. This makes possible the binding with one of the auxiliary co-receptors: CCR5 or CXCR4. The second binding allows viral glycoprotein 41 (gp41) to integrate within the cell membrane and viral genome to access the host cytoplasm.
After entry into the cell, viral RNA—under the action of reverse transcriptase and integrase—turns into double-strand DNA and integrates into the host DNA. The integrated copy of HIV nucleic acid (named provirus) can stay in latent form for years and can become active at any time to complete the viral life cycle and produce new virions.
The principal target for HIV is the activated CD4+ T-lymphocyte expressing CCR5 or CXCR4 co-receptor. The high number of CD4+ T cells (especially memory CD4+CCR5+ T-lymphocytes) in the mucosa is ideal for HIV replication [37]. In contrast, mucosal dendritic cells do not express CD4+ or CCR5 receptors [38] but they do express other receptors that successfully recognize HIV envelope proteins—dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule grabbing nonintegrins (DC-SIGN) and langerin [39].
Early after the entry of HIV, the primary infected T-lymphocytes attract and activate other immune cells to expand the initial place of infection. The infected local site starts to grow until the detachment of the infected cells. Thus, the virus disseminates from the mucosal surfaces to the regional lymph nodes (usually in 10 days after the infection) and then throughout the body. The virus can be detected in all lymphoid organs but the highest number of viral particles concentrates in the mucosal lymphoid tissues (such as gastro-intestinal associated lymphoid tissue). Dendritic cells in lymph nodes and mucosal lymphoid tissues present the HIV antigens to naïve B cells and T cells, prompting them to differentiate and activate. In these first stages, the viral load is significant and CD4+ T cells count starts to decline rapidly.
In many cases, the early events of viral expansion (acute stage) are not clinically manifested. In some people, influenza-like or mononucleosis-like symptoms may occur several weeks after the exposure to infection but they are not specific and often misdiagnosed.
Several months after the initial infection, a precise balance between the virus and the immune response (both cell-mediated and humoral) is established. Host immune system (especially CD8+ lymphocytes) succeeds to control viral replication at some degree but the elimination of target CD4+ population continues. This represents the chronic (latent) phase in HIV infection, clinically manifested with decreased viral load and appearance of specific anti-HIV antibodies in the blood of infected individuals.
Although the major characteristic of HIV infection is the depletion of CD4+ T cells, other lymphocyte types are also affected. HIV notably influences naïve T cells (both CD4 T naïve cells and CD8 T naïve cells) during the asymptomatic phase of the infection [40]. Any T cell-mediated immune response requires new naïve T cells and their depletion results in progressively compromised immunity. The reduction in naïve T cell counts is probably due to decreased thymic output and increased T cell turnover in HIV-positive patients [41]. Furthermore, during HIV asymptomatic phase, the overall CD8+ count remains the same as before infection but significant alteration in the ratio memory/naïve CD8+ cells occurs, the normal predominance of naïve CD8+ is replaced by the domination of memory cells (in many patients, the compartment of CD8+ memory cells represents more than 80% of all CD8+ circulating cells) [40].
The cellular immune response mediated by CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) plays a crucial role in HIV infection [42]. The precursor CTLs recognize viral antigens expressed on the surface of presenting cells. They become active with the help of IL-2, IFN-gamma, and TNF-alpha (produced from CD4+ T cells) and can directly eliminate infected CD4+ lymphocytes via secretion of perforin (a cytolytic protein) and granzymes (serine proteases). The increased ability to secrete perforin is specific for CD8+ T cells from small group HIV-positive individuals who maintain HIV replication in undetectable levels (elite controllers) [43] and who do not progress immunologically towards AIDS in the absence of antiretroviral treatment.
Simultaneously with the host response, the virus starts a mutation process to escape CD8+ recognition by changing epitopes and to correct the present viral variant. At this moment, a balance between host elimination and replication of new HIV variants is established. However, CD8+ immune response, as well as humoral response, strongly needs CD4+ T helpers and gradually with CD4+ depletion, the CD8+ control fails to maintain the viremia.
The loss of effective antiviral response leads to a constant stimulation and repeated activation of HIV specific CD8+ T cells. This chronic activation soon exhausts the pool of CD8+ lymphocytes together with CD4+ T cell one.
The elevated activation is characteristic not only for CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, but also for B cells, NK cells, and monocytes. In HIV-seropositive patients, even in early stages of infection, high levels of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-1β) and chemokines (MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta and RANTES) are detected [37].
The HIV life cycle is closely related to the extent of immune system activation. Activation of the immune cells enhances the entry of HIV into the cytoplasm because the auxiliary co-receptors are upregulated under immune stimulation [44]. It also increases the level of provirus transcription together with the normal cellular transcription [45]. The exhausted CD8+ T cells diminish secretion of immune-stimulatory cytokines, slow down proliferation and suspend killing of infected cells [46]. HIV infection stimulates upregulation of CD8+ inhibitory receptors (Programmed Death-1 (PD-1), T cell immunoglobulin, and mucin-domain-containing molecule-3 (Tim-3) [47,48]) that downregulate CD8+ immune response and maintain T cell tolerance.
The humoral immune response against HIV is mediated by specific anti-HIV antibodies produced from B-lymphocytes several weeks to several months after the initial infection. HIV cannot replicate into B-lymphocytes but influences their activation and apoptosis. Unmatured B-lymphocytes differentiate under the action of Th1 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, TGF-beta) into plasma cells producing large amounts of binding and virus-neutralizing antibodies. Antibodies target free viral particles in the HIV-positive blood and a small quantity of them can also eliminate infected cells.
HIV specific antibodies recognize viral envelope (envelope proteins gp120 and gp41) and protect host cells from viral entry, but the virus successfully escapes the antibodies’ binding via continual mutations. Memory B cells constantly produce new variants of antibodies and soon become exhausted.
The latent phase can last several years (usually up to ten) and terminates finally with the development of AIDS and death. In the final stage, HIV infection completely exhausts the host immune system and especially the CD4+ T cell pool. AIDS is immunologically diagnosed by a CD4+ count less than 200 per µL or/and clinically by the occurrence of opportunistic HIV-related diseases.
TB is the leading opportunistic infection and major cause of death in HIV-seropositive people. There is some evidence that both HIV-negative and HIV-positive persons have the same chance to be infected with TB [49]. In contrast, other studies have found that already existing HIV infection increased the risk of newly acquired TB [50, 51] and relapse of dormant
Existing data outlines two main hypotheses how HIV influences the course of TB infection: 1. HIV manipulates bactericidal activity of macrophages against
HIV impairs macrophages in HIV-positive patients turning them more susceptible to
HIV manifests its presence by gradual depletion of CD4+ T cells, a main feature of HIV infection and clinical sign for progression towards AIDS. The low CD4+ cell count makes the host more susceptible to tubercle bacilli as the immune system cannot establish an efficient cell-mediated immune response. The risk of reactivation of latent TB, acquirement of new TB infection, and/or of dissemination of TB towards extra pulmonary locations increases with the decrease of CD4+ cell count; patients with CD4+ counts >350 cells/µL have unaltered clinical and radiographic presentation as HIV seronegative patients, while patients with CD4+ counts <350 cells/µL have atypical chest X-ray findings and frequent extra pulmonary TB. HIV-positive patients in South Africa with CD4+ counts <200 cells/µL are more susceptible to
The insufficient CD4+ T number fails to control granuloma formation and maintenance, therefore leading to higher incidence of extra pulmonary TB and enlarged risk of reactivation of latent infection in HIV-positive patients. Caseous necrotic granulomas—typical for single TB infection—are rare in TB/HIV coinfected patients. Despite the same number of granulomas and acid-fast stained bacilli in TB infected and TB/HIV coinfected persons [59], granulomas from dual-infected individuals are easy disrupted and infection can readily disseminate into multiple organs to form diffuse lesions [60].
However, HIV influence on TB course may only partially depend on CD4+ depletion, as HIV-positive miners in South Africa had an increased risk (2 to 3 times higher) of developing active TB in the first and second year after HIV seroconversion, when the number of CD4+ T-cell was still high [61]. HIV-positive individuals with preserved CD4+ T cell counts (during an antiretroviral treatment) also have an increased risk of developing TB infection. This suggests that additional immunological changes could happen during HIV infection, making the host more susceptible to TB. Such possible mechanism is the observed uniform distribution of CD8+ T cells within the granuloma, in contrast to the peripheral findings in the single TB infection [62]. HIV also specifically diminishes production of IFN-gamma, IL-2, and IL-12 [63], and suppresses proliferation of TB-specific T cells. Several months after HIV seroconversion, the number of
HIV recognizes immune cells expressing CD4+ glycoprotein on their surface: CD4+ T-cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. All of these cellular types are involved in TB pathogenesis and immune response. HIV also needs activated immune cells for replication and propagation; such cells are abundantly present during
HIV-positive patients who developed TB have an increased viral load during the acute phase of TB disease [65, 66]. Lung tissue samples from patients with TB have increased HIV viral load when compared to HIV-positive patients without lung disease or plasma samples from the same TB patients [67]. This suggests that a TB-infected lung has elevated local HIV replication in vivo. In addition, HIV replication is activated in TB-infected alveolar macrophages [68], lymphocytes, and CD14+ macrophages of the pleural space [69].
Infection with
Coinfected individuals have increased incidence and death rate of HIV-related opportunistic infections comparing to HIV-positive but TB-negative patients with the same level of immunosuppression (absolute CD4+ count) [71], indicating that
TB/HIV coinfection represents a leading threat to public health worldwide. Despite the extreme research effort, many aspects of the exceptionally complicated immunology of concurrent TB and HIV infections still need to be elucidated. Diagnosis of HIV/TB coinfection is challenging as both infections have overlapping clinical manifestations, which often lead to late or misdiagnosis. Furthermore, TB and HIV as well the coinfection mostly affect poor and developing regions where competent health care is hardly accessible.
Changes in both innate and adaptive immune response demand well-organized clinical and laboratory studies to understand possible mechanisms by which HIV and TB disrupt in perfect and fatal cooperation the immune system of the host.
AAM – Alternatively activated macrophages
AIDS – Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
CAM – Classically activated macrophages
CCL – CC chemokine ligand
CTL – Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
DC-SIGN – Dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule grabbing nonintegrins
HIV – Human immuno deficiency virus
IFN – Interferon
IL – Interleukin
iNOS – Nitric oxide synthetase
MBTC –
MHC – Major histocompatibility complex
MIP – Macrophage inflammatory protein
NK – Natural killer cells
NLR – NOD-like receptors
NO – Nitric oxide
NOD – Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain
PD-1 – Programmed death-1
RANTES – Regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted
ROS – Reactive oxygen species
TB – Tuberculosis
TGF – Transforming growth factor
Tim-3 – T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain-containing molecule
TLRs – Toll-like receptors
TNF – Tumor necrosis factor
WHO – World Health Organization
Eco-cultural tourism stems from ecotourism, which has been supported by the United Nations since 2012 [1] in order to eradicate poverty, protect the environment and incorporate sustainable development. It recognises the importance of preserving and protecting biodiversity and natural areas, and of using them in a sustainable manner. It fosters entrepreneurship and development among local communities, and encourages tourists to preserve and respect natural and cultural heritage.
This development has been possible after numerous recommendations from the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO). Member States were urged to adopt incentive ecotourism policies, emphasising the positive effects of the creation of revenue, employment and education. Since the start of the nineties, ecotourism has been worked on at regional conferences and global summits, and 2002 was named the International Year of Ecotourism.
The majority of ecotourism-related terms emerged from English-speaking media [2]: natural tourism, rural tourism, wilderness tourism, alternative tourism, environmental tourism, anthropological tourism, low impact tourism, travel with Mother Nature, adventure travel, jungle tourism, cultural tourism, ecotravel, green tourism, science tourism, soft adventure tourism, bio tourism, ethnic tourism, appropriate tourism, sustainable tourism, ecotripping, socially responsible tourism, ecoventures, nature vacations, wilderness tourism, and ethical travel. As a whole, they are related to responsible, respectful and honest tourism. It’s educational because it offers information before, during and after the trip. It’s interactive because it entails life experiences involving real contact and participation. It’s democratic because the benefits it creates are equally distributed; it encourages the participation of rural communities and supports resource conservation.
The growth of ecotourism began in the eighties, notably because of the economic benefits of natural tourism. What is characteristic of ecotourism is that it is a tool for sustainable development [3] and it’s categorised as an activity that mixes the excitement of travelling with caring for the environment. Its main goals are sustainability, preservation and participation of the local community.
With the modern tourist’s demands and new trends, ecotourism is moving on to its next stage and is asserting itself as eco-cultural tourism. It binds searching for contact with nature with valuing cultural authenticity, environmental sustainability, new experiences and a higher number of trips with a shorter stay in each place. That is to say, it’s created a symbiosis between natural tourism and cultural tourism, supported by sustainability and limitations on use, by small-scale activities and a high-quality tourism experience.
Eco-cultural tourism is a new form of tourism where the main goal is not to generate wealth, expropriate land and exploit resources of inhabitants and countries in order to benefit big companies. It’s established itself within a new concept of tourism, both in socioeconomic terms and as a practical activity, that combines the conservation of natural and cultural sites with economic and recreational benefits through sustainable development, and improves the conditions of the recipient communities. The main motivation is observation, appreciation and contemplation as an experience within the natural and cultural environment.
Table 1 shows the characteristics of eco-cultural tourism from its inception, together with the synergy of the United Nations resolution that emphasises poverty eradication and environmental protection through ecotourism. It’s a small-scale and fundamentally emotional form of tourism that promotes sociocultural and traditional values and environmental awareness, and offers benefits both to rural and urban areas. It requires a platform and type of tourism planning that encourages local sustainable development, involving all tourism sectors. It’s currently unique due to how it responds to problems related to climate change and imbalances in economic globalisation that have led to dead end conventional and/or traditional tourism. Tourism Development Projects offer a new path for tourism.
It’s small-scale tourism, with small businesses, with a specific and limited quality production and it’s fundamentally based on experiences |
Characteristics of eco-cultural tourism.
Source: own compilation.
Once eco-cultural tourism has been contextualised and treated together with its goals, a Planning Model with alternative tourism and the development of Tourism Projects is incorporated. In addition to this, a comparative methodology will be used to analyse global and local tourism in countries from Asia, Europe and South America. This will be guided by the following hypothesis: eco-cultural tourism requires local sustainable planning, endorsed by all tourism agents, and led by the load capacity and economic and environmental balance (green economies and ideologies). In this way, eco-cultural tourism will respond to the problems of poverty and climate change through Tourism Projects, directed by government policies and administrations.
Planning for alternative tourism and creating Tourism Development Projects in eco-cultural tourism is carried out in unique spaces that, generally, have received little impact from conventional and/or traditional tourism. They are concrete, different or special spaces that are distinguishable from others. They are easier to design, manage and carry out [4]. The tourism development projects are based on planning models that involve the participation of all agents: representatives, politicians, businessmen and women, neighbourhood associations, indigenous communities, environmental groups, etc. The entire population of the natural and cultural area is involved in economic and social sustainable development and can obtain income, employment, and material and cultural wellbeing. Therefore, all agents organise their own tourism model based on the available resources, the existing heritage and the characteristics of the inhabiting communities.
Table 2 shows a Planning and Sustainable Development Model for Eco-cultural Tourism comprising three phases, that can be applied to natural, cultural and urban areas, and that includes the following types of tourism: interior tourism, ecotourism, cultural tourism, rural tourism, natural tourism, domestic tourism, national tourism, experiential tourism, adventure tourism, agrotourism and green tourism. The first phase known as the PRELIMINARY STUDY of the whole area, is derived from a comprehensive study that seeks to obtain specific data (indicators, surveys, interviews) and carry out an analysis and report in accordance with the Factors or Resources, Attractors and Support Systems model (FAS) [5]. This tool allows you to order and classify the main elements that make up a tourism destination. It’s divided into factors or resources, attractors (tourism products) and support systems.
Natural, cultural and urban areas | Planning, sustainable development and the promotion of nature and cultural heritage |
Original natural, cultural and urban area | 1st Phase: preliminary study Data (indicators, surveys, interviews), analysis and report according to the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) FAS model. |
Natural, cultural and urban area to be planned | 2nd phase: planning and carrying out the tourism project Specifying and planning goals according to the model: Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats (SWOT) Developing the Tourism Project based on sustainable development and the load capacity |
Natural, cultural and urban area consolidated | 3rd phase: implementing and evaluating the tourism project Implementing and managing the Tourism Project (Tourism and Entertainment Policies) |
Planning and sustainable development model for eco-cultural tourism.
Source: own compilation.
The
The
This data and their indicators and analyses carried out by specialised technicians and specialists, are complemented by researching tourist populations that visit these destinations, their characteristics and preferences, their economic status, their destination images and attitudes towards the environment and biodiversity. A social investigation is carried out on these populations, and the planning and sustainable development model proceeds with the analysis of the following [6]:
Tourist populations that visit the local place of origin.
Preferences regarding cultural, social and religious traits.
Economic and consumption situation.
Perceptions regarding artistic and cultural heritage in the destination images of tourist populations.
Attitudes towards the environmental surroundings and biodiversity.
To be more specific, the aspects studied within the investigation [7] through national surveys can be useful for the PRELIMINARY STUDY of the natural and cultural area of origin. For example: tourist movement, tourists’ profile, why people feel encouraged to choose a specific tourist destination, information habits, purchase and consumption of the real or potential demand, image offer, competitors, tourist expense and the effect of tourism on the area’s economy. The reality obtained gives us a general map through which we can find out which resources are available in the area, and the general characteristics of its population and tourists.
The second phase is PLANNING AND CREATING THE TOURISM PROJECT. This involves the detailed analysis of the general map of results from the PRELIMINARY STUDY in order to organise the planning and creation of the Tourism Project’s goals through the following model: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) [8]. Some relevant
The development of the Tourism Project must be based on sustainable development and the load capacity. By doing so, the project will help to maximise the strengths of the area to the fullest, improve the identified weaknesses as far as possible, keep the potential threats under control, and reap rewards from the opportunities the cultural and environmental settings offers. Both public and private administrations of the town must agree on a local plan for the project. Such a plan is intended to develop specific programmes and find sources of funding, as well as to facilitate coordination with other programmes and activities from other departments in order to achieve ongoing, day to day management. This is what a tourist destination that is included in a local plan [4] (p. 61) needs in order to succeed:
Attractive natural and cultural resources.
Environmental protection in the places to be visited, around the tourist centres and the access routes.
Good weather conditions.
Easy access from outside and within the destination areas.
Tourist safety and protection: legal assistance, health care, complaints.
Value for money, especially when compared with other rival destinations that are in the same region or offer similar products.
Information and promotion of the tourist destination. Population awareness regarding the benefits arising from tourism. Kindness and hospitality.
Range of leisure activities: cultural tours to eco-museums, walks along historical roads, sports and birdwatching.
Authenticity of the tourist experience: how many distinguishing features the place has.
Clear and distinguishable positioning contrasted with other competitive destinations.
Possible complementary relationship with other destinations nearby that are already well-known in the marketplace: exploit synergies.
Last phase: IMPLEMENTATION AND ASSESSMENT OF THE TOURISM PROJECT. At this point, the principles and pillars of sustainability are applied, as well as the purposes of the tourism project, which must be done over temporary phases so that it is possible to make improvements, to turn down alternatives that have not worked out, and to formulate different strategies that help strengthen the project. In this context, the state, policies on tourism and leisure, and the sustainable development of eco-cultural tourism in the cultural and natural area are important. The Marrakech Process [9] recommends sustainable policy management. It also states that the policies should be led by local authorities, indigenous and local communities, any international organisation linked to the plan, the private sector, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and consumers.
The concept of tourism as a factor of sustainable development has been addressed by the UNWTO [10] in Article 3 of its Global Code of Ethics. It expressed the duty for all tourism development practitioners to safeguard the environment and natural resources, taking into consideration continuous and sustainable economic growth, so that all needs and aims of the present and future generations can be fairly met.
The model of sustainable tourism curbed, to some extent, the almost unstoppable devastation created by a model of extensive growth that had deeply exhausted natural resources. Undoubtedly, the essence of eco-cultural tourism takes root in the principles of environmental planning, which is the preservation of any natural area and historic, cultural and archaeological sites. Table 3 shows the case report of eco-cultural tourism in Asia, Europe and South America with the global and local dimension.
ASIA: China, Malaysia, Thailand [11, 12, 13, 14, 15] Global dimension, natural, urban and rural areas: countries with emerging economies with high economic growth and rapid urbanisation. Developed/consolidated and developing tourist destinations: impacted by environmental pollution. Tourism policies with Ecotourism, green energy and economies. |
EUROPE: Spain [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21] Local dimension, natural rural and urban areas: A country with a developed European economy and outstanding natural and cultural heritage. Developed/consolidated tourism destinations: Tourism policies developed and promoted for recovery and not extinction. |
SOUTH AMERICA: Peru, Argentina and Bolivia [22, 23, 24] Local dimension, natural, rural and urban areas: Countries whose developing economies have natural and cultural attractions and activities that focus on sustainable tourism. Unspoiled/developing tourism destinations: Tourism projects with proposals for sustainability, quality, continuity, balance and community intervention. |
Case report of eco-cultural tourism in Asia, Europe and South America.
Source: own compilation.
Asian countries including China, Malaysia and Thailand are a modern example of countries with emerging economies, which have experienced significant economic growth and rapid urbanisation. Scientific studies have addressed, from a global dimension, the impacts of tourism and its destinations on logistics and economic dynamics, especially the effect the tourism industry has had on transport, especially by air in terms of travel and access to places of recreation. The latest research by Rehman Khan, Zhang, Kumar, Zayadskas, Streimikiene on measuring the impact of renewable energy, public health expenditure, logistics, and environmental performance on sustainable economic growth [11], is part of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). They study secondary data from the World Bank’s website with structural equation models, concluding that the use of renewable energy will improve environmental sustainability and the creation of a better national image. The promotion of sustainable economic growth should be based on adequate planning that formulates policies in line with sustainability.
Indeed, environmental policies and sustainable development have been the priority axes in literature reviews and existing theoretical models relating green logistics and the economy to environmental sustainability and general social factors. This has been pointed out by Rehman Khan, Zhang, Kumar, Zayadskas, Streimikiene in their research. Measuring the impact of renewable energy, public health expenditure, logistics, and environmental performance on sustainable economic growth [12]. In this case, future research trends will have to be redirected to the micro-level, which means local and precise levels.
Within the same context, the relationship between tourism and globalisation in environmental degradation is investigated in China [13], where a quantum distributed delay model is used. They show that economic growth stimulates environmental degradation and suggest a comprehensive policy framework that could achieve Sustainable Development Goal No. 7 (Affordable and clean energy), No. 8 (Decent work and economic growth) and No. 13 (Climate Action). Reorientation of policies to ensure sustainable development appears to be diffuse in the existing literature, if not entirely absent. The transportation and accommodation associated with tourism has an impact on carbon emissions and is an issue that must be addressed by reducing environmental degradation, promoting renewable energy, boosting tourism, and creating employment opportunities in both the public and private sectors. Technologies should not replace all manual labour. From this point, a new perspective towards ecotourism, with all its variants, is opened, and serves as a general platform for the proper running of these policies.
Alongside this, the quantum auto-regressive distributed delay model (QARDL) [14] is being studied in Malaysia, in order to analyse the impact of economic growth, tourism, transport and globalisation on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The results of this study suggest that ecotourism is beneficial for economic growth in underdeveloped areas, in favour of protection and development. The long-term vision is that governments should encourage the development of low-carbon ecotourism and achieve green development of both tourism and the economy. All in all, the aim is to promote green consumption through policies and the ethical consideration between the local communities, the relevant agencies and the tourists. Such a mechanism will ensure responsibility in the behaviours towards the natural environment of the tourist destinations of the country.
Finally, the last Asian country listed in Table 3, Thailand [15], analyses all the elements mentioned in the previous research, adding the negative influence of high crime levels on tourism. It concludes the only solution to protect the tourism industry involves clean energy promotion by the government, and the application of biofuel use in the transport sectors to improve environmental sustainability.
Spain represents one of the developed economies in Europe with the most remarkable natural and cultural heritage. Destinations are consolidated and there are tourist policies in most established destinations, together with promotion for recovery and not extinction. One of the most significant activities corresponds to wilderness tourism, which usually begins to thrive after all stages of general tourism development, in an effort to satisfy a desire for outdoor recreation and appreciation of nature in large areas. It is related to development and sustainable tourism, so it refers to natural habitats and its biodiversity. In this context, natural parks, conservation areas, ecotourism, agricultural tourism, the rural environment and the involvement of the communities in the area of implementation are incredibly important [25]. This is why three consolidated projects have been chosen, projects of three national parks in Spain out of fifteen that are today included in the list [26].
Figure 1 presents a panoramic view of Ordesa National Park (Huesca, Spain) [16]. In the visitor’s guide, there is a map showing the location of the park in the north of the peninsula, located in the heart of the Pyrenees in the autonomous community of Aragon. A media guide (with pictures of the landscapes) can also be found. In the fact sheet of the informative brochure, there are useful addresses and recommendations for visiting and appreciating this park. The sheet also highlights that the place has been designated as a World Heritage Site, Global Geopark and Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO, and that it has also been awarded the European Diploma by the Council of Europe. There is accurate information about cultural aspects (customs and traditions), flora, fauna, and information about relevant visitor centres and information points. At Ordesa National Park, there is a plan for the recovery of bearded vultures and for the tracking of the chamois. It’s working towards improving the quality of visits, reducing the impact created of vehicles and permitting access to the park at any time during the fixed opening times. This has been known as the Visitor Access Plan in the Ordesa Valley since 1998.
Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park (Huesca, Spain). Source: https//
Figure 2 presents the Tablas de Daimiel National Park [17], a wetland that is considered virtually unique in Europe, and that is the only example of floodplains in an ecosystem, which was once characteristic of the inland plains of the peninsula. This ecosystem originates from the flooding that occurs in a plain when the Guadiana and Cigüela rivers jointly overflow at a point where they both discharge groundwater coming from a large aquifer. The preservation of this ecosystem has ensured the survival of the bird fauna, and has created a specific area for aquatic birds. The park is internationally acknowledged for being a Biosphere Reserve since 1981 and a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention since 1982. It has a wide range of aquatic birds and, among the flora, the aquatic plants that comprise the substrate of the Tablas de Daimiel are of special importance. For the promotion of the park, a visitor’s guide, park guide and media guide (with pictures of the landscapes) are available.
Tablas de Daimiel National Park (Ciudad Real, Spain). Source: https//
Figure 3 shows the Timanfaya National Park, located in the western central area of Lanzarote, one of the Canary Islands (Spain) [18]. It was designated a Biosphere Reserve in 1993. It has undergone continuous volcanic processes, specifically in 1730, 1736 and 1824; with eruptions that completely changed the previous island’s morphology. Some natural values are volcanology (especially the preservation and beauty of the Montañas del Fuego or the Macizo de Timanfaya), the geomorphological forms, the scarce vegetation and the unique weather conditions. Visitors can get acquainted with these natural values while doing tours in small groups led by qualified guides.
Timanfaya National Park (Lanzarote, Spain). Source: https//
The park management team also organises activities for students, with the purpose of teaching them about nature and culture and to introduce them to the park’s flora and fauna, cultural and historical values, agricultural activities, restoration of native crops, fishery, scientific activities and environmental volunteering. In the media guide, wonderful pictures of natural landscapes are shown, with unique volcanoes that make this a valuable and a high-quality tourist visit.
Projects with proposals are another kind of case report, classified as intermediate level, so that in the future the eco-tourism destinations can become consolidated projects.
Finally, the
The panoramic and urban settings together make up the cultural landscapes. This specifically refers to historical towns, where the cultural tourists come and combine the feeling of the trip during their stay with the contemplative experience of the historic heritage. The protection of landscapes and heritage values led to the introduction of landscape conservation in urbanism and spatial planning during the 80s and 90s, and encouraged the valuing of landscapes as an enriching element by means of tourism [28]. Cultural landscapes are, in short, the result of people’s interaction with the natural environment over time, the result of which is a territory perceived and valued for its cultural qualities, which express a process and the support of a community’s identity. It represents a dynamic, complex reality which is difficult to manage [29].
Research on the perception and assessment of the
With regards to the interests of the cultural tourist during the visit (Table 4), visiting panoramic viewpoints of the town is highlighted in first place (4.29), second, visiting monuments and seeing museums (4.20) and, in third place, taking guided tours around the different viewpoints of the town, from outside and inside (4.01). In the end, the activities that generate most satisfaction for the cultural tourist during the visit can be classified into the five activities set out below: the views of the whole town and its interiors (4.45), visiting monuments (4.38), interacting with people from the town (4.21), viewing natural landscapes (4.04), and the atmosphere of the streets and public squares (4.01).
Interests of the cultural tourist during the visit to the historical towns | Mode | |
---|---|---|
-Visit panoramic viewpoint of the town. | 4.29 | 5 |
-Visit monuments and see museums. | 4.20 | 5 |
-Take guided tours of the different viewpoint of the town, from outside and inside. | 4.01 | 5 |
-Views of the whole city and its interiors. | 4.45 | 5 |
-Visiting monuments. | 4.38 | 5 |
-Interacting with people from the town. | 4.21 | 5 |
-Viewing natural landscapes. | 4.04 | 5 |
-Atmosphere of streets and public squares. | 4.01 | 5 |
Interests of the cultural tourist and activities during the visit to historical towns.
Source: own elaboration [20.]
Our last block in Table 3 relates to South American countries with developing economies, natural and cultural attractions, and activities determined by sustainable tourism. In most cases, their destinations are unspoiled/developing, with tourism projects based on sustainability, three of which have been selected:
The
Eco-cultural tourism is aimed at meeting the needs and problems that traditional and/or conventional tourism has set aside during its development phase and economic success. It is a central core piece around which alternative forms of tourism will develop, and acts as a counterweight in the resolution of the imbalances and inequalities created. It’s returning to the original form of tourism, a beginning
The first steps of eco-cultural tourism are found in the ecotourism which was born out of the United Nations in 2012 to eradicate poverty—with the participation of the locals—, protect the environment and incorporate sustainable development. The 80s showed remarkable economic benefits in areas such as natural tourism, and comes together at different points with sustainable tourism and community tourism. Dangi and Jamal [30] carefully examined the chronology of sustainable community tourism, which resulted in the existence of integration approaches at a local-global level with community development. They also determined that good governance, guided by clearly defined ethical principles and justice, closed the local-global gap and guided the development and management of tourism.
These new improvements, along with the demands of the modern tourist, have led to ecotourism consolidating itself as eco-cultural tourism, which promotes sociocultural and traditional values, environmental awareness, and benefits to rural and urban communities. Additionally, it opens up possibilities to develop economies at various levels for public and private enterprises, and offers the enjoyment of a unique high-quality experience. The responses given to climate change issues and the imbalances from economic globalisation are made possible through the planning of local sustainable development, comprising all tourism sectors involved in the creation of a Tourism Project, an Application Phase and the Evaluation of the structured project.
The methodology used in the study of eco-cultural tourism, uses the global and local levels of tourist destinations located in countries with emerging economies (Asia: China, Malaysia, Thailand), developed countries (Europe: Spain) and developing nations (South America: Peru, Argentina, Bolivia). This highlights the need for a local level planning, which is endorsed by all tourism agents and has an accessible economic and environmental load capacity and balance. Promoting planned tourist areas will be possible with the support of government policies, aimed at progressively implementing clean energies, promoting the growth of undeveloped areas and including citizens in the evolution of tourism economies. Our initial hypothesis is confirmed and the path towards the logistic change of sustainable development is aimed at the protection and conservation of natural and cultural heritage.
I give thanks to the InetchOpen editorial for inviting me to participate write a book, directed and supervised by Sayd Abdul Rehman Khan, on tourism that reflects the current situation of the sector in today’s world and during this period marked by the COVID-19 pandemic.
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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. 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At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/354979",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"354979"},fullPath:"/profiles/354979",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()