Bark beetle species that cause significant amounts of tree mortality in coniferous forests of the western U.S.
\r\n\tAdvances in mathematics, models, computational techniques, dynamic analysis, etc. are employed in Principal Component Analysis, where this book presents the more important.
\r\n\r\n\tComputational techniques, dynamic analysis, probabilistic methods, and mathematical optimization techniques are expertly blended to support the analysis of Principal Component Analysis with defined constraints and requirements.
\r\n\tThe book is focused on graduate students and professionals in industrial engineering, business administration, industrial organization, operations management, applied microeconomics, and the decisions sciences, either studying maintenance, or who are required to solve large, specific, and complex maintenance management problems as part of their jobs. The work will also be of interest to researchers from academia.
Bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae), a large and diverse group of insects consisting of ~550 species in North America and >6,000 species worldwide, are primary disturbance agents in coniferous forests of the western U.S. Population levels of a number of species (<1%) oscillate periodically, often reaching densities that result in extensive tree mortality when favorable climatic (e.g., droughts) and forest conditions (e.g., dense stands of susceptible hosts) coincide (Table 1). The genera
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Arizona fivespined ips | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
California fivespined ips | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Douglas-fir beetle | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
eastern larch beetle | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
fir engraver | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Jeffrey pine beetle | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
mountain pine beetle* | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
northern spruce engraver | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
pine engraver | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
pinyon ips | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
roundheaded pine beetle | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
southern pine beetle | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
spruce beetle* | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
western balsam bark beetle | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
western pine beetle* | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Bark beetle species that cause significant amounts of tree mortality in coniferous forests of the western U.S.
*Species for which preventative insecticide treatments have been well studied.
Host selection and colonization behavior by bark beetles are complex processes. Following initial attacks and subsequent mating, adults lay eggs in the phloem and larvae excavate feeding tunnels in this tissue and/or the outer bark. Depending on the bark beetle species and the location and severity of feeding, among other factors, this process may result in mortality of the host tree. Top-kill and/or branch mortality are not uncommon. Following pupation, adult beetles of the next generation tunnel outward through the bark and initiate flight in search of new hosts. The lifecycle may be repeated once every several years or several times a year depending on the bark beetle species, geographic location and associated climatic conditions. Extensive levels of tree mortality may result in host replacement by other tree species and plant associations, and may impact timber and fiber production, water quality and quantity, fish and wildlife populations, aesthetics, recreation, grazing capacity, real estate values, biodiversity, carbon storage, endangered species and cultural resources.
While native bark beetles are a natural part of the ecology of forests, the economic and social impacts of outbreaks can be substantial. Several tactics are available to manage bark beetle infestations and to reduce associated levels of tree mortality. While these vary by bark beetle species, current tactics include tree removals that reduce stand density (thinning) and presumably host susceptibility [1]; sanitation harvests [1]; applications of semiochemicals (i.e., chemicals produced by one organism that elicit a response, usually behavioral, in another organism) to protect individual trees or small-scale stands (e.g., <10 ha) [2]; and preventative applications of insecticides to individual trees. The purpose of this chapter is to synthesize information on the efficacy, residual activity, and environmental safety of insecticides commonly used to protect trees from bark beetle attack so that informed, judicious decisions can be made concerning their use.
Preventative applications of insecticides involve topical sprays to the tree bole (bole sprays) or systemic insecticides injected directly into the tree (tree injections) [3]. Systemic insecticides applied to the soil are generally ineffective. In an operational context, only high-value, individual trees growing in unique environments or under unique circumstances are treated. These may include trees in residential (Fig. 1), recreational (e.g., campgrounds) (Fig. 2) or administrative sites. Tree losses in these environments result in undesirable impacts such as reduced shade, screening, aesthetics, and increased fire risk. Dead trees also pose potential hazards to public safety requiring routine inspection, maintenance and eventual removal [4], and property values may be negatively impacted [5]. In addition, trees growing in progeny tests, seed orchards, or those genetically resistant to forest diseases may be considered for preventative treatments, especially if epidemic populations of bark beetles exist in the area. During large-scale outbreaks, hundreds of thousands of trees may be treated annually in the western U.S., however once an outbreak subsides (i.e., generally after one to several years) preventative treatments are often no longer necessary.
Tree mortality attributed to western pine beetle in San Bernardino County, California, U.S. In the wildland urban interface, tree losses pose potential hazards to public safety and costs associated with hazard tree removals can be substantial. Furthermore, property values may be significantly reduced. The value of these trees, cost of removal and loss of aesthetic value often justify the use of insecticides to protect trees from bark beetle attack during an outbreak. Photos: C.J. Fettig, Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service.
Conditions before (left) and after (right) a spruce beetle outbreak impacted the Navajo Lake Campground on the Dixie National Forest, Utah, U.S. Daily use decreased substantially due to reductions in shade, screening and aesthetics associated with mortality and removal of large diameter overstory trees. Photos: A.S. Munson, Forest Health Protection, USDA Forest Service.
Although once common, insecticides are rarely used today for direct or remedial control (i.e., subsequent treatment of previously infested trees or logs to kill developing and/or emerging brood). While remedial applications have been demonstrated to increase mortality of brood in treated hosts, there is limited evidence of any impact to adjacent levels of tree mortality. Furthermore, there are concerns about the effects of remedial treatments on non-target invertebrates, specifically natural enemy communities. Many of these species respond kairomonally to bark beetle pheromones and host volatiles, and their richness increases over time [6], suggesting that the later remedial treatments are applied the more likely non-target organisms will be negatively impacted.
Insecticide sales and use in the U.S. are regulated by federal (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA) and state (e.g., California Department of Pesticide Regulation in California) agencies. Therefore, product availability and use vary by state. EPA regulates all pesticides under broad authority granted in two statutes, (1) the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) that requires all pesticides sold or distributed in the U.S. to be registered; and (2) the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act that requires EPA to set pesticide tolerances for those used in or on food. EPA may authorize limited use of unregistered pesticides or pesticides registered for other uses under certain circumstances. Under Section 5 of FIFRA, EPA may issue experimental use permits that allow for field testing of new pesticides or uses. Section 18 of FIFRA permits the unregistered use of a pesticide in a specific geographic area for a limited time if an emergency pest condition exists. Under Section 24(c) of FIFRA, states may register a new pesticide for any use, or a federally-registered product for an additional use, as long as a "special local need" is demonstrated.
A complete list of active ingredients and products used for protecting trees from bark beetle attack is beyond our scope as availability changes due to cancellations, voluntary withdraws, non-payment of annual registration maintenance fees, and registration of new products at federal and state levels. Several studies have been published on the efficacy of various classes, active ingredients, and formulations that are no longer registered [e.g., benzene hexachloride (Lindane®)]. Therefore, we limit much of our discussion to the most commonly used and/or extensively-studied products (Fig. 3). A list of products registered for protecting trees from bark beetle attack can be obtained online from state regulatory agencies and/or cooperative extension offices, and should be consulted prior to implementing any treatment. Furthermore, all insecticides registered and sold in the U.S. must carry a label. It is a violation of federal law to use any product inconsistent with its labeling. The label contains abundant information concerning the safe and appropriate use of insecticides (e.g., signal words, first aid and precautionary statements, proper mixing, etc.). For tree protection, it is important to note whether the product is registered for ornamental and/or forest settings, and to limit applications to appropriate sites using suitable application rates.
The carbamate carbaryl and pyrethroids bifenthrin and permethrin are commonly used to protect trees from bark beetle attack in the western U.S. Several formulations are available and effective if properly applied. Residual activity varies with active ingredient, bark beetle species, tree species, geographic location, and associated climatic conditions. Photos: C.J. Fettig, Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service.
When evaluating preventative treatments one of three experimental designs is generally used. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Laboratory assays require trapping and/or rearing of live bark beetles for inclusion in experiments. Captured individuals are immediately transported to the laboratory, identified and sorted. Damaged (e.g., loss of any appendages), weakened, or beetles not assayed within 48 h after collection should be discarded. Generally, serial dilutions of each insecticide are prepared, and toxicity is determined in filter paper or topic assays [7]. The life-table method is used to estimate the survival probability of test subjects to different doses of each insecticide [7]. Filter paper assays more closely approximate conditions under which toxicants are encountered by bark beetles during host colonization, especially for products other than contact insecticides [7], but both methods ignore important environmental factors (e.g., temperature, humidity and sunlight) and host tree factors (e.g., architecture) that influence efficacy. However, results are rapidly obtained with limited risk and loss of scientific infrastructure compared to field studies.
A second design involves field assays in which insecticides are applied to an experimental population of ~25−35 uninfested trees [8]. Trees are often baited with a bark beetle species-specific attractant to increase beetle “pressure” and challenge the treatment following application. Efficacy is based on tree mortality and established statistical parameters [8]. This design is accepted as the standard for evaluating preventative treatments for tree protection in the western U.S., and provides a very conservative test of efficacy [9]. However, it is laborious, time-consuming (i.e., generally efficacy is observed for at least two field seasons) and expensive. Experimental trees may be lost to woodcutting or wildfire, and ≥60% of the untreated control trees must die from bark beetle attack to demonstrate that significant bark beetle pressure exists in the area or the experiment fails and results are inconclusive [8]. Some have argued that the design is perhaps too conservative as under natural conditions aggregation pheromone components would not be released for such extended periods of time as often occurs with baiting. Finally, bark beetles may initiate undesirable infestations near experimental trees as a result of baiting, which may be unacceptable under some circumstances.
The "hanging bolt” assay [10], “small-bolt” assay [11] and similar variants have received limited attention in the western U.S. Typically, insecticides are applied to individual, uninfested trees that are later harvested and cut into bolts for inclusion in laboratory and/or field experiments. Alternatively, freshly-cut bolts may be treated directly in the laboratory. Efficacy is often based on measures of attack density or gallery construction by adult beetles. Compared to [8], these methods allow for rapid acquisition of data; reduced risk of loss to scientific infrasture; and increased probability that a rigorous test will be achieved as bolts are transported to active infestations or brought into the laboratory and exposed to beetles. While these methods account for some host factors (e.g., bark architecture), others such as host defenses and environmental factors are ignored. Furthermore, the hanging bolt and small bolt assays do not provide an estimate of tree mortality, while the effectiveness of any preventative treatment is defined by reductions in tree mortality.
Topical applications to protect trees from bark beetle species such as western pine beetle,
A common method of protecting trees from bark beetle attack is to saturate all surfaces of the tree bole using a ground-based sprayer at high pressure. Photos: C.J. Fettig, Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service.
Bole sprays are typically applied in late spring prior to initiation of the adult flight period for the target bark beetle species. However, bole sprays require transporting sprayers and other large equipment, which can be problematic in high-elevation forests where snow drifts and poor road conditions often limit access. Additionally, many recreation sites (e.g., campgrounds) where bole sprays are frequently applied occur near intermittent or ephemeral streams that are associated with spring runoff, limiting applications in late spring due to restrictions concerning the use of no-spray buffers to protect non-target aquatic organisms. For these and other reasons, researchers are evaluating alternative timings of bole sprays and less laborious delivery methods.
Carbaryl is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that prevents the cholinesterase enzyme from breaking down acetylcholine, increasing both the level and duration of action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which leads to rapid twitching, paralysis and ultimately death. Carbaryl is considered essentially nontoxic to birds, moderately toxic to mammals, fish and amphibians, and highly toxic to honey bees,
Pyrethroids are synthesized from petroleum-based chemicals and related to the potent insecticidal properties of flowering plants in the genus
Researchers attempting to find safer, more portable and longer-lasting alternatives to bole sprays have evaluated the effectiveness of injecting small quantities of systemic insecticides directly into the lower bole. Early work indicated that several methods, active ingredients and formulations were ineffective [e.g., 13,42-44]. In recent years, the efficacy of phloem-mobile active ingredients injected with pressurized systems (e.g., Sidewinder® Tree Injector, Tree I.V. micro infusion® and Wedgle® Direct-Inject™) capable of maintaining >275 kPA have been evaluated for engraver beetles, mountain pine beetle, southern pine beetle, spruce beetle, and western pine beetle (Fig. 5). These systems push adequate volumes of product (i.e., generally less than several hundred ml for even large trees) into the small vesicles of the sapwood [45]. Applications take <15 minutes per tree under most circumstances. Following injection, the product is transported throughout the tree to the target tissue (i.e., the phloem where bark beetle feeding occurs). Injections can be applied at any time of year when the tree is actively translocating, but time is needed to allow for full distribution of the active ingredient within the tree prior to the tree being attacked by bark beetles. Under optimal conditions (e.g., adequate soil moisture, moderate temperatures and good overall tree health) this takes ~4 weeks [46], but may take much longer, particularly in high-elevation forests. Tree injections represent essentially closed systems that eliminate drift, and reduce non-target effects and applicator exposure, but efficacy is often less than that observed for bole sprays in high-elevation forests [40]. Significant advancements in the development of this technology have been made in recent years, but tree injections are still rarely used in comparison to bole sprays in the western U.S. With the advent of designer formulations of insecticides specific for tree injection, we suspect that tree injections will become a more common tool for protecting trees from bark beetle attack in the near future, particularly in areas where bole sprays are not practical (e.g., along property lines or within no-spray buffers).
Experimental injections of emamectin benzoate for protecting trees from western pine beetle attack in Calaveras County, California, U.S. (left), and mountain pine beetle attack in the Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest, Utah, U.S. (right). Photos: C.J. Fettig, Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service (left) and D.M. Grosman, Texas A&M Forest Service (right).
Emamectin benzoate is a macrycyclic lactone derived from avermectin B1 (= abamectin) by fermentation of the soil actinomycete
The experimental formulation of emamectin benzoate was ineffective for protecting lodgepole pine from mountain pine beetle attack in Idaho [40], which agrees with field studies conducted in British Columbia and Colorado (D.M.G., unpublished data). Site conditions such as ambient temperatures, soil temperatures and soil moistures may help explain the lack of efficacy observed in these studies as these factors may slow product uptake and translocation within trees in high-elevation forests [40]. As such, failures for protecting lodgepole pine from mountain pine beetle attack were initially attributed to inadequate distribution of the active ingredient following injections made ~5 weeks prior to trees coming under attack by mountain pine beetle [40]. The authors commented that injecting trees in the fall and/or increasing the number of injection points per tree could perhaps increase efficacy. Currently, spring and fall applications of TREE-age™ are being evaluated for protecting lodgepole pine from mortality due to mountain pine beetle attack in Utah. Results for fall treatments are very promising (Table 2).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
Spring injection | \n\t\t\t10 ml | \n\t\t\t33% | \n\t\t
Fall injection | \n\t\t\t10 ml | \n\t\t\t0% | \n\t\t
Untreated control (yr 1) | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t80% | \n\t\t
Untreated control (yr 2) | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t60% | \n\t\t
The effectiveness of injections of emamectin benzoate (TREE-age™) into the lower bole of lodgepole pine for reducing levels of tree mortality due to mountain pine beetle attack, Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest, Utah, U.S., 2009-2011.
Abamectin (= avermectin B1) is a natural fermentation product of the soil actinomycete
Fipronil is a phenyl pyrazole that disrupts the insect central nervous system by blocking the passage of chloride ions through the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor and glutamate-gated chloride channels. This results in hyperexcitation of contaminated nerves and muscles and ultimately death. Fipronil is of low to moderate toxicity to mammals, highly toxic to fish, aquatic invertebrates, honeybees and upland game birds, but is practically nontoxic to waterfowl and other bird species. Fipronil reduced levels of tree mortality due to engraver beetles, including sixspined ips, on stressed trees in Texas [46]. However, fipronil is ineffective for protecting loblolly pine from southern pine beetle [47] and Engelmann spruce from spruce beetle [40,48]. While results are inconclusive [40, 48], fipronil does not appear effective from reducing levels of lodgepole pine mortality due to mountain pine beetle attack in Utah or ponderosa pine mortality due to western pine beetle attack in California. Thus, registration is not being pursued at this time.
Most data on the deposition, toxicity, and environmental fate of insecticides in western forests come from aerial applications to control tree defoliators, and therefore are of limited applicability to bole sprays or tree injections used to protect trees from bark beetle attack. [49] studied the effects of lindane, chlorpyrifos and carbaryl on a California pine forest soil arthropod community by spraying normal levels of insecticide, and levels five times greater than would be operationally used to protect trees from bark beetle attack. The authors concluded carbaryl was least disruptive to the soil arthropod community [49]. Persistence and movement of 2.0% carbaryl within soils of wet and dry sites has been evaluated [50]. The highest concentrations of carbaryl were detected within the uppermost soil layers (upper 2.54 cm), with levels exceeding 20 ppm 90 d after application on most sites [50].
Carbaryl is relatively nontoxic to
Werner and Hilgert [53] monitored permethrin levels in a freshwater stream adjacent to Lutz spruce that were treated with 0.5% permethrin (Pounce®) to prevent spruce beetle attack. Treatments occurred within 5 m of the stream. Maximum residue levels ranged from 0.05 ± 0.01 ppb 5 h after treatment to 0.14 ± 0.03 ppb 8-11 h after treatment, declining to 0.02 ± 0.01 ppb after 14 h. Levels of permethrin in standing pools near the stream were 0.01 ± 0.01 ppb. Numbers of drifting aquatic invertebrates increased two-fold during treatment and four-fold 3 h after treatment and declined to background levels within 9 h. Trout fry, periphyton and benthic invertebrates were unaffected [53].
Two studies have been published on the amount of drift resulting from carbaryl applications to protect trees from bark beetle attack. In the early 1980s, [54] used spectrophotofluorometry to analyze ground deposition from the base of the ponderosa pine to 12 m from the bole in California. In a more recent study, [14] used high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to evaluate ground deposition occurring at four distances from the tree bole (7.6, 15.2, 22.9 and 38.1 m) during conventional spray applications for protecting individual lodgepole pine from mountain pine beetle attack, and Engelmann spruce from spruce beetle attack. Despite substantial differences in these methods (i.e., spectrophotofluorometry limits detection of finer particle sizes that are accounted for with HPLC), they yielded some similar results. For example, [14] reported application efficiencies of 80.9% to 87.2%, while [54] reported values of >80%. Furthermore, [14] found no significant difference in the amount of drift occurring between lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce at any distance from the tree bole despite differences in application rate and pressure, while [54] reported drift was similar between two methods applied at 276 kPa and 2930 kPa. However, [14] reported higher levels of ground deposition further away from the tree bole, which is expected given use of HPLC, a more sensitive method of detection.
Average drift following experimental applications of carbaryl to protect trees from bark beetle attack, Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest, Utah, U.S. Data obtained from Fettig et al. (2008). Wind speed was correlated with drift up to 22.9 m from the tree bole, and direction largely influenced the direction of prevailing drift. For example, while deposition is detected at 38.1 m on the leeward side of treated trees (maximum wind speeds averaged 3.5 km/h), drift is undetectable less than half that distance on the windward side. Less drift is expected in dense forest stands due to reduced wind speeds and interception by foliage. Studies show no-spray buffers will ensure that adjacent aquatic and terrestrial environments are protected from negative impacts.
Fettig et al. [14] reported mean deposition values from 0.04 ± 0.02 mg carbaryl/m2 at 38.1 m to 13.30 ± 2.54 mg carbaryl/m2 at 7.6 m. Overall, distance from the tree bole significantly affected the amount of deposition. Deposition was greatest 7.6 m from the tree bole and declined quickly thereafter. Approximately 97% of total spray deposition occurred within 15.2 m of the tree bole (Fig. 6). To evaluate the potential risk to aquatic environments, the authors converted mean deposition to mean concentration assuming a water depth of 0.3 m selected to represent the average size of lotic systems, primarily small mountain streams, adjacent to many recreational sites where bole sprays are often applied [14]. No adjustments were made for the degradation of carbaryl by hydrolysis, which is rapid in streams or for dilution by natural flow. Comparisons were made with published toxicology data available for select aquatic organisms. No-spray buffers of 7.6 m are sufficient to protect freshwater fish, amphibians, crustaceans, bivalves and most aquatic insects. In laboratory studies, carbaryl was found to be highly toxic to stoneflies (Plecoptera) and mayflies (Ephemeroptera), which are widely distributed and important food sources for freshwater fishes, but negative impacts in field populations are often short-lived and undetectable several hours after contamination [55]. No-spray buffers >22.9 m appear sufficient to protect the most sensitive aquatic insects such as stoneflies.
An advantage of tree injections is that they can be used on environmentally-sensitive sites as these treatments represent an essentially closed system and therefore little or no contamination occurs outside of the tree. However, following injection residues move within the tree and are frequently detected in the foliage [e.g., 44,56-57], which could pose a risk to decomposers and other soil fauna when needles senesce. This has been shown for imidacloprid in maple [57], but injections of emamectin benzoate in pines appear of little risk. For example, [56] reported emamectin benzoate was not detected in the roots or the surrounding soil, but was present at 0.011–0.025 µg/g in freshly fallen pine needles. However, levels gradually declined to below detectable thresholds after 2 months [56].
The results of the many studies presented in this chapter indicate that preventative applications of insecticides are a viable option for protecting individual trees from mortality due to bark beetle attack. Bole sprays of bifenthrin, carbaryl and permethrin are most commonly used. Several formulations are available and effective if properly applied. Residual activity varies with active ingredient, bark beetle species, tree species and associated climatic conditions, but generally one to three years of protection can be expected with a single application. Recent advances in methods and formulations for individual tree injection are promising, and further research and development is ongoing. We expect the use of tree injections to increase in the future. In general, preventative applications of insecticides pose little threat to adjacent environments, and few negative impacts have been observed. We hope that forest health professionals and other resource managers use this publication and other reports to make informed, judicious decisions concerning the appropriate use of preventative treatments to protect trees from mortality due to bark beetle attack. Additional technical assistance in the U.S. can be obtained from Forest Health Protection (USDA Forest Service) entomologists (www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/), state forest entomologists, and county extension agents (www.csrees.usda.gov/Extension/). We encourage use of these resources before applying any insecticides to protect trees from bark beetle attack.
We thank Stanislav Trdan (University of Ljubljana) and Romana Vukelic and Danijela Duric (InTech) for their invitation to contribute and guidance during the publishing process. Numerous colleagues from Arborjet Inc., BASF, Bayer ES, Bureau of Land Management (U.S.), FMC Corp., Fruit Grower’s Supply Co., Mauget Inc., Nevada Division of Forestry, Sierra Pacific Industries, Southern Ute Reservation, Syngenta Crop Protection, Texas A&M Forest Service, Univar USA Inc., University of Arizona, University of California, University of Georgia, and USDA Forest Service have contributed to the success of much of the research discussed in this chapter. We are thankful for their support and helpful insights.
This publication concerns pesticides. It does not contain recommendations for their use, nor does it imply that the uses discussed here have been registered. All uses of pesticides in the United States must be registered by appropriate State and/or Federal agencies. CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish or other wildlife—if they are not handled or applied properly. Follow recommended practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and their containers.
The last 10 years in the world scientific community there are heated discussions about the ways of development of modern energy. The conservative part of scientists believes that hydrocarbon energy based on the use of coal, oil and gas will remain the main source of heat and electricity for economically developed countries for a long time. There are grounds for this view. Hydrocarbon reserves on earth are still quite large. The hydrocarbon industry has a well-established infrastructure. There are enterprises for the production of the necessary equipment, enterprises for the construction and maintenance of energy facilities, scientific results to improve the efficiency of electricity generation in this way.
The advantages of the traditional energy system based on hydrocarbons, is faced with many problems and contradictions. These contradictions are growing every year and, ultimately, can lead to a crisis of traditional energy, if you do not attempt to develop alternative energy.
One of the reasons is the rise in the cost of hydrocarbon production. Cheap oil, gas and coal have already have used. We have to penetrate to great depths under the earth’s surface, to work at the bottom of the ocean, to explore the remote Northern areas for mining. It may not be economically feasible after all.
The second very important reason is environmental problems. Nature has been creating an ecological balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere for millions of years. Hydrocarbon power industry disturbs this balance. Humanity has not yet fully appreciated the consequences of this imbalance. The crisis can affect more than just climate change. The next step is a violation in nature. At the final stage, problems will arise in the social community. But, probably, it will be too late to solve these problems.
Very little is said about the low efficiency of traditional energy. The highest efficiency of thermal power plants is about 30%. According to various estimates, their share in the global energy balance ranges from 60 to 70%. These figures show that we heat our planet and clog it with emissions of production. Nature will inevitably take revenge on humanity for these actions.
The development of technical systems has its own laws with its stages of development [1]. Qualitatively, this process is shown in Figure 1.
Stages of development of technical systems.
At the first stage, the technical system is born. This is the stage of laboratory research and scientific analysis. This stage requires a lot of effort from scientists. As a rule, this stage requires large financial investments in scientific research and is not commercial.
At the second stage, the technical system is developing very quickly. Industrial production shows great interest in the system, because it gives a commercial result.
At the third stage, the technical system comes to the saturation phase. Staying at a high level, it has exhausted its resources. The pace of its development is very slow. Further investment of finances in its development does not give a commercial result.
At the fourth last stage of its development, the technical system is in decline. Industry is losing interest in its reproduction. It becomes unprofitable.
Hydrocarbon energy has more than 150 years of its development. According to various experts, it finishes the second phase of its development and moves into the third phase. The third phase can last for several decades and will inevitably come the phase of decline.
The theory of development of technical systems determines that in this process at a certain stage of development of the first system, the second alternative technical system is born. At first, it is difficult to compete with the dynamically developing first system, but it goes through all 4 phases of development and replaces the first technical system when it comes to decline.
This function is currently performed by alternative energy. Figure 2 shows this tendency.
Forecast of alternative energy development.
The question arises in what direction and how to develop alternative energy.
Alternative energy includes different types:
Geo thermal energy;
Water power energy;
Bio gas energy;
Solar energy;
Wind energy.
The diagram shows that the share of wind energy in the total balance is the largest today.
Among others renewables the windmills are the most developing devices due to several advantages:
Wind is the endless power source.
It is an ecologically clean device.
Wind energy trends should be taken into account. It is shown in Figure 3.
Share of wind energy in the total balance of alternative energy.
It should be noted that the wind turbines are really environmentally friendly devices. They do not produce harmful emissions during their work and do not require dirty technology for their manufacture. In the production of solar panels are used a harmful production. Thus, the development of wind energy is an urgent task.
Wind turbines can be classified into the following types by output power
wind turbines of low power (up to 10 kW);
wind turbines of average power (from 10 to 100 kW);
high power wind turbines (more than 100 kW).
Wind power plants have many versions, but they can be divided into two main types
Wind turbines with horizontal axis of rotation;
Wind turbines in the vertical axis of rotation;
The efficiency of the wind wheel of a wind turbine is defined as the ratio of the mechanical power on the shaft to the power of the wind flow. It depends on the wind speed and the design of the wind wheel. The maximum efficiency for different wind turbines is shown in Figure 4.
Different designs of wind wheels and their efficiency.
Wind turbine is a complex technical device. It consists of many components and parts [2, 3, 4]. The design of the wind turbine with a horizontal axis of rotation is shown in Figure 5.
The main elements of the wind turbine with a horizontal axis of rotation.
The most important elements of the wind turbine are an electric alternator and an electronic control system. The efficiency of the entire wind turbine depends on the correct choice of the alternator type.
It is necessary to solve very serious problem for using windmills effectively [5, 6, 7].
The main problem of windmill’s energy is the changing of the speed and the direction of wind flow. Thus, the windmill rotor rotates with a different speed and alternator gives the voltage with variable parameters of amplitude, frequency and phase (Figure 6). It is impossible to use this nonstandard energy. It is necessary to transform the nonstandard energy to the energy with standard parameters [4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Illustration of wind turbine operation.
In practice some methods to solve this problem are known.
1. Application of asynchronous (induction) alternator.
Figure 7 shows the design of the inductor alternator.
Design of the inductor alternator.
The disadvantages of this method are:
It is necessary to supply the reactive energy for working of the induction alternator. Such windmills can work only with electric grid or with battery of capacitors;
When induction alternator works with electric grid it uses the reactive power and makes parameters worse.
2. Application of permanent magnet synchronous alternator with rectifier and invertor.
Figure 8 shows the design of synchronous alternator.
Design of the synchronous alternator.
The disadvantages of this method are:
They are many stages for transforming the nonstandard energy to standard energy (the rectification, the stabilization, the inversion). Every stage has his own loses and efficiency. So, the total efficiency is very low.
The equipment for this method is very expensive.
3. Application of an asynchronous synchronous alternator (double fed inductor alternator) (DFIA)
Figure 9 shows the design of the double fed alternator.
Design of the asynchronous synchronous alternator (1, wind turbine; 2, rotor; 3, Stator; 4, rotor; 3 phases winding; 5, electronic control system; 6, rotating magnetic field; 7, Stator 3 phases winding).
This type of alternator can transform the nonstandard energy into standard energy without complex units and without additional stages of energy conversion. This is a new approach to solving the problems of wind energy. This Chapter will be devoted to the description of this promising wind turbine.
It is well-known the principle of operation of the double-fed alternator [12, 14, 15, 16]. Electric machine of this type has been studied by scientists around the world since 1960. It has different applications, but in wind power it is used only for the last 10 years. The authors offer a unique design that they have developed for a row of wind power plants. The design has a Russian patent. It is described below.
The alternator consists of two electric machines. The main electric machine is a power alternator. It is the induction machine with a phase rotor. So, the stator and the rotor have three phase windings. The alternator has the inverse design. It means that the rotor is settled outside of stator. It is very comfortable for the windmill because it is possible to attach the blades to the rotor. The three phase rotor winding is supplied by an adjustable voltage source. The rotor creates the rotating magnet field. This magnet field generates the voltage in the stator winding. If the rotor is fixed the speed of rotation of magnet field depends only from frequency of voltage source. But if the rotor begins to rotate, the speed of magnet field is added to the speed of rotor rotation. So, the total speed of magnet field is combined with two parts. We can change the frequency of the adjustable three phase voltage sources. When the speed of rotor is variable we can choose the necessary frequency of voltage source and we will have the stable frequency in the stator winding. In this way, we solve the problem of voltage frequency stabilization with different speed of rotor rotation. The amplitude of stator voltage is regulated by amplitude of rotor winding voltage.
But it is necessary to solve one serious problem to provide the reliability to windmill. It is impossible to use the sliding contact for windmill because it is very difficult to serve this device at height and in a difficult environment. The system has the second alternator (exciter) for brushless current supply. The brushless electric machine with combine excitation is used for the exciter. This type of electric machine has the stable external voltage with different speed of rotation. It is very comfortable in this case. In details, this type of electric machine is described in [1, 4, 19].
The sketch of alternator with exciter, 3D model and diagram of electronic control system is present in Figures 10–12. They allow understanding the principle of operation more carefully.
Sketch of double-fed alternator with exciter. (1, rotor of power alternator; 2, stator of power alternator; 3, rotor of excitation alternator; 4, stator of exciter alternator).
3D model of the windmill alternator.
Diagram of electronic control system.
The electronic control system is built in to the alternators. This concept allows having very high efficiency and very low cost.
This idea was realized for the windmill 10 kW but the concept can be scaled to megawatts sizes.
The beginning of the work in the field of the theory of DFIA was initiated by the research in the late 1960s — early 1970s by the laboratory of double feeding machines under the guidance of doctors of technical sciences M. Botvinnik and Yu. G. Shakaryan [20].
The results of these works were the development of the foundations of the theory, structural schemes, principles of construction, as well as the creation of a number of experimental and industrial installations.
In a double-feed machine, energy is supplied (or withdrawn) to both the stator and rotor windings. This allows you to control the flow of active and reactive power of the dual-feed machine. The expediency of using DFIA is observed in the construction of alternator sets with a variable speed of rotation of the shaft, which is very important for wind power plants.
The stator windings of the machine are connected to the power supply network (U1 = const, f1 = const), and the rotor windings are connected to a separate controlled power source (active semiconductor converter ASC).
There are various options for implementing a controlled power supply in the rotor circuit. A scheme of independent rotor power supply is interested in wind power plants (Figure 13).
Controlling of rotor power.
The active Converter is a three-phase bridge circuit of the inverter, made on transistors. The main property of the active Converter is the ability to two-way transmission of active power. When transmitting power from an AC source, ASC acts as an active controlled rectifier (ACR). When transmitting power from the DC link, ASC acts as an Autonomous Inverter (AI). Such structures allow you to control the flow of active and reactive power between the supply network and the machine.
The main advantages of DFIA are as follows:
Control is carried out on the rotor circuit; this makes the high energy efficiency of the system.
DFIA can operate at speeds above and below synchronous, both in motor mode and in alternator mode. Therefore, when using DFIA as a alternator, there are no difficulties with stabilizing the parameters of the generated voltage when changing the speed of the shaft rotation, which is important for wind turbines.
Modes of operation, vector and energy diagrams.
Theoretically, the following operating modes of DFIA are possible:
motor mode at a speed below synchronous;
motor mode at a speed above synchronous;
alternator mode at a speed higher than synchronous;
alternator mode at a speed below synchronous.
In all these modes, the system of equations describing the electromagnetic processes of the machine in a steady state using the method of the resulting vector [21], has the form:
where
Equivalent circuit of the DFIA: a) T-shaped equivalent circuit; b) G-shaped equivalent circuit.
Let us transform the T-shaped equivalent circuit into a G-shaped equivalent circuit.
Conversion factor is:
We write down the equations for the G-shaped equivalent circuit (3)
The following should be taken into account when assessing energy flows
The active power in the source is positive when the source gives energy and negative when the source consumes energy.
The reactive power in the source is positive (inductive) when the voltage is ahead of the current, and negative (capacitive) when the voltage is behind the current.
The mechanical power on the shaft is positive in the motor mode of your operation and negative in the generator mode of your operation. Active and reactive power sources
In the direction of the mechanical power acting on the shaft, the modes can be divided into motor mode and generator mode.
We consider only all generator modes for a wind turbine.
The mechanical power reported to the shaft of the machine at n < n0 (Figure 15) and the electrical power obtained by the rotor through a semiconductor converter, are transmitted to the stator and after deduction of losses are recovered to the grid.
Vector diagram and energy diagram of DFD in generator mode at n < n0.
Energy diagrams of the generator mode DFIA at n > n0 are shown in Figure 16. In this mode, the mechanical power supplied to the shaft from the rotor side is converted into electrical power. Part of this power is given to the network from the rotor side. The other part is given to the stator circuit in the form of electromagnetic power and after deduction of losses is recovered in the network.
Vector diagram and energy diagram of DFD in generator mode at n > n0.
The balances of power in the various modes are summarized in Table 1.
Slide | Generator mode |
---|---|
s | P1 + Pm= |
s | Pm= |
Balance of DFIA active powers depending on operating modes.
A system of equations should be solved to quantify the properties of DFIA. This solution is carried out in a rotating coordinate system x (real axis) and y (imaginary axis). In this case, the voltage U1 is combined with the real axis x, and for the secondary voltage the ratio U2m
The total current of the rotor and stator are calculated by the formula:
The electromagnetic moment is determined from the equation:
The energy properties of the MIS are determined after the calculation of the currents from the equations according to the following expressions.
Electromagnetic losses are calculated by the expression
These equations can be used to model DFIA in Mathlab (Figures 17–19).
Virtual laboratory setup for DFIA studies with independent controlling.
Electromagnetic and electromechanical characteristics of DFIA with independent control in generator mode at U2m < U1.
Electromagnetic and electromechanical characteristics of DFIA with independent control in generator mode at U2m > U1.
We present the main characteristics obtained on the model.
Assessing the properties of DFIA in the generator mode, we can draw the following conclusions:
The area of unstable operation is in a rather narrow zone of positive slides.
At U2m ≤ U1 in the sliding range from 0 to −1, the reactive power consumed from the network is mainly positive (inductive).
At U2 > U1 in the sliding range from 0 to −1, the reactive power consumed from the network is always negative (capacitive).
In case of significant sliding, the DFIA is a source of torque.
This property is extremely useful when performing the DFIA generator function when the shaft speed varies widely.
The design of complex technical systems such as DFIA in the digital age should be based on the application of nonlinear programming techniques for synthesis and analysis.
There are a large number of CAD systems for the analysis of electromagnetic and thermal state of electric machines. Application of the Ansys software package will be shown below.
For the synthesis of electric machines, there are no fully developed techniques. Developers are forced to form a design system for each new type of machine.
DFIA operates in a wide range of mechanical and electrical loads. For its effective operation in all modes, it is necessary to determine the optimal geometry of the magnetic system and the anchor windings.
It should be noted that the problem of optimal design of electric machines remains quite complex and not fully solved [5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. This is due to the choice of optimization method, the formalization of independent variables and the definition of quality indicators of the electric machine. Until now, the optimal design problems remain very important and relevant in electrical engineering.
Optimizations should be understood as the process of selecting the best option for a large number of possible options. Indicators of the quality of the best option are the optimality criteria. As a rule, there are several optimality criteria in the computational model, and in the most General case there is a need to solve a multi-criteria problem. It should be noted that the solution of multi-criteria problem is quite difficult. This is due to the fact that the optimality criteria are in a contradictory relationship. Improvement of one criterion leads to deterioration of others. So the increase in efficiency leads to an increase in the mass and volume of the product, the improvement of the output voltage parameters to the complication of electronics, cost reduction to a decrease in reliability. The experience of optimal design in electrical engineering shows that the task of multi-criteria optimization is quite complex. It is poorly formalized. The existing methods of its solution are subjective and the success of their application depends on the experience of the developer. For this reason, we formulate a one-criterion optimization problem for the generator. Practice shows that such problems are solved successfully and efficiently. It should be noted that the optimality criterion can be changed depending on the current project situation.
We formulate the problem of single-criterion optimization of DFIA in the classical formulation [2, 3]: for the given parameters (specific performance, materials, initial data of the technical task), under the given restrictions, it is necessary, making a search of independent variables by a certain algorithm, to determine the geometry that would provide the extreme value of the selected criteria. There can be several optimality criteria, but depending on the project situation one is chosen for optimization.
The flowchart of the single-criterion optimization problem is shown in Figure 20.
Block diagram of the single-criterion optimization problem.
The data of the technical task are taken as constants in the problem.
As constraints are the technical requirements for dimensions and permissible loads.
As criteria of optimality it is possible to accept the quality indicators which have received the greatest distribution in practice, for example: the minimum mass of active materials; the minimum volume of magnetic system, the maximum possible at the set electromagnetic loadings of efficiency.
The choice of independent variables is a separate and rather complex task.
The independent variables for the optimization problem must meet the following basic requirements:
they should be visual and have a clear physical meaning;
they should be effective, that is, their change should bring the calculation closer to the optimal design in the minimum number of iterations;
they should have clear boundaries of change, it is desirable that the optimum is not on the border. This will make it difficult to choose optimization methods.
Analysis of the characteristics of the DFIA generator shows that its energy efficiency and specific energy performance are less dependent on specific linear dimensions, such as the height and width of the slot, the size of the back of the stator and inductor. To a greater extent, the energy of the machine depends on the ratio of the areas of the active zones, for example, the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the anchor to the cross-sectional area of the machine, the ratio of the area of the slotted zone to the area of the anchor, the ratio of the area of the slots to the area of the slotted zone, etc. Selecting these relative parameters as independent variables is very convenient. They have clear boundaries of change from 0 to 1, show the optimal ratio of the active zones involved in the energy conversion; their optimal values vary in a small range when the size changes over a wide range.
The idea of using these variables is not new. It was used for the synthesis of traction motors of rolling stock [22], and later, for the development of design methods of valve torque DC motors [3]. However, for dual power generators, this technique has not previously been used. Let us give these variables the term “generalized variables”, which reflect their physical nature, and define them for DFIA.
For the asynchronous-synchronous machine, it is convenient to allocate 6 generalized variables:
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Once again, we emphasize the visibility and clear physical meaning of the introduced generalized variables.
The above six generalized variables allow us to accurately calculate the basic dimensions of the magnetic circuit of the DFIA but for the product of this calculation it is necessary to set the initial parameter from which the further calculation will be made. As this parameter, it is most convenient to take the outer diameter of the stator of the electric machine, since most often this parameter is set by the terms of reference.
Taking as the initial parameter the outer diameter of the stator of the electric machine simple mathematical transformations allow from expressions (10), (11), (12), (13), (14), (15), print the equations that determine the basic geometric dimensions of the magnetic circuit of the double-feed machine (see Figure 27):
Variable
where
Variable
The variable
The variable
where
The variable
where δ is the air gap;
The variable
where
Cross-sectional sketch of DFIA.
Thus, for a known outer diameter and given generalized variables defined by expressions (10–15), the transverse geometry of DFIA can be uniquely determined. On the basis of the accepted variables, a mathematical model of the generator was developed, which was used to optimize the geometry of a number of wind power plants based on DFIA. As a block optimizer used an algorithm that combines the method of coordinate-wise descent Gauss-Seidel with the Fibonacci method.
The main advantage of the generalized variables is their visibility, due to the fact that they have a clear physical meaning and can independently act as criteria for the quality of the electric machine. The second advantage is that the generalized variables have a fixed range of changes [0;1], which allows to apply optimization algorithms to the mathematical model [5, 18], built on the basis of these variables.
On the basis of this technique and with the use of the algorithm, DFIA with output power of 10 kV, line voltage 380 V and synchronous speed of 50 rpm with the required optimality criteria—maximum efficiency and minimum weight—was calculated . The calculation time of the program written in Delphi for six independent generalized variables was about 30 seconds, which is quite acceptable.
At the stage of DFIA synthesis the method of substitution schemes was used, which contains equations in integral form. This is due to the fact that a simplified calculation model is required for optimization. This model should allow the calculation of a large number of options to select the best option.
A thorough analysis of the results after optimization is required. This analysis should use accurate methods. The finite element method is such an accurate method [2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 23].
The software package Ansys Electronics Desktop allows you to perform analysis of electromagnetic and fields in an electric machine. The application of the program for the analysis of DFIA is shown below.
The data of alternator is:
Rated output power, (kW) | 10 |
Rated voltage, (V) | 380 |
Frequency, (Hz) | 50 |
Rated speed, (RPM) | 60 |
Mass, (kg) | 1200 |
Outline sizes (mm*mm) | 1260*320 |
The calculation in Maxwell Ansys can be divided into three stages:
Analysis of the model using the RMxprt;
Analysis of the model using Maxwell2D on the basis of already created models in RMxprt;
Analysis of the model using the Maxwell3D on the basis of the model created in RMxprt.
The program Ansys Electronics Desktop has a very developed interface. This makes it easier to use.
At the first stage, when working with RMxprt, it is enough to fill in special forms. They include geometrical dimensions, winding data and nominal parameters of the machine. The mathematical model of calculation is made on the basis of a method of schemes of substitution therefore are carried out within 1 min. The program calculates all the necessary parameters and characteristics.
At the second stage, the program automatically creates a 2D model of the generator, splits it into finite elements, sets the boundary conditions and current loads. To simplify the calculations, the program determines the axial symmetry and solves the problem of calculating the field taking into account the periodicity condition. The resulting characteristics are obtained by multiplying the results by the number of symmetric fragments.
To test the generator, the following numerical experiment was carried out: the different rotation frequency of the generator shaft (0, 10, 60 and 100) rpm was set. For these speeds, the frequency of the excitation winding supply and the current in the excitation winding were selected so that the nominal voltage was obtained at the generator output.
The results of the analysis are presented below (Figures 28–31).
The analysis of the magnetic field at frequency of rotation of 10 rpm.
EMF of anchor winding (10 rpm).
Anchor currents (10 rpm).
The voltage of the exitating winding (10 rpm).
Tables 2 and 3 show the main electrical parameters of the generator obtained experimentally.
Rotational speed, rpm | Stator voltage (RMS), V | Load current (RMS), А | Excitation winding voltage (RMS), V | Excitation winding current(RMS), A |
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 236 | 15.05 | 148.0 | 26.3 |
10 | 235 | 14.95 | 137.0 | 26.25 |
60 | 232 | 14.43 | 74.5 | 26.0 |
100 | 233 | 14.59 | 2.8 | 31.85 |
Generator voltages and currents depending on speed.
Rotational speed, rpm | Output power, kW | Excitation power, kW | Mechanical power on shaft, kW | Total power, kW | Efficiency |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 10.65 | 11.67 | 0.00 | 11.54 | 0.912 |
10 | 10.54 | 10.78 | 0.55 | 21.03 | 0.93 |
60 | 10.05 | 5.81 | 4.55 | 19.72 | 0.97 |
100 | 10.20 | 0.267 | 10.03 | 19.41 | 0.99 |
Generator p depending on speed.
The results of the numerical experiment show that the output voltage and power have stable values when the rotation frequency of the generator shaft changes from a braked state to 10 RPM. It is very important for wind turbines.
Thus, the main problem of wind power to obtain standard parameters of electricity at different wind speeds is solved through the use of DFIA.
Wind power plants must be highly reliable. This is due to the fact that the generator is located at high altitude, works in different climatic zones, and it is very difficult to carry out repair work in these conditions.
This requirement makes the supply of electricity to the rotor without sliding contact.
In the proposed generator, a second built-in electric machine is used to solve this problem.
But it is possible to apply another technical solution. Batteries can be used to power the electrical circuits of the rotor if placed on a rotating part (Figure 32). In this case, the exiting alternator can be excluded. The battery pack will additionally function as a storage device [4].
In practice it is impossible to use windmills without energy storage devices. It is necessary for us to have a stable energy supply but wind has unstable action.
Nowadays the storage batteries are the acceptable energy storage devices taking in consideration the reliability and cost. The double-fed alternator allows combining two concepts (creating the standard energy and storage energy) at one device. In sketch, it is possible to see that the rotor has enough place for allocation the batteries (Figure 32).
DFIA design with built-in rechargeable batteries.
These batteries can solve two problems. They are:
The electric energy storage.
The supplying the electric energy to electronic control system. This solution allows extending the limits of the windmill working operation. Indeed, for short time, it is possible to use windmill with fixed rotor when we have no wind.
Nowadays the development of windmill industry is holding back by one serious problem. It is very difficult to transform with high efficiency the nonstandard energy to the standard energy. The using of the induction alternators or the synchronous alternators cannot solve this problem with good results. As a rule in this case we have low efficiency, complex design and high total cost. The problem is becoming more difficult when you make attempt to build the row of windmills from small power to big power (10 kW–1 MW). The concept of the DFIA proves to be very effective for solving windmills problems. It is possible to transform the nonstandard energy in to the standard energy with high efficiency. Windmills may operate as stand-alone or grid tied. It is possible to build the row of windmills with the same design. But the main reason of the application the DFIA is the low total cost of windmill and electronic control system. The new design of this concept is presented. The concept is confirmed by the complex engineering calculations and the manufacturing of the prototypes.
This concept can be used for design of windmill row with output power up to 1 MW.
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These molecules can derive from the grape, in which the non-volatile forms are usually present as glycosylated molecules, the metabolic activities of yeast and bacteria, the chemical reactions taking place during the wine aging and storage, and the environment. The sulfur compounds include molecules positively correlated to the aromatic profile of wine, namely the volatile thiols, and are responsible for certain defects, imparting notes described as cabbage, onion, rotten egg, garlic, sulfur and rubber. Due to the low concentration of these molecules in wine, their high reactivity and the matrix complexity, the analytical methods which enable their detection and quantification represent a challenge. The solid phase microextraction (SPME) technique has been developed for sulfur compounds associated with off-flavors. The analysis of volatile thiols usually requires a derivatization followed by gas chromatography (GC)-MS or UPLC-MS methods. Besides the sulfur-containing aromas, another sulfur compound that deserves mention is the reduced glutathione (GSH) which has been widely studied due to its antioxidant properties. The analysis of GSH has been proposed using a liquid chromatography technique (HPLC or UPLC) coupled with fluorescence, MS and UV detectors.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Daniela Fracassetti and Ileana Vigentini",authors:[{id:"207271",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Fracassetti",slug:"daniela-fracassetti",fullName:"Daniela Fracassetti"},{id:"220967",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Vigentini",slug:"ileana-vigentini",fullName:"Ileana Vigentini"}]},{id:"66619",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85692",title:"Contribution of the Microbiome as a Tool for Estimating Wine’s Fermentation Output and Authentication",slug:"contribution-of-the-microbiome-as-a-tool-for-estimating-wine-s-fermentation-output-and-authenticatio",totalDownloads:1094,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Wine is the alcoholic beverage which is the product of alcoholic fermentation, usually, of fresh grape must. Grape microbiome is the source of a vastly diverse pool of filamentous fungi, yeast, and bacteria, the combination of which plays a crucial role for the quality of the final product of any grape must fermentation. In recent times, the significance of this pool of microorganisms has been acknowledged by several studies analyzing the microbial ecology of grape berries of different geographical origins, cultural practices, grape varieties, and climatic conditions. Furthermore, the microbial evolution of must during fermentation process has been overstudied. The combination of the microbial evolution along with metabolic and sensorial characterizations of the produced wines could lead to the suggestion of the microbial terroir. These aspects are today leading to open a new horizon for products such as wines, especially in the case of PDO-PGI products. The aims of this review is to describe (a) how the microbiome communities are dynamically differentiated during the process of fermentation from grape to ready-to-drink wine, in order to finalize each wine’s unique sensorial characteristics, and (b) whether the microbiome could be used as a fingerprinting tool for geographical indication, based on high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies. Nowadays, it has been strongly indicated that microbiome analysis of grapes and fermenting musts using next-generation sequencing (NGS) could open a new horizon for wine, in the case of protected designation of origin (PDO) and protected geographical indication (PGI) determination.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Dimitrios A. Anagnostopoulos, Eleni Kamilari and Dimitrios Tsaltas",authors:[{id:"180885",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dimitris",middleName:null,surname:"Tsaltas",slug:"dimitris-tsaltas",fullName:"Dimitris Tsaltas"},{id:"203761",title:"MSc.",name:"Dimitris",middleName:null,surname:"Anagnostopoulos",slug:"dimitris-anagnostopoulos",fullName:"Dimitris Anagnostopoulos"},{id:"271801",title:"Ms.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kamilari",slug:"elena-kamilari",fullName:"Elena Kamilari"}]},{id:"67444",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86443",title:"Somatic Variation and Cultivar Innovation in Grapevine",slug:"somatic-variation-and-cultivar-innovation-in-grapevine",totalDownloads:1036,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Paradoxically, continuous vegetative multiplication of traditional grapevine cultivars aimed to maintain cultivar attributes in this highly heterozygous species ends in the accumulation of considerable somatic variation. This variation has long contributed to cultivar adaptation and evolution under changing environmental and cultivation conditions and has also been a source of novel traits. Understanding how this somatic variation originates provides tools for genetics-assisted tracking of selected variants and breeding. Potentially, the identification of the mutations causing the observed phenotypic variation can now help to direct genome editing approaches to improve the genotype of elite traditional cultivars. Molecular characterization of somatic variants can also generate basic information helping to understand gene biological function. In this chapter, we review the state of the art on somatic variation in grapevine at phenotypic and genome sequence levels, present possible strategies for the study of this variation, and describe a few examples in which the genetic and molecular basis or very relevant grapevine traits were successfully identified.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano, Carolina Royo, Nuria Mauri, Javier Ibáñez and José Miguel Martínez Zapater",authors:[{id:"287215",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez Zapater",slug:"jose-miguel-martinez-zapater",fullName:"Jose Miguel Martinez Zapater"},{id:"287226",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Ibáñez",slug:"javier-ibanez",fullName:"Javier Ibáñez"},{id:"300441",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Carbonell-Bejerano",slug:"pablo-carbonell-bejerano",fullName:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano"},{id:"300442",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Royo",slug:"carolina-royo",fullName:"Carolina Royo"},{id:"300444",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Mauri",slug:"nuria-mauri",fullName:"Nuria Mauri"}]},{id:"59216",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73132",title:"Potential for Use of the Residues of the Wine Industry in Human Nutrition and as Agricultural Input",slug:"potential-for-use-of-the-residues-of-the-wine-industry-in-human-nutrition-and-as-agricultural-input",totalDownloads:1259,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The use of underutilized resources, with the aim of increasing productivity and creating wealth, will increasingly deserve the attention of the wine sector. The treatment of agricultural by-products will increasingly enter the priority agenda of the agribusiness sector, with a view to its use, the environment’s re-cleanliness and, in many cases, whenever possible, for both purposes. Solid waste from the process of grape industrialization, when not adequately disposed, is aggressive to the environment. Such residues release significant amounts of liquid effluents when disposed in the soil, and this liquid contains high content of nutrients, organic matter, and other elements that can change the environment, especially of streams and sources, causing the death of aquatic beings. However, if properly used, they can be used as raw materials for other purposes. The solid residues of industrially processed grapes, which may have some potential economic interest, are pomace, seeds, liquid (lees), and other materials. In this context, this chapter presents the description of these by-products and their potential for use.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Renato Vasconcelos Botelho, Gabriela Datsch Bennemann,\nYohandra Reyes Torres and Alessandro Jefferson Sato",authors:[{id:"64335",title:"Prof.",name:"Renato",middleName:"Vasconcelos",surname:"Botelho",slug:"renato-botelho",fullName:"Renato Botelho"},{id:"208714",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Datsch Bennemann",slug:"gabriela-datsch-bennemann",fullName:"Gabriela Datsch Bennemann"},{id:"208715",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohandra",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes Torres",slug:"yohandra-reyes-torres",fullName:"Yohandra Reyes Torres"},{id:"208716",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Jefferson",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"alessandro-jefferson-sato",fullName:"Alessandro Jefferson Sato"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58638",title:"Occurrence and Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Wine",slug:"occurrence-and-analysis-of-sulfur-compounds-in-wine",totalDownloads:1953,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Sulfur compounds play an important role in the sensory characteristics of wine. These molecules can derive from the grape, in which the non-volatile forms are usually present as glycosylated molecules, the metabolic activities of yeast and bacteria, the chemical reactions taking place during the wine aging and storage, and the environment. The sulfur compounds include molecules positively correlated to the aromatic profile of wine, namely the volatile thiols, and are responsible for certain defects, imparting notes described as cabbage, onion, rotten egg, garlic, sulfur and rubber. Due to the low concentration of these molecules in wine, their high reactivity and the matrix complexity, the analytical methods which enable their detection and quantification represent a challenge. The solid phase microextraction (SPME) technique has been developed for sulfur compounds associated with off-flavors. The analysis of volatile thiols usually requires a derivatization followed by gas chromatography (GC)-MS or UPLC-MS methods. Besides the sulfur-containing aromas, another sulfur compound that deserves mention is the reduced glutathione (GSH) which has been widely studied due to its antioxidant properties. The analysis of GSH has been proposed using a liquid chromatography technique (HPLC or UPLC) coupled with fluorescence, MS and UV detectors.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Daniela Fracassetti and Ileana Vigentini",authors:[{id:"207271",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Fracassetti",slug:"daniela-fracassetti",fullName:"Daniela Fracassetti"},{id:"220967",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Vigentini",slug:"ileana-vigentini",fullName:"Ileana Vigentini"}]},{id:"57497",title:"Recovering Ancient Grapevine Varieties: From Genetic Variability to In Vitro Conservation, A Case Study",slug:"recovering-ancient-grapevine-varieties-from-genetic-variability-to-in-vitro-conservation-a-case-stud",totalDownloads:1767,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"A great number of varieties have been described in grapevine; however, few of them are currently in use. The increasing concern on varietal diversity loss has encouraged actions for recovering and preserving grapevine germplasm, which represents valuable resources for breeding as well as for diversification in grapevine-derived products. On the other hand, it is expected that this important crop, which is distributed in warm areas worldwide, will suffer the climate changes. Therefore, it is also convenient the identification of intravarietal variability and the recovery of accessions well adapted to particular environments. In this chapter, we will contribute to highlight the importance of recovering ancient materials, the usefulness of SSR markers to determine their molecular profile, the importance to analyze their virus status, and the possibilities that offer biotechnological tools for virus sanitation and in vitro storage as a complement of field preservation. In this context, we have evaluated different grapevine accessions and developed in vitro culture protocols for micropropagation, sanitation, and storage grapevine cultivars. In this work, we report the results obtained for the historic variety “Valencí Blanc” (or “Beba”) and the historic and endangered variety “Esclafagerres” (“Esclafacherres” or “Esclafacherris”).",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Carmina Gisbert, Rosa Peiró, Tania San Pedro, Antonio Olmos,\nCarles Jiménez and Julio García",authors:[{id:"207745",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmina",middleName:null,surname:"Gisbert",slug:"carmina-gisbert",fullName:"Carmina Gisbert"},{id:"207748",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Peiró",slug:"rosa-maria-peiro",fullName:"Rosa María Peiró"},{id:"207749",title:"Ms.",name:"Tania",middleName:null,surname:"San Pedro Galán",slug:"tania-san-pedro-galan",fullName:"Tania San Pedro Galán"},{id:"207750",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Olmos",slug:"antonio-olmos",fullName:"Antonio Olmos"}]},{id:"58633",title:"The Evolution of Polyphenols from Grapes to Wines",slug:"the-evolution-of-polyphenols-from-grapes-to-wines",totalDownloads:2021,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Polyphenols play an important role in the quality of wines, due to their contribution to the wine sensory properties: color, astringency and bitterness. They act as antioxidants, having positive role in human health. They can be divided into non-flavonoid (hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids and stilbenes) and flavonoid compounds (anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols and flavonols). Anthocyanins are responsible for the color of red grapes and wines, hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids act as copigments, stilbenes as antioxidants and the flavan-3-ols are mainly responsible for the astringency, bitterness and structure of wines, being involved also in the color stabilization during aging. This chapter will focus on the chemical structures of the main polyphenols, their identification and quantification in grapes and wines by advanced analytical techniques, highlighting also the maceration and aging impact on the polyphenols evolution. The factors influencing the phenolic accumulation in grapes are also reviewed, emphasizing as well the relationship between phenolic content in grapes versus wine. Polyphenolic changes during the wine making process are highlighted along with the main polyphenol extraction methods and analysis techniques. This research will contribute to the improvement in the knowledge of polyphenols: their presence in grapes, the relationship with wine quality and the influence of the external factors on their evolution.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Nadia Paun and Roxana-Elena Ionete",authors:[{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete"},{id:"206056",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Niculescu",slug:"violeta-niculescu",fullName:"Violeta Niculescu"},{id:"207020",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"nadia-paun",fullName:"Nadia Paun"}]},{id:"67760",title:"Production and Marketing of Low-Alcohol Wine",slug:"production-and-marketing-of-low-alcohol-wine",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Moderate wine consumption may be associated with specific health benefits and a healthy lifestyle. However, increased amounts of ethanol are cytotoxic and associated with adverse health outcomes. Alcohol reduction in wine might be an avenue to reduce alcohol related harm without forcing consumers to compromise on lifestyle and benefit from positive aspects of moderate consumption. The aim of this review is to give an overview of viticultural and pre and post fermentation methods to produce low-alcohol wine, and to summarize the current evidence on the consumer acceptance and behaviour related to low-alcohol wine. Strategies for the labelling and marketing of wines with reduced alcohol content are discussed.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Tamara Bucher, Kristine Deroover and Creina Stockley",authors:[{id:"289140",title:"Dr.",name:"Creina",middleName:null,surname:"Stockley",slug:"creina-stockley",fullName:"Creina Stockley"},{id:"289141",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamara",middleName:null,surname:"Bucher",slug:"tamara-bucher",fullName:"Tamara Bucher"},{id:"289142",title:"Ms.",name:"Kristine",middleName:null,surname:"Deroover",slug:"kristine-deroover",fullName:"Kristine Deroover"}]},{id:"57946",title:"Microbiological, Physical, and Chemical Procedures to Elaborate High-Quality SO2-Free Wines",slug:"microbiological-physical-and-chemical-procedures-to-elaborate-high-quality-so2-free-wines",totalDownloads:1613,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the most preservative used in the wine industry and has been widely applied, as antioxidant and antibacterial agent. However, the use of sulfur dioxide implicates a range of adverse clinical effects. Therefore, the replacement of the SO2 content in wines is one of the most important challenges for scientist and winemakers. This book chapter gives an overview regarding different microbiological, physical, and chemical alternatives to elaborate high-quality SO2-free wines. In the present chapter, original research articles as well as review articles and results obtained by the research group of the Wine Technology Center (VITEC) are shown. This study provides useful information related to this novel and healthy type of wines, highlighting the development of winemaking strategies and procedures.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego, Miquel Puxeu, Laura Martín, Enric Nart, Claudio\nHidalgo and Imma Andorrà",authors:[{id:"207221",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrer-Gallego",slug:"raul-ferrer-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego"},{id:"208597",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",middleName:null,surname:"Puxeu",slug:"miquel-puxeu",fullName:"Miquel Puxeu"},{id:"208598",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",slug:"laura-martin",fullName:"Laura Martín"},{id:"208599",title:"Mr.",name:"Enric",middleName:null,surname:"Nart",slug:"enric-nart",fullName:"Enric Nart"},{id:"208600",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"claudio-hidalgo",fullName:"Claudio Hidalgo"},{id:"208601",title:"Dr.",name:"Imma",middleName:null,surname:"Andorrà",slug:"imma-andorra",fullName:"Imma Andorrà"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1410",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81659",title:"State-of-the-Art Knowledge about 2,4,6-Trichloroanisole (TCA) and Strategies to Avoid Cork Taint in Wine",slug:"state-of-the-art-knowledge-about-2-4-6-trichloroanisole-tca-and-strategies-to-avoid-cork-taint-in-wi",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103709",abstract:"Cork stoppers have been used for many centuries to seal wine in various vessels. Therefore, corks have become a traditional part of wine packaging in many countries and still play an important role for the entire wine industry. Nowadays, there is a wide option of bottle cork stoppers on the market, such as natural corks, agglomerated and technical stoppers (1 + 1), etc. These cork closures have a number of advantages, including positive sustainable and ecological aspects. Natural cork material can also be responsible for cork taint, which imparts musty/moldy or wet cardboard off-odors to the wine. However, corks are not the only source of cork taint in wine, as will be shown in the present chapter. Over the past decades, a number of compounds have been detected that can contribute to the cork taint. Among them, haloanisoles play a major role, in particular 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which has been shown to be responsible for 50–80% or more of musty defect cases in wine. Currently, the cork and wine industries have developed a number of tools and technologies to effectively prevent cork tait in wine or to remove it if the wine is already contaminated. These practical as well as analytical questions about the TCA defects are the subject of the actual chapter.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Andrii Tarasov, Miguel Cabral, Christophe Loisel, Paulo Lopes, Christoph Schuessler and Rainer Jung"},{id:"78620",title:"Table Grapes: There Is More to Vitiviniculture than Wine…",slug:"table-grapes-there-is-more-to-vitiviniculture-than-wine",totalDownloads:141,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99986",abstract:"Table grapes are fruits intended for fresh human consumption due to their sensory attributes and nutritional value. The objective of this chapter is to review the existing knowledge about table grapes, including a description of different varieties, with particular emphasis on the new highly appreciated seedless varieties. Following an introductory note on the world distribution and production of table grapes, also considering the impact of climate change, selected varieties of table grapes will be characterized in terms of their physiology, postharvest features, and consumer preferences. A morphological description of each variety, with emphasis on grape skin, grape rachis and grape cluster will be included. A final note on the drying of table grapes into raisins, and the most appropriate varieties for drying, will be given. The major changes occurring throughout the growth, development, and ripening phases of table grapes production will be discussed, regarding both physical (skin color and skin and pulp texture) and chemical (phenolic compounds, sugar content and acidity) parameters, as well as growth regulators.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Agulheiro-Santos, Marta Laranjo and Sara Ricardo-Rodrigues"},{id:"79500",title:"New Insights about the Influence of Yeasts Autolysis on Sparkling Wines Composition and Quality",slug:"new-insights-about-the-influence-of-yeasts-autolysis-on-sparkling-wines-composition-and-quality",totalDownloads:94,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101314",abstract:"Sparkling wines elaborated using the traditional method undergo a second fermentation in the bottle. This process involves an aging time in contact with the lees, which enriches the wine in various substances, especially proteins, mannoproteins and polysaccharides, thanks to the autolysis of the yeasts. As a result of this yeast autolysis, sparkling wines benefit from better integration of carbon dioxide and a clear sensory improvement, especially in the case of long aging. This chapter synthetizes the main results that our research group has obtained about the influence of yeasts autolysis on sparkling wines composition and quality during last years, making special emphasis on the capacity of the lees to release proteins and polysaccharides as well as on their capacity to consume oxygen and thus protect the sparkling wines from oxidation.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Pere Pons-Mercadé, Pol Giménez, Glòria Vilomara, Marta Conde, Antoni Cantos, Nicolas Rozès, Sergi Ferrer, Joan Miquel Canals and Fernando Zamora"},{id:"79110",title:"Microbial Decontamination by Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) in Winemaking",slug:"microbial-decontamination-by-pulsed-electric-fields-pef-in-winemaking",totalDownloads:80,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101112",abstract:"Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) is a non-thermal technique that causes electroporation of cell membranes by applying very short pulses (μs) of a high-intensity electric field (kV/cm). Irreversible electroporation leads to the formation of permanent conductive channels in the cytoplasmic membrane of cells, resulting in the loss of cell viability. This effect is achieved with low energy requirements and minimal deterioration of quality. This chapter reviews the studies hitherto conducted to evaluate the potential of PEF as a technology for microbial decontamination in the winemaking process for reducing or replacing the use of SO2, for guaranteeing reproducible fermentations or for wine stabilization.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Carlota Delso, Alejandro Berzosa, Jorge Sanz, Ignacio Álvarez and Javier Raso"},{id:"78993",title:"pH Control and Aroma Improvement Using the Non-Saccharomyces Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. Yeasts to Improve Wine Freshness in Warm Areas",slug:"ph-control-and-aroma-improvement-using-the-non-saccharomyces-lachancea-thermotolerans-and-hanseniasp",totalDownloads:90,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100538",abstract:"Lachancea thermotolerans is a yeast species that works as a powerful bio tool capable of metabolizing grape sugars into lactic acid via lactate dehydrogenase enzymes. The enological impact is an increase in total acidity and a decrease in pH levels (sometimes >0.5 pH units) with a concomitant slight reduction in alcohol (0.2–0.4% vol.), which helps balance freshness in wines from warm areas. In addition, higher levels of molecular SO2 are favored, which helps to decrease SO2 total content and achieve better antioxidant and antimicrobial performance. The simultaneous use with some apiculate yeast species of the genus Hanseniaspora helps to improve the aromatic profile through the production of acetyl esters and, in some cases, terpenes, which makes the wine aroma more complex, enhancing floral and fruity scents and making more complex and fresh wines. Furthermore, many species of Hanseniaspora increase the structure of wines, thus improving their body and palatability. Ternary fermentations with Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. sequentially followed by Saccharomyces cerevisiae are a useful bio tool for producing fresher wines from neutral varieties in warm areas.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Antonio Morata, Carlos Escott, Iris Loira, Juan Manuel Del Fresno, Cristian Vaquero, María Antonia Bañuelos, Felipe Palomero, Carmen López and Carmen González"},{id:"78970",title:"Alternatives to CU Applications in Viticulture. How R&D Projects Can Provide Applied Solutions, Helping to Establish Legislation Limits",slug:"alternatives-to-cu-applications-in-viticulture-how-r-d-projects-can-provide-applied-solutions-helpin",totalDownloads:180,totalDimensionsCites:2,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100500",abstract:"Copper (Cu) and its based preparations have been used for over 200 years to control fungi and bacterial diseases in cultivated plants. Downy mildew caused by the obligate biotrophic oomycete Plasmopara viticola is one of the most relevant and recurrent diseases of grapevines. Recently, the use of Cu is being limited by some regulations because of its high impact at different levels (health and environmental problems). Due to its accumulation in soil, this metal causes a little controversy with the principles of sustainable production. Therefore, international legislation and initiatives have recently been arisen to start limiting its use, with the main goal to replace it. In this framework, some alternatives have been tested and others are recently being developed to replace, at least partially, the use of Cu in viticulture. Many of them, are being developed and tested under the scope of research and development EU funded projects. To not compromise sustainability targets in viticulture, results from these R&D projects need to be considered to assess the present risks of using Cu in viticulture and to better support establishing limits for its applications, considering soils vulnerability, while no sustainable alternatives are available in the market.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Mario De La Fuente, David Fernández-Calviño, Bartosz Tylkowski, Josep M. 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Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"