Reliability statistics.
\r\n\tEqually important are the consequences deriving from the extraordinary nature of the present times. The COVID-19 pandemic and the restrictive measures to contain the infection (lockdown and "physical distancing" in primis) have revolutionized the lives, and a distortion/modification of habits, rhythms, arrangements will continue to be necessary.
\r\n\tGovernments have implemented a series of actions to mitigate the spread of infections and alleviate the consequent pressure on the hospital system. On the other hand, the Covid-19 pandemic has caused a series of other cascading effects that will probably be much more difficult to mitigate and which expose to complex consequences. The past two years have brought many challenges, particularly for healthcare professionals, students, family members of COVID-19 patients, people with mental disorders, the frail, the elderly, and more generally those in disadvantaged socio-economic conditions, and workers whose livelihoods have been threatened. Indeed, the substantial economic impact of the pandemic may hinder progress towards economic growth as well as progress towards social inclusion and mental well-being.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tAlthough in all countries the knowledge on the impact of the pandemic on mental health is still limited and mostly derived from experiences only partially comparable to the current epidemic, such as those referring to the SARS or Ebola epidemics, it is likely that the demand for intervention it will increase significantly in the coming months and years. The extraordinary growth of scientific research in the field of neuroscience now offers the possibility of a new perspective on the relationship between mind and brain and generates new scenarios in understanding the long wave of the pandemic and in the prospects for treatment. Moreover, the pandemic also has led to opportunities to implement remote monitoring and management interventions.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tOverall this volume will address the complex relationship existing between COVID-19, mental health, acquired knowledge, and possible interventions taking a highly multidisciplinary approach; from physiological and psychobiological mechanisms, and neuromodulation through medical treatment, psychosocial interventions, and self-management.
Mathematical modeling (simulation) of physical processes is an important tool for the study of the environment.
\nMathematical modeling is a means of studying the real objects, processes, or systems by replacing the real objects on the mathematical models, which are more comfortable to study with the aid of computers.
\nThe mathematical model is an approximate representation of real-world objects, processes, and systems, expressed in mathematical terms. In this case, a significant feature of original are saved from researcher’s point of view.
\nFirst of all, some definitions and some concepts are given for the convenience of exposition.
\nA
The functions of external influences and external loads that are present in the mathematical model of the object in the form of symbols will be called as models of
The initial conditions, boundary conditions, and other conditions for the mathematical model will be called as
The totality of the mathematical model of the object, models of external influences, and additional conditions will be called as a
The study of the behavior of the mathematical model of an object under the influence of models of external loads and additional conditions will be called as
The practical significance of the results of mathematical modeling or simulation of physical processes depends on the degree of coincidence of the results of mathematical modeling of the selected mathematical description of the real process with experimental data [1]. Such property of a mathematical description of a physical process is usually called
A mathematical description will be called as an
The definition of adequacy will be clarified later for some types of mathematical models.
\nIf the coincidence of the results of mathematical modeling with experiment is bad, then further use of these mathematical descriptions is problematic.
\nIt is note that authors of works on mathematical modeling concern seldom questions of adequacy of the constructed mathematical description of process to real measurements [2, 3, 4, 5]. Sometimes, such adequacy is proved by the real facts; sometimes, authors refer to results of other authors; and sometimes, there have not been any arguments.
\nThe considered situation requires formation of some uniform approach to this problem, common methodological approach, general algorithms, and common criteria of estimation of adequacy degree.
Currently, there are two main approaches to the problem of constructing an adequate mathematical description [1, 6, 7, 8]: for a mathematical model with a priori chosen structure and inaccurate parameters, a model of external influence is determined, which together with the mathematical model of the process provide the adequacy condition (coincidence with experiment);
a model of external loads is given a priori and then parameters of mathematical model or of its structure are selected, in such a way that results of mathematical simulation match up with experiment.
Having a comparison of the results of mathematical modeling with experimental data in definition of adequate mathematical description ensures the objectivity of the results of the synthesis of a mathematical description. In the literature, this approach is called as an identification method: estimation of the parameters of an adequate mathematical description based on the results of measurements of the characteristics of the state of the physical process [9, 10].
\nMathematical models of physical processes can be presented as systems of ordinary differential equations, systems of partial differential equations, algebraic relations, integral equations, etc.
\nIt should be noted that in many works, the accuracy of the results of mathematical modeling is several times lower than the accuracy of experimental data.
\nIn the given work, the mathematical models of physical processes described only by the system of the ordinary differential equations will be examined [2, 3]. Such idealization of real processes or dynamic systems is widely used in various areas for the description of control systems [11], as well as of mechanical systems with the concentrated parameters [5, 12], economic processes [13], biological processes [14], ecological processes [15], etc. In some works with the help of such systems, human emotions are simulated [16].
\nMany problems investigated in the given work, have place for other types of mathematical models of physical processes, for example, for mathematical models in the form of the partial differential equations.
\nThe chapter proposes several criteria for checking the adequacy of the constructed mathematical descriptions for cases when the mathematical model of the physical process is represented by a system of differential equations.
\nThe author hopes that the offered criteria of adequacy will be useful in a construction of the adequate mathematical descriptions of real physical processes.
\nConsider the specified criteria for mathematical descriptions in the form of a system of differential equations.
\nFor simplicity, we select the physical processes with mathematical models in the form of linear system of ordinary differential equations [17, 18, 19]:
\nwhere \n
We assume that state variables \n
By
The process of solving the system of differential Eq. (1) under the influence of selected models of external loads \n
\n
In practice, the measurement of the characteristics of state variables is limited to only one or two components. We formulate a refined definition of the adequacy of a mathematical description for the case of a single variable.
\n\n
For the rest of the variables, coincidence with experiment is not determined. Adequate mathematical descriptions are similarly determined in the case of several measurements of state variables. The metrics of comparison in this case is determined by the objectives of specific studies.
\nIn [12, 20], which were considered before, coincidence with experiment is 10 times below the accuracy of experiment.
\nThe criteria of mathematical description adequacy of quantitative type, which are offered in the given chapter, can be used for other types of mathematical descriptions of physical processes, for example, for mathematical descriptions in the form of the partial differential equations [21]. They have many common features.
\nIt can be shown that there are an infinite set adequate mathematical descriptions for the same physical experiment.
\nIn addition, qualitatively, different physical processes can have adequate mathematical descriptions for the same experiment.
\nThere exist two approaches to problem of construction of adequate mathematical description of quantitative type [22, 23]:
Mathematical model of process of type (1) is given a priori with inexact parameters and then the models of external loads were determined for which the results of simulation coincide with experiment [22, 23];
Some models of external loads are given a priori and then mathematical model of process of type (1) is chosen for which the results of simulation coincide with experiment [6, 7, 8].
Now, we will consider the synthesis of adequate mathematical description of quantitative type in the frame of first approach analyzing the process with the concentrated parameters, for which the motion is described by ordinary differential equations of n-order (1).
\nWe assume that some functions of state \n
Such method of obtaining of mathematical models of external loads (functions \n
Consider an example of a mathematical description that satisfies the criterion of the adequacy of a quantitative type for all variables \n
Now, we consider in detail, the problem in which the dynamics of the main mechanical lines of rolling mills is investigated [24, 25]. One variant of the kinematic scheme of it is presented in \nFigure 1\n. (a) where the engine is marked by label (1), the coupling is marked by label (2), gears is marked by label (3), driving shafts is marked by label (4), operational barrels is marked by label (5).
\nKinematic scheme of the main mechanical line of rolling mill.
The four-mass model with weightless elastic connections is chosen as mathematical model of dynamic system of the main mechanical line of the rolling mill [24, 25]. The system of vibrations equations is obtained from the Lagrang?s equations of second kind:
\nHere, the following designations were accepted: \n
Actually, the constructed mathematical model may correspond to real process and may not. It is necessary to check up correctness of the constructed mathematical model. For this purpose, the data of experiment are used. If the results of mathematical modeling coincide with results of experiment (with accuracy of measurements), then mathematical description of process is considered as adequate to a reality in the quantitative sense. In other words, the mathematical description corresponds to real process.
\nThe information related to the real motion of the main mechanical line of rolling mill was obtained by an experimental way [23, 24, 26]. Such information is being understood as availability of functions \n
The records of functions
It is obvious, that the results of mathematical modeling of system (4) depend directly on character of change of external loads, which is applied to operational barrels of the rolling mill and external impact of the engine \n
If such choice is possible, then mathematical model (4) combined with the found loads \n
According to this approach, it is necessary to construct such models of external loads \n
Consider the construction of an adequate mathematical description within the framework of the first approach. To construct, for example, a model \n
or
\nwhere
\nWe will assume that function \n
Let us rewrite the equation (5) in the more compact form
\nwhere z is the searched element,
Since the right-hand side \n
\n\n
The set of possible solutions \n
Each function in the set \n
In this case, the problem of identifying model of external load in the rolling mill is considered as the inverse of the synthesis problem [17].
\nIn this chapter, oscillograms of the moments of the forces of elasticity in the links of the main line of rolling mill 1150, obtained in [24, 25], are used. A copy of this oscillogram is shown in \nFigure 2\n. The value of \n
When synthesizing the model of external load on the lower work roll of the state, it is necessary to use the last differential equation in the system (4).
\nIn \nFigure 3\n, the graphs of the models of external loads on the upper and lower working rolls for rolling case shown on \nFigure 2\n.
\nThe results of identification (functions
Thus, models of external loads \n
Now, we consider another example of astrodynamical processes mathematical description, which has the property of adequacy of quantitative type in only one variable.
\nBased on theoretical analysis of mathematical vortex model of planetary systems, the analytical expression for planetary distances in the prevailing planetary systems was obtained. These distances are functions of the coordinates of the centers of vortical rings of primary planetary vortex. Comparison of theoretical and real distances planets of the Solar system show their good agreement.
\nKnown in the cosmogonic theories of the solar system, the law of Titsius-Bode (1772) of planetary distances \n
is a successful empirical approximation of the real sequence of distances \n
In the twentieth century, some attempts were made [28, 29] to theoretically obtain the law of planetary distances, but in the basis of these theories, the authors had to impose new arbitrary hypotheses. Schmidt [28] introduces a hypothetical function of the distribution of kinetic moments in the masses of the primary nebula, and for the simplest functions it receives a quadratic law, a geometric progression, and others. Kuiper [29] deduces his law on the basis of the theory of tidal stability using the concept of “critical density of Rosh.” However, the law it received give the distance between planets, which differ on several orders from the real distance.
\nBelow, based on the mathematical vortical model of the formation of planetary systems [30, 31], the analytical law of planetary distances for any planetary systems was obtained, which gives a good agreement with real distances in the solar system, which has another form compared with (7).
\nThe general picture and the basic relations in the primary vortex explosion, which creates stars and their planetary systems, is constructed in [30] on the basis of a separate exact solution of the Euler hydrodynamic equations for spherical eddy currents [30]. The main physical feature of this axisymmetric spatial flow, called the planetary vortex [30], is the presence of a vortex dipole in the center of the vortex dipole, which flows through a moving, twisted stream of outer space, and the interaction of these motions generates vortical flow of a planetary vortex [30].
\nUsing the method of integrating the complete nonlinear system of Euler’s hydrodynamic equations was introduced and flow functions \n
The planetary vortex described above as a complicated vortex flow is the initial stage of the formation of a star planetary system from the primary nebula that has fallen into the vortex region. Further prolonged evolution of this vortex to the state of the planetary system is characterized by a variety of complex physical processes such as: collision, accretion, accumulation of massive bodies, and their gravitation; the formation of a massive star and its light and gravitational action; mutual gravitational and resonant influence of system structures, etc. [27].
\nSince the forces of gravitation, collision, and others acting between parts of a single vortex are internal, they do not change its integral physical invariants.
\nIn [30, 31], the modern planetary distances were calculated and they are shown in the graphs (\nFigure 4\n). As we can see, the theoretical curve in the entire range of distances is almost equidistant from the curve of real distributions of distances in the solar system with deviations in both directions of the order of 20%.
\nPlanetary distances in the solar system as functions of planetary numbers.
Finally, the technique developed here for the calculation of the primary vortex parameters can be applied in the reverse direction to determine according to the data of several open planets of the main parameter of the planetary system and the establishment of the method of work [38] of the complete structure of new exoplanetary systems: the number of vortex planets, their distances from the star, angular velocities, etc. This will give astronomers-observers reasoned data for the search for new, yet open exoplanets in stellar planetary systems, which have already opened 2–6 planets [32, 33].
\nThus, the mathematical model of the process of formation of planetary systems, which describes interplanetary distances well, is constructed.
\nThe development of this mathematical model does not take into account important physical factors that have a significant effect on the behavior of interplanetary matter. To such factors, it is necessary to attribute, first of all, gravitational interaction and heat flows. Because of this, one should not expect a good coincidence of the real characteristics of the physical process with the results of mathematical modeling. This situation occurs when the criterion of adequacy of the qualitative type is not met (see Section 2). Consequently, the coincidence of the results of mathematical modeling (with the adequate mathematical description constructed only one or two of the system’s variables) with all the main characteristics of the physical process is an exception, as a rule, and it can take place only if the adequacy of a quality type is performed.
\nWe will consider what prospects of adequate descriptions are valid for further use and what goals should be selected as the creation of adequate mathematical descriptions.
\nIt will be useful to address to classical works in this area. In work [34], the following statement was done: “…the imitation modeling is the creation of experimental and applied methodology which aimed at the use of it for a prediction of the future behavior of system.”
\nSo, the adequate mathematical descriptions are intended for the forecast of behavior of real process at first. It is possible with the aid of adequate mathematical modeling to predict behavior of real process in new conditions of operation. For example, it is possible to test more intensive mode of operations of the real machine without risk of its destruction. Such tool (adequate mathematical description) allows determining the optimum parameters of real process.
\nLet us now consider the conditions under which it is possible to further use adequate mathematical descriptions for “…a prediction of the future behavior of system.”
\nObviously, the structure of system (1), its parameters, and the specific type of external influences are determined by the properties of a real physical process.
\nLet the selected structure of the mathematical model of the physical process include parameters \n
For the purpose of further substantiated use of mathematical descriptions, it is necessary to require that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the components of the vector parameter \n
An additional requirement for the implementation of the MC is explained firstly by the fact that the quantitative agreement of the results of mathematical modeling with a specific experiment is possible for mathematical descriptions of qualitatively different physical processes due to the selection of parameters of mathematical descriptions.
\nThe implementation of the MC leads to the fact that the models of external influences obtained by the method of identification will correspond to the real external influences on the physical process. At least, these models will not contradict the physical meaning. If we return to the example of the synthesis of an adequate mathematical description of the process of mechanical oscillations in the main line of the rolling mill, then it can be argued that the MC is being executed. By virtue of this, the obtained models of external influences have a reasonable physical interpretation (do not contradict the physical meaning). The external load smoothly increases from zero to a steady-state value (see \nFigure 3\n).
\nWhen fulfilling the adequacy of a mathematical description of a qualitative type, it becomes possible to argue that a mathematical description that satisfies two criteria of adequacy will retain its useful properties for other experiments in the future under small changes in the conditions of the physical process. In other words, this description can be used for “a prediction of the future behavior of system.” An example of such a successful application could be further mathematical modeling using an adequate mathematical description for the rolling mill [23].
\nIn the second example, given in Section 1, the main correspondence is not fulfilled, and therefore, the application of the obtained results in the new conditions will not be justified.
\nThe algorithm for constructing an adequate mathematical description of a qualitative type cannot be formalized, as in the case of the adequacy of a mathematical description of a quantitative type. The process of constructing such a description mainly depends on subjective factors, such as the scientific tasks of studying the physical process using mathematical modeling methods.
\nIn some cases, it is impossible to perform a check of mathematical description adequacy of a quantitative type due to lack of experimental data in principle. Let us give an example of a mathematical description that satisfies only the criterion of adequacy of a qualitative type.
\nAn important and relatively new field of applications of methods of mathematical modeling is a tectonic processes study [35]. This work presents a complete algorithm required for the successful application of mathematical modeling methods of operations, which does not include the verification operation. Consider this algorithm in more detail.
\nIt is widely known that earthquakes predicting is challenging and unsolved still (but it can be happen in future). Even where earthquakes have unambiguously occurred within the parameters of a prediction, statistical analysis has generally shown these to be not better than lucky guesses. Now, there are hundreds of well-known earthquakes precursors and a number of theories to explain their origin. However, the problem of earthquake prediction in many of its aspects still remains open.
\nUtsu studied theoretically the relation between the size of aftershock activity and the magnitude of the main shock [36]. Independence of the occurrence of main shocks has been assumed in many models, some chapters discuss the migration of large earthquakes and casual relationship between seismic activities in different geophysical regions. Trigger models assume a series of primary events (main shocks) distributed completely random in time. Each of these primary events may generate secondary series of events. Epidemic-type model can be considered as birth and death process.
\nUtsu proposes a new model that takes into account the influence of strain solitary waves as a “trigger” of some shocks and appropriate methods of forecasting. Authors analyze the 2011 Japan earthquake. These studies show that solitary waves can be generated as aftershocks hypocenters at the Moho surface.
\nSignificant amount of works have been devoted to research of solitons in solids. For example, considering structural-phenomenological approach one distinguishes damaged environment with microstructure, Kosser’s continuum with limited traffic, Leru’s continuum, environment with deformities [37], grainy environment, which has the soliton solutions of motion equations. It is known that the pulse perturbations in rocks are different from seismic waves of harmonic type.
\nSome researchers [36, 37, 38] have considered generalizations of the traveling wave solutions. The necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of appropriate solutions were obtained.
\nLet us consider an anisotropic elastic medium. By [39], it follows that relations between stress and strain in Hooke’s law contain 21 free coefficients. The system of motion equations in this case has the form:
\nwhere \n
\n\n
There, the following concept was introduced. Authors found the solutions of (8)–(10) as follows:
\nwhere \n
In [39], authors got the necessary and sufficient conditions of existent solutions of the system (8)–(10) in the form (11). In [40], the various crystal systems for the existence of the appropriate type of motion equations solutions are studied.
\nThe main hypothesis of method of earthquakes forecast is that a single shock causes the appearance of one or more solitary waves that move from the hypocenter of the earthquake. Each wave passing through the zone of accumulation of seismic energy, causing a new earthquake can in turn generate new solitons. The method of prediction involves the separation from the total population of earthquake subsequences caused by the same soliton and the construction of a hypothetical trajectory of the solitons. Knowing the distance between individual impulses along the trajectory of the soliton can estimate its speed. Knowing some point of its trajectory, it is possible to make an assessment of the trajectory. With the rate and trajectory of each soliton, one can estimate its position at any time. Having information about the position of the soliton at some time can determine the “soliton component” of shock probability at this time.
\nAs initial data, we consider a sequence of the form: \n
Let a trajectory of the soliton be described parametrically: \n
where \n
Assume that the speed of the soliton is monotone—decreasing function. If the motion occur in the region of constant density, the ratio will be implemented: \n
Then, we consider the approximate speed \n
If a density is constant, then \n
In \nFigure 5\n, the results of seismic process analysis that occurred on the Japanese islands for 3 days before the earthquake of magnitude 8.9 (occurred on March 11, 2011) are shown. Here, the numbers from 0 to 12 mark epicenters of the foreshock, the epicenter of the main shock indicates maximum circle radius (it is near to the epicenter of the foreshock number 1). Curves and straight lines marked the soliton trajectory, which are calculated using a special software. The calculations take into account the hypothetical rate of the solitary waves and their possible reflection from the areas with a high density of rocks.
\nResults of seismic process analysis that occurred on the Japanese islands on March 11, 2011 for 3 days before the earthquake of magnitude 8.9.
As you can see, the foreshock is arranged so that a large number of possible waves pass through the region, where there was a maximum magnitude shock. Clearly, traced kind of a soliton with a focusing effect is at the point where there was the main shock.
\nThus, here it proposed the mathematical model of the process of earthquake sequences, taking into account the impact of slow solitary wave soliton type as a “trigger” to some shocks. The proposed theory allows us to construct forecasts when geophysics seismic process is similar to that which occurred on Japanese islands in 2011.
\nThe considered example of a mathematical description cannot be checked for the adequacy of a quantitative type due to objective reasons. But this description meets the criterion of adequacy of the qualitative type and so the results of mathematical modeling do not contradict the physical meaning.
\nFurther, consider an example of a mathematical description, the adequacy of which cannot be fundamentally assessed.
\nMethods of mathematical modeling penetrate recently into many nontraditional areas of human activity such as the study and modeling of emotions [16]. Let us consider in more detail the peculiarities of the application of methods of mathematical modeling in this field.
\nThe mathematician Rinaldi investigated as first Petrarch’s emotional cycle and established an ODE model, starting point for the investigations in two directions: mapping the mathematical model to a suitable modeling concept, and trying to extend the model for love dynamics in modern times.
\nA control-oriented approach observes emotions and inspiration as states fading over time-behaving like a transfer function approaching a steady state. This observation suggests a modeling approach by transfer functions. Both model approaches allow an easy extension to modern times.
\nIn literature, two special contributions can be found:
Love affairs and differential equations by Strogatz [41], —harmonic oscillators making reference to Romeo and Juliet;
Laura and Petrarch: an Intriguing Case of Cyclical Love Dynamics by Rinaldi [42]—presenting a nonlinear ODE with cyclic solutions.
Both contributions start directly with nonlinear oscillations, observing a certain historic emotional behavior of prominent couples. Laura group at Vienna University of Technology tries to consider general modeling concepts for emotional relations, which cover or coincide with Petrarch’s emotional cycle, in case of appropriate parameterization.
\nFollowing a suggestion of Strogatz [41] here examines a sequence of dynamical models involving coupled ordinary differential equations describing the time-variation of the love or hate displayed by individuals in a romantic relationship. The models start with a linear system of two individuals and advance to love triangles, and finally to include the effect of nonlinearities, which are shown to produce chaos.
\nAn obvious difficulty in any model of love is defining what is meant by love and quantifying it in some meaningful way.
\nStrogatz [40] considers a love affair between Romeo and Juliet, where
The simplest model is linear with
\nwhere \n
A similar linear model has been proposed by Rinaldi [42] in which a constant term is added to each of the derivatives in (12) to account for the appeal (or repulsion if negative) that each partner presents to the other in the absence of other feelings. Such a model is more realistic since it allows feelings to grow from a state of indifference and provides an equilibrium not characterized by complete apathy. However, it does so at the expense of introducing two additional parameters. While the existence of a non-apathetic equilibrium may be very important to the individuals involved, it does not alter the dynamics other than to move the origin of the RJ state space.
\nRomeo can exhibit one of four romantic styles depending on the signs of a and b, with names adapted from those suggested by Strogatz [40] and his students:
Eager beaver: \n
Narcissistic nerd: \n
Cautious (or secure) lover: \n
Hermit: \n
Note that for the mathematical description (12), the criterion of the adequacy of the quantitative type and the criterion of the adequacy of the qualitative type cannot be checked due to the specificity of the process under study. Therefore, the further use of the results of mathematical modeling is unreasonable. However, there are no obstacles to nontraditional interpretations of the results of mathematical modeling of emotional processes.
\nThe proposed adequacy criteria for mathematical descriptions in the form of ordinary differential equations make it possible to reasonably use the results of mathematical modeling to optimize and predict the behavior of physical processes.
\nThe proposed criteria are easily transferred on mathematical descriptions in algebraic form [43].
\nCriteria for the adequacy of mathematical descriptions in the form of partial differential equations are currently missing in the literature. However, some criteria for the adequacy of mathematical descriptions can be transferred to the specified descriptions. For example, the criterion of adequacy of the qualitative type can be transferred almost unchanged.
\nEmotions have attracted a greater level of attention as a critical element of public health in the 21st century. In St. Vincent and the Grenadines, the Caribbean and the wider world by extension, displaying emotions by males carries a stigma [1, 2, 3]. Emotions are also regarded as the cornerstones of our social worlds, which affect our interactions with others in varied ways [4]; and as such, this issue has prompted intellectual discussions surrounding the relation between emotions and the male population [5]; a focus that looms high, to the extent that it has become of national interest among health professionals and providers for the last ten years in St. Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG).
In part, this hype can arguably be associated with the SVG Education Revolution of 2003, which – under the motto “no one left behind” – has opened countless opportunities for the general population to move on academically in every level of the educational system [6]. The influx of students to secondary schools on one hand, and the radical increase of the number of adults in quest of tertiary level studies on the other, unearthed troubling psychologically and emotionally generated behavioral problems to which both genders succumbed [7, 8]. It also surfaced the demand for counselors, career guidance officers, and psychologists, who were called to aid the breakdown of the gender barriers in the expression of feelings among the male population that existed in the Vincentian society for many years and put emotional issues on the front burner.
General social observation in SGV has shown that males who have come to grips with their emotions and are willing to live a life that projects a more liberal way of behaving tend to excel academically, while being less likely to become troublemakers and less prone to having criminal intent. Nowadays, numerous young males have been incarcerated, are abandoning school, have taken to the hills to farm illegal marijuana plants, are seeking comfort in alcoholic beverages, are becoming abusive to their female counterparts, or are admitted to the mental health hospital due to emotional and psychological pressures [9, 10]. This is an escalating occurrence among the male population, while their counterparts (females) are far more willing to show their emotions and are thus, less susceptible to those troubling devices [11, 12, 13]. This is particularly true among males incarcerated in SGV Her Majesty’s Prison, who would immediately take on the look of a “seasoned” criminal exhibit little or no remorse in deep contrast to the general empathy.
This backdrop heightens the need for one’s exploration of men’s attitude towards their emotion. There has been a rationale for the choice of these incarcerated males, who “do” masculinity either as a survival technique and an adaptation to imprisonment [14, 15, 16, 17] or as an emotional response to interpersonal rejection [18, 19]. As in other countries, already captured male populations are often regarded as one of the most vulnerable groups in the Vincentian population [20, 21, 22]. This research springs from the co-opt preamble and delves into the stereotypical and tabooed issue of males and their emotions in the Vincentian setting. The present research endeavors to offer an understanding of the general male ethos where their emotions are concerned. It examines the issue from the perspectives of males who are confined or incarcerated seeking seeks to explore aspects related to the general issue of masculinity and emotions, namely: (a) emotions and abuse, (b) crying in relation to emotions (c) family and friends in relation to emotions and (d) suicidal thoughts and emotions.The main objective of this study is to analyze various factors that are associated with emotional and psychological issues relating to males at the correctional institution in St. Vincent and the Grenadines. More specifically, it sought to analyze the emotions males are encountering and ascertain the factors that lead to the emotions that males struggle with. As a means to achieve this, we firstly aimed at identifying emotional issues inmates are uncomfortable to talk about, and finding out levels of family impact on males’ lives in order to determine the coping strategies that have been used by inmates to deal with their emotional issues.
This article intents to weave ideas in relation to the emotive reactions of incarcerated males at the Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Correctional Institution. The methodological tools utilized for data collection in this mixed-method study were mainly quantitative (questionnaires) combined with field observations. The particular method was not chosen randomly. Quantitative methodologies allow researchers to evaluate within a more controlled context [23]. The questionnaire covered demographics such as age, type of crime, recidivism, and religion [perceived as an emotion regulator [24]], as well as elements and associated factors aligned with the stated hypotheses that highlight males’ emotions and their behaviors. Finally, along with the collected quantitative data, observation was done based on a two-year pro bono service that the researcher carried out at the facilities and during the sample collection period, and anecdotes were noted.This research sought to generate measurable and testable data based on the aims and objectives, acting as a road map for the study, guiding the researcher to predetermined destinations, and thus gradually adding to the accumulation of human knowledge.
To create a finite structure in line with the aims of the present research mentioned earlier, 4 hypotheses were created and embedded in the questionnaire. The hypotheses were:
Male inmates are struggling to deal with their emotions due to past
Male inmates who refrain from
Male inmates have
Her Majesty’s Prisons (Kingstown and Belle Isle) is the lone correctional institution in St. Vincent and the Grenadines build in 1872. Colonial in nature, the main structure is situated in the heart of Kingstown, in close proximity to the back of the building that houses the House of Assembly and the High Court. In the same premises, there is a library/classroom and a Chapel that has been converted into living quarters. The total population of the Kingston prison facility in December 17, 2018 stood at 472, accommodating mainly those who are on remand and few already sentenced.
The Belle Isle Correctional Facility became operational in April 2012, when some 226 prisoners were transferred there from the Kingstown holding. This institution is built to house 288 inmates, but it is still under construction. It is home to less than 50% of the present total inmates and mainly houses those already been sentenced. It is a modern prison with a conference room, classrooms, and recreation room offering a variety of programmes which incorporate major activities such as art, anger restrain training, tailoring, culinary art, music, agriculture, and welding skills training. Most of these programmes are facilitated by community members, persons who are not particularly affiliated to the institution. The institution also boasts of a small soccer team which occasionally engages with community teams.
Inmates in both institutions are classified in three categories: Unit A Under 21 years, Unit B First Offenders and Unit C Repeat Offenders. There is a rigid timetable and activities are tailored – breakfast is at 6:30 am; devotion at 8:15 am; lunch is at 11:30 am, recreational activities at 1:00 pm, and total lock down at 5:00 pm. As pertaining to the emotional aspects of inmates, they are served in a professional manner by a psychologist, a counselor, and a welfare officer. Accessible to the institution is also the Mental Health Hospital, which provides contracted consultants and a qualified counselor who visit the institutions once a week to meet with a pre-arranged clientele1.
The inmates at Her Majesty’s Correctional Facilities in Kingstown and Belle Isle served as the sample for the study. An attempt was made in having the entire prison population involved in the data collection process skipping any randomization process; nonetheless, internal developments within the institution itself forced a reversal. Based on the feedback received by the prison administrators, there was always the fear that the support would not be there to complete all 428 inmates at the time. Indeed, half-way through, unforeseen factors, continuous postponements, and resource constrains made it impossible for the prison administration to facilitate my request for the entire prison population to be approached. Unfortunately, there were 7 blocks that were not given the opportunity participate in the research. However, the remaining 3 blocks were randomly selected drawn from an alphabetical labelling system. The stratified randomized sampling (proportional or quota sampling) strategy was adopted. This method of sampling divided the population into strata, and then samples from each stratum were randomly selected. The total number of 150 participants constituted our sample that was collected during the period March–July 2019.Assuming that the entire population could not be reached, this method also allowed for a randomized sampling of the respondents containing minimal systematic bias and therefore being relatively representative of the male population in SVG [25].
The questionnaire was structured in two parts – (I) demographic data and (II) conceptual questions. The latter part was designed to focus on the hypotheses each of which consisted of four questions.
Abuse: Six binary abuse variables were constructed; two for each type of trauma: physical, sexual, and emotional. Dealing with negative emotions was measured by pre-determined categories (namely, “Blame others”, “Blame yourself/Self-hate”, “Avoiding what is happening by drinking, smoking”, and “Withdrawing from others”). Feeling comfortable to talk to other males in prison about emotional issues was constructed from the following experiences: “Most males here share the same struggles”, “We are all on the same level”, “As males we are not as tough and aggressive as we often show”, “There is a greater sense of bonding”, and “There are less chances of being labelled a homosexual”. Inmates were also asked to name whether mental health, relationships, sexual issues, money matters, and/or depression currently affect them the most.
Crying: Crying data, as a means of emotions’ expression, were collected from two types of questions; one focusing on sharing emotional issues and the other on reasons that prevent you from doing so. The frequency of crying was measured on a 1 to 5 Likert scale (with 1 being Never and 5 Always). The reasons that may discourage male prisoners to share their emotions varied from confidentiality and lack of trust to and feelings of embarrassment and people being too judgemental. The response options for males’ thoughts before talking about their emotions were: “Males are not supposed to talk about their emotions”, “Avoidance of acting like a woman”, “Males more focus on toughness and aggression”, “Self-reliance (a man is independent)”, and “Afraid of being labelled a homosexual”.
(Family) bonds: Two close-ended questions dealt with who do male prisoners trust the most and who (in their family) helped them with the emotional issues, when there were such. For both questions, the possible responses were included their mother, their father, their sibling(s), and other (being their uncle/aunt, girlfriend etc). The difficultness of talking about emotions to someone was measured from a 1–5 Likert scale with 1 being Very difficult and 5 being Very Easy. Dealing with their emotions, prisoners chose among the possible answers of “Pray”, “Seek counseling”, “Exercise/sport”, and “Use substances/alcohol”.
Suicidal thoughts: The suicidal thoughts data were collected from two question types: one with regard to the frequency of such thoughts and the other focusing on the “gap” between positive and negative emotions experienced by the male inmates. The frequency was calculated with a Likert scale, with 1 being Very difficult, 2 being Difficult, 3 being Neither difficult nor easy, 4 being Easy, and 5 being Very easy. The same scale was also used for the variable/question “How often do you visit a medical doctor?”. Both positive and negative emotions were also measured on a similar Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Almost never, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Almost Always, and 5 = Always).
Permission from the prisons’ authorities was necessary. This process took months to complete and initially, it created many doubts that the prison officials would want to grant such access to conduct the research. Having received permission from the Superintendent of Prisons, a pilot study was carried out few months before the actual administration of the questionnaire. This preliminary study served as a means of refining the final instrument to be used for the survey testing its reliability and validity. The piloting stage also helped in identifying some of the problems that loomed on the horizon, namely the lack of cooperation from some prison officials and the full conceptualization of the content of the questionnaires by some prisoners. Applying the abovementioned sampling techniques, the questionnaires were distributed and collected personally by the researcher on the same day. Amidst many constraints, the collection process initially began to look fruitful. However, there were days visiting the institution realizing that only ten (or no) questionnaires had been completed amidst excuses of being short of staff or that too many other activities are taking place at the same time. Having completed 150 questionnaires after months visiting the institution it was obvious that completing the entire population was an impossible task; and having started collecting the data with that notion in mind, the data collection was ended.
The statistical software SPSS (v.25) was used for all data analysis. In terms of methodology, I used multiple correspondence and regression analyses in order to describe the pattern of relationship between (categorical and binary) variables. Such analyses were meaningful given that a prior measurement of internal consistency (
Cronbach’s Alpha ( | N of Items |
---|---|
.812 | 41 |
Reliability statistics.
The sample of the present study consisted of 150 male inmates whose age varied from 18 to over 56 years old. Slightly more than half (n = 78, 51.9%) of the participants were 26–40 years old while only 6% of the sample (n = 9) where younger than 20 years old. Nineteen (13%) prisoners were either 21–25 or 41–45 years old and 24 (16%) were over 46 years old (Figure 1). Looking at the type of offense that resulted into their incarceration, the most popular crime was burglary/robbery/theft (n = 36, 24%) closely followed by rape (n = 33, 22%) and (attempted) murder / manslaughter (n = 29, 19.3%). A relatively common offense was assault and cause of physical damage committed by 22 males (14.7%). Other types of offense driving unlicensed car, damage of property, and issues related to child maintenance (n = 17, 11.3%) (Figure 2).
Bar count of age.
Bar count of type of offense.
Regarding their religious affiliation, the vast majority of the sample (n = 132, 88%), considered themselves to be Christian, followed by those who had no religion (n = 11, 7.3%). Only 3 (2%) males identified themselves as non-Christian, two being Muslim and one in self-search. The length of the sentence they were already given followed the same pattern. 99 inmates (66%) were sentenced with up to 3 years of imprisonment and only 13 (8.7%) were serving sentences longer than 9 years (Figure 3). As far as recidivism is concerned, nearly 40% of the males (n = 57, 38%) admitted that they were incarcerated for the first time and almost all the remaining (n = 81, 54%) had been previously imprisoned 2–5 times (Figure 4).
Pie chart count of length of current sentence.
Bar count of times of being in prison.
Focusing on the family background of the prisoners, almost 1/3 of them (n = 51, 34%) were coming from single-parent families, while most of the remaining respondents had grown up in either extended (n = 38, 25.3%) or nuclear (n = 22.7%) family environments. The few remaining males were raised either by their sibling(s) (n = 10, 6.7%) or by a guardian, girlfriend or foster parent (n = 6, 4%). Those results matched the males’ responses pertaining to who is being closest to them. Slightly more than half of the participants were feeling their mother as being closest to them (n = 77, 51.3%) whereas only 7 inmates (4.7%) had the same feelings for their father. Almost 10% of the sample (n = 14) expressed their loneliness replying that there is nobody who is emotionally close to them. Other people identified by the inmates as being the closest to them were their (girl)friends, grandparents, guardians or their therapists (Figure 5).
Population pyramid count person being closest to by original household.
Hypothesis 1 (confirmed): Male inmates are struggling to deal with their emotions due to past
Initially, looking at the abuse patterns among the incarcerated males, almost 79.3%4 (n = 119) males admitted of having at least one experience of physical, emotional, and/or sexual abuse in the past. Among those inmates, 15 (10%) also had strong feelings of abandonment and neglect. More specifically, the majority (n = 81, 54%) of males had suffered an emotional abuse in the past, followed by those who were physically (n = 70, 46.7%) or sexually (n = 46, 30.7%) traumatized. Therefore, it was not a coincidence that the participants were predominantly facing sexual or relationship issues (58.7%, n = 88), while 33 of them (22%) were having depression and other mental health problems. Taking into consideration that almost all males (n = 148, 98.7%) were facing negative emotions, in their effort to deal with them, prisoners gave a wide range of responses. The most common way used to deal with their negative emotions was to withdraw from others and seek isolation (n = 101, 67.3%) or try to avoid what is happening by drinking and smoking (n = 82, 54.7%). The second most popular way males used to face their emotional issues was through blaming either themselves (n = 70, 46.7%) or others (n = 38, 25.3%). Only 1 inmate (0.7%) expressed a positive way in dealing with his problems, which was through religion, and more specifically, by talking to Jesus.
Focusing on the openness and willingness of prisoners to express their emotional issues with others, the vast majority of them were feeling comfortable doing so, but only with their fellow inmates. The main reason was that males in prison share the same emotional struggles (n = 71, 47.3%), and because they are not as tough and aggressive as they often show (n = 86, 57.3%). In fact, males thought that prison creates a great sense of bonding (n = 59, 39.3%), being all on the same (prison) level (n = 69, 46%). Almost 1/3 of respondents also highlighted that having less chances of being labeled a homosexual (n = 54, 36%) makes it easier for them to talk about their emotions.
Based on both parametric and non-parametric correlations, the type of abuse that most participants had suffered was found overall to be significantly correlated with the way they were currently dealing with their negative emotions (
Have you ever been abused?a | B | Std. Error | Wald | df | Sig. | Exp(B) | 95% Confidence Interval for Exp(B) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | |||||||||
Yes | Facing negative emotions | −.709 | 1.635 | .188 | 1 | .665 | .492 | .020 | 12.128 | |
Dealing with negative emotions (ref. cat. is “No”) | ||||||||||
Blaming others | 2.281 | .873 | 6.825 | 1 | .009 | 9.790 | 1.768 | 54.216 | ||
Blaming yourself | 1.768 | .622 | 8.071 | 1 | .004 | 5.859 | 1.730 | 19.839 | ||
Avoiding what is happening | 1.097 | .542 | 4.093 | 1 | .043 | 2.995 | 1.035 | 8.667 | ||
Withdrawing from others | .397 | .583 | .464 | 1 | .496 | 1.488 | .475 | 4.664 | ||
Talking to Jesus | 16.088 | 2590.495 | .000 | 1 | .995 | 9700534.344 | .000 | .b | ||
Feeling comfortable talking to other males about emotional issues (ref. cat. is “No”) | ||||||||||
Most males here share the same emotional struggles like you | 30.753 | 3013.793 | .000 | 1 | .992 | 22697154630045.258 | .000 | .b | ||
You’re all at the same level (in prison) | −.519 | .591 | .771 | 1 | .380 | .595 | .187 | 1.895 | ||
Males are not as tough and aggressive as they often show they are | −.147 | .541 | .074 | 1 | .785 | .863 | .299 | 2.492 | ||
There is a greater sense of bonding when you share your emotions | −1.106 | .590 | 3.512 | 1 | .061 | .331 | .104 | 1.052 | ||
There are less chances of being labeled a homosexual if you share your emotions | 1.202 | .629 | 3.647 | 1 | .056 | 3.327 | .969 | 11.427 | ||
“Soft spot” | 0c | . | . | 0 | . | . | . | . |
Parameter estimates.
The reference category is: No.
Floating point overflow occurred while computing this statistic. Its value is therefore set to system missing.
This parameter is set to zero because it is redundant.
Hypothesis 2 (partially confirmed): Male inmates who refrain from
How often do you cry? 1/3 of the prisoners responded that they (almost) never cry (n = 52, 34.4%), while almost half of the sample were doing so occasionally (n = 69, 46%). Only 3 males (2%) admitted of crying on a regular basis as a way of venting off their negative emotions (before their incarceration). Once again, these figures were not surprising as the largest segment of the respondents believed that males are not supposed to show or talk about their emotions (n = 98, 65.3%), as an avoidance of acting like a woman and being labeled a homosexual (n = 94, 62.7%). On the contrary, males should be self-reliant/independent (n = 74, 49.3%) and focused on toughness and aggression (n = 89, 59.3%).
Digging into the reasons why males refrain from sharing their emotions, the main issue that emerged was that of confidentiality and lack of trust (n = 125, 83.3%). Other, equally important issues were about persons being too judgemental (n = 88, 58.7%), and their subsequent feelings of embarrassment (n = 81, 54%). At the same time, the performance of multinomial regressions showed partial correlations between our dependent and independent variables. More specifically, inmates who were radically refraining from crying were more likely to avoid talking about their emotion issues to others believing that males should be more focussed on toughness and aggression than those prisoners who admitted of crying frequently (
How often do you cry?a | B | Std. Error | Wald | df | Sig. | Exp(B) | 95% Confidence Interval for Exp(B) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | |||||||||||
Never | Thinking about certain things before talking about emotions (Ref. cat is “No”) | |||||||||||
Males are not supposed to show or talk about their emotions | −.023 | 1.394 | .000 | 1 | .987 | .977 | .064 | 15.014 | ||||
Avoidance of not acting like a woman | −3.863 | 2.287 | 2.852 | 1 | .091 | .021 | .000 | 1.860 | ||||
Males are more focused on toughness and aggression | −3.927 | 1.770 | 4.921 | 1 | .027 | .020 | .001 | .633 | ||||
Self-reliance (a man is independent) | −.191 | 1.457 | .017 | 1 | .895 | .826 | .048 | 14.352 | ||||
Afraid of being labeled as a homosexual | 2.937 | 1.750 | 2.817 | 1 | .093 | 18.863 | .611 | 582.486 | ||||
Prefer being alone | .534 | 35.730 | .000 | 1 | .988 | 1.705 | 6.580E-31 | 4419769202310835500000000000000.000 | ||||
Almost never | Thinking about certain things before talking about emotions (Ref. cat is “No”) | |||||||||||
Males are not supposed to show or talk about their emotions | 2.052 | .973 | 4.447 | 1 | .035 | 7.780 | 1.156 | 52.368 | ||||
Avoidance of not acting like a woman | −2.603 | 1.122 | 5.381 | 1 | .020 | .074 | .008 | .668 | ||||
Males are more focused on toughness and aggression | −2.914 | 1.361 | 4.583 | 1 | .032 | .054 | .004 | .782 | ||||
Self-reliance (a man is independent) | .078 | .949 | .007 | 1 | .935 | 1.081 | .168 | 6.942 | ||||
Afraid of being labeled as a homosexual | 2.420 | 1.349 | 3.218 | 1 | .073 | 11.251 | .799 | 158.362 | ||||
Prefer being alone | 3.267 | 29.681 | .012 | 1 | .912 | 26.244 | 1.427E-24 | 482708551918159960000000000.000 | ||||
Sometimes | Thinking about certain things before talking about emotions (Ref. cat is “No”) | |||||||||||
Males are not supposed to show or talk about their emotions | 1.004 | .930 | 1.166 | 1 | .280 | 2.728 | .441 | 16.870 | ||||
Avoidance of not acting like a woman | −1.979 | 1.071 | 3.416 | 1 | .065 | .138 | .017 | 1.127 | ||||
Males are more focused on toughness and aggression | −3.100 | 1.334 | 5.405 | 1 | .020 | .045 | .003 | .615 | ||||
Self-reliance (a man is independent) | −.518 | .912 | .322 | 1 | .570 | .596 | .100 | 3.559 | ||||
Afraid of being labeled as a homosexual | 2.118 | 1.330 | 2.535 | 1 | .111 | 8.316 | .613 | 112.800 | ||||
Prefer being alone | −.802 | 29.545 | .001 | 1 | .978 | .448 | 3.182E-26 | 6320155164565928000000000.000 | ||||
Almost always | Thinking about certain things before talking about emotions (Ref. cat is “No”) | |||||||||||
Males are not supposed to show or talk about their emotions | 1.977 | 1.087 | 3.309 | 1 | .069 | 7.223 | .858 | 60.817 | ||||
Avoidance of not acting like a woman | −2.045 | 1.191 | 2.951 | 1 | .086 | .129 | .013 | 1.334 | ||||
Males are more focused on toughness and aggression | −2.431 | 1.430 | 2.891 | 1 | .089 | .088 | .005 | 1.450 | ||||
Self-reliance (a man is independent) | −.051 | 1.022 | .003 | 1 | .960 | .950 | .128 | 7.033 | ||||
Afraid of being labeled as a homosexual | 3.014 | 1.402 | 4.624 | 1 | .032 | 20.367 | 1.306 | 317.669 | ||||
Prefer being alone | 2.374 | 30.906 | .006 | 1 | .939 | 10.735 | 5.287E-26 | 2179683110155908300000000000.000 |
Parameter estimates.
The reference category is: Always.
This parameter is set to zero because it is redundant.
Floating point overflow occurred while computing this statistic. Its value is therefore set to system missing.
Hypothesis 3 (not confirmed):
Exploring the impact of family on male prisoners, the participants were initially asked to identify who they trust the most. More than half of the sample responded their mother (n = 77, 51.3%). The second most common reply was “nobody” (n = 23, 15.3%), while the remaining responds were mainly scattered among their girlfriend (n = 5, 3.3%), their friends (n = 12, 8%), and eventually their father (n = 9, 6%). In continue, males were asked to mention who has helped them to deal with their emotional problems. Their replies followed to same trend. Again, 34% (n = 51) acknowledged that their mother had done so, but almost 50% of the sample (n = 65) now mentioned that nobody has ever assisted them with their emotional issues.
Before sent to prison or at the beginning of their current sentence, all males operated various ways to deal with their emotions. Few of them (n = 2, 1.4%) were signing and reading, while the majority (n = 81, 54%) sought help from God through praying, and others from psychologists though counseling (n = 65, 43.3%). 66 people (44%) also found exercising or playing a sport helpful in dealing with emotions, while a good number of them (n = 58, 38.7%) used to smoke, drink, and use drugs. Overall, males found it (very) difficult to talk about their emotions (n = 90, 60%) and just 19 (12.7%) of them thought it was (very) easy.
Looking at the possible impact of other people on the inmates’ incapacity or unwillingness to share their emotions, no statistical significant correlation was given; hence, hypothesis 3 was not confirmed. As Table 4 shows below, neither family (both nuclear and extended) nor other members from prisoners’ social environment [eg. (girl)friends, therapist] seemed to influence, positively or negatively, the obstacles that males were facing in talking about their emotions to someone (average
Talking about emotions is…a | B | Std. Error | Wald | df | Sig. | Exp(B) | 95% Confidence Interval for Exp(B) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | ||||||||
Very difficult | Trusting the most | ||||||||
Mother | −1.135 | 10.356 | .012 | 1 | .913 | .321 | 4.922E-10 | 209873396.257 | |
Father | −4.469 | 10.466 | .182 | 1 | .669 | .011 | 1.414E-11 | 9290209.914 | |
Friend(s) | −3.415 | 10.396 | .108 | 1 | .743 | .033 | 4.653E-11 | 23214069.590 | |
Girlfriend | 3.211 | 14.702 | .048 | 1 | .827 | 24.809 | 7.589E-12 | 81099178338468.190 | |
Wife | −4.942 | 36.888 | .018 | 1 | .893 | .007 | 2.852E-34 | 178885359362352800000000000000.000 | |
Cousin | 8.241 | 681.515 | .000 | 1 | .990 | 3794.900 | .000 | .c | |
Nobody | −2.112 | 10.398 | .041 | 1 | .839 | .121 | 1.707E-10 | 85741671.419 | |
Grandmother | −2.561 | 20.299 | .016 | 1 | .900 | .077 | 4.070E-19 | 14663068979522668.000 | |
Therapist | −3.229 | 36.897 | .008 | 1 | .930 | .040 | 1.553E-33 | 1009363927852481700000000000000.000 | |
Aunt | 4.003 | 34.116 | .014 | 1 | .907 | 54.769 | 4.997E-28 | 6002842730305803000000000000000.000 | |
Guardian | 3.198 | 681.659 | .000 | 1 | .996 | 24.472 | .000 | .c | |
Helped you to deal with emotional issues | |||||||||
Mother | 4.557 | 680.661 | .000 | 1 | .995 | 95.300 | .000 | .c | |
Father | 1.904 | 680.678 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 6.712 | .000 | .c | |
Sibling | 2.219 | 680.660 | .000 | 1 | .997 | 9.198 | .000 | .c | |
Esteemed person | .000 | 681.576 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.000 | .000 | .c | |
Girlfriend | 5.513 | 680.696 | .000 | 1 | .994 | 247.774 | .000 | .c | |
Wife | 1.726 | 680.964 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 5.618 | .000 | .c | |
Nobody | 6.202 | 680.662 | .000 | 1 | .993 | 493.888 | .000 | .c | |
Difficult | Trusting the most | ||||||||
Mother | −.318 | 10.328 | .001 | 1 | .975 | .727 | 1.177E-9 | 449658085.645 | |
Father | −5.436 | 10.464 | .270 | 1 | .603 | .004 | 5.393E-12 | 3518236.928 | |
Friend(s) | −1.408 | 10.345 | .019 | 1 | .892 | .245 | 3.829E-10 | 156250805.677 | |
Girlfriend | −1.939 | 14.887 | .017 | 1 | .896 | .144 | 3.065E-14 | 674902371395.648 | |
Wife | −3.523 | 35.657 | .010 | 1 | .921 | .030 | 1.315E-32 | 66240196900202480000000000000.000 | |
Cousin | 1.385 | 657.098 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 3.994 | .000 | .c | |
Nobody | −1.391 | 10.364 | .018 | 1 | .893 | .249 | 3.751E-10 | 165189695.174 | |
Grandmother | 1.352 | 19.093 | .005 | 1 | .944 | 3.867 | 2.165E-16 | 69078467018115992.000 | |
Therapist | −3.444 | 35.663 | .009 | 1 | .923 | .032 | 1.405E-32 | 72589450383962740000000000000.000 | |
Aunt | −1.366 | 35.655 | .001 | 1 | .969 | .255 | 1.142E-31 | 570455239289069950000000000000.000 | |
Guardian | 2.592 | 657.098 | .000 | 1 | .997 | 13.356 | .000 | .c | |
Helped you to deal with emotional issues | |||||||||
Mother | 3.443 | 656.131 | .000 | 1 | .996 | 31.285 | .000 | .c | |
Father | 4.196 | 656.134 | .000 | 1 | .995 | 66.434 | .000 | .c | |
Sibling | 2.190 | 656.129 | .000 | 1 | .997 | 8.934 | .000 | .c | |
Esteemed person | .000 | 657.012 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.000 | .000 | .c | |
Girlfriend | 6.558 | 656.160 | .000 | 1 | .992 | 704.854 | .000 | .c | |
Wife | 8.615 | 656.414 | .000 | 1 | .990 | 5515.374 | .000 | .c | |
Nobody | 4.829 | 656.131 | .000 | 1 | .994 | 125.096 | .000 | .c | |
Neither difficult nor easy | Trusting the most | ||||||||
Mother | 2.686 | 11.165 | .058 | 1 | .810 | 14.674 | 4.603E-9 | 46776121177.218 | |
Father | −1.399 | 11.303 | .015 | 1 | .902 | .247 | 5.909E-11 | 1031766470.631 | |
Friend(s) | .521 | 11.194 | .002 | 1 | .963 | 1.684 | 4.985E-10 | 5687802612.665 | |
Girlfriend | .305 | 15.712 | .000 | 1 | .985 | 1.356 | 5.732E-14 | 32086520315331.360 | |
Wife | 4.894 | 34.371 | .020 | 1 | .887 | 133.447 | 7.384E-28 | 24116473984118280000000000000000.000 | |
Cousin | 5.741 | 681.672 | .000 | 1 | .993 | 311.483 | .000 | .c | |
Nobody | .685 | 11.216 | .004 | 1 | .951 | 1.985 | 5.631E-10 | 6993814976.199 | |
Grandmother | 1.098 | 20.725 | .003 | 1 | .958 | 2.998 | 6.845E-18 | 1313386892053417730.000 | |
Therapist | 5.181 | 34.381 | .023 | 1 | .880 | 177.844 | 9.654E-28 | 32762855332909110000000000000000.000 | |
Aunt | 1.729 | 37.123 | .002 | 1 | .963 | 5.636 | 1.419E-31 | 223899845021578750000000000000000.000 | |
Guardian | 11.587 | 681.528 | .000 | 1 | .986 | 107636.035 | .000 | .c | |
Helped you to deal with emotional issues | |||||||||
Mother | 4.933 | 680.661 | .000 | 1 | .994 | 138.858 | .000 | .c | |
Father | 2.931 | 680.673 | .000 | 1 | .997 | 18.754 | .000 | .c | |
Sibling | 3.332 | 680.660 | .000 | 1 | .996 | 28.005 | .000 | .c | |
Esteemed person | 5.268 | 681.432 | .000 | 1 | .994 | 194.075 | .000 | .c | |
Girlfriend | 9.052 | 680.690 | .000 | 1 | .989 | 8533.501 | .000 | .c | |
Wife | 7.253 | 680.974 | .000 | 1 | .992 | 1412.559 | .000 | .c | |
Nobody | 5.829 | 680.662 | .000 | 1 | .993 | 339.912 | .000 | .c | |
Easy | Trusting the most | ||||||||
Mother | 2.066 | 11.804 | .031 | 1 | .861 | 7.894 | 7.073E-10 | 88101694713.661 | |
Father | −1.082 | 11.942 | .008 | 1 | .928 | .339 | 2.319E-11 | 4951929174.890 | |
Friend(s) | .446 | 11.800 | .001 | 1 | .970 | 1.561 | 1.411E-10 | 17281209496.777 | |
Girlfriend | 4.844 | 15.803 | .094 | 1 | .759 | 126.971 | 4.493E-12 | 3588087231311329.500 | |
Wife | −.864 | 41.011 | .000 | 1 | .983 | .421 | 5.202E-36 | 34122402905359492000000000000000000.000 | |
Cousin | −7.420 | 625.964 | .000 | 1 | .991 | .001 | .000 | .c | |
Nobody | −.643 | 11.952 | .003 | 1 | .957 | .526 | 3.524E-11 | 7836850545.453 | |
Grandmother | 1.633 | 22.685 | .005 | 1 | .943 | 5.122 | 2.512E-19 | 104402003260355310000.000 | |
Therapist | 1.715 | 41.041 | .002 | 1 | .967 | 5.556 | 6.470E-35 | 477181474016070200000000000000000000.000 | |
Aunt | 2.401 | 41.019 | .003 | 1 | .953 | 11.034 | 1.341E-34 | 908158071886049200000000000000000000.000 | |
Guardian | −7.950 | 625.963 | .000 | 1 | .990 | .000 | .000 | .c | |
Helped you to deal with emotional issues | |||||||||
Mother | −9.734 | 624.621 | .000 | 1 | .988 | 5.922E-5 | .000 | .c | |
Father | −8.542 | 624.624 | .000 | 1 | .989 | .000 | .000 | .c | |
Sibling | −13.428 | 624.624 | .000 | 1 | .983 | 1.473E-6 | .000 | .c | |
Esteemed person | −12.101 | 625.847 | .000 | 1 | .985 | 5.554E-6 | .000 | .c | |
Girlfriend | −8.820 | 624.658 | .000 | 1 | .989 | .000 | .000 | .c | |
Wife | −11.578 | 625.008 | .000 | 1 | .985 | 9.366E-6 | .000 | .c | |
Nobody | −9.135 | 624.621 | .000 | 1 | .988 | .000 | .000 | .c |
Parameter estimates.
The reference category is: Very easy
This parameter is set to zero because it is redundant.
Floating point overflow occurred while computing this statistic. Its value is therefore set to system missing.
Hypothesis 4 (confirmed): Male inmates have suicidal thoughts irrespective of any disparity between positive and negative emotions.
Seeking to measure the frequency of suicidal thoughts among the male inmates, a Likert scale question was added. The responses showed that a relatively high proportion of the sample (n = 68, 45.3%) were thinking of committing suicide occasionally (“Sometimes”), and the second highest proportion was these who never had such thoughts (n = 31, 20.7%). Almost the same percentage of people responded that they “Almost always” (n = 21, 14%) or “Almost never” (n = 21, 14%) have suicidal thoughts and only 4.7% (n = 7) have them on regular basis (“Always”). While in prison, males had the opportunity to visit a medical doctor or a psychologist, when needed. Some of them (n = 57, 38%) were finding the access to their service (very) easy, while for others (n = 55, 36.7%) was (very) difficult.
Moving from the descriptive statistics to multivariate regressions as an attempt to provide answers to our research questions, the data analysis as shown in Table 5 confirms the initial hypothesis. Male inmates were, indeed, having suicidal thoughts irrespective of the similar frequency of positive or negative emotions they were experiencing. In other words, the frequent thoughts or intentions of male inmates in SVG to commit suicide were not related to the equally frequent positive (eg. joy, hope, kindness) or negative (eg. loneliness, depression, fear) they may have been experiencing.
Having suicidal thoughtsa | B | Std. Error | Wald | df | Sig. | Exp(B) | 95% Confidence Interval for Exp(B) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | ||||||||
Never | Never experiencing … | ||||||||
Worry (−) | 38.265 | 42131.091 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 41512528905990320.000 | .000 | .b | |
Loneliness (−) | −5.139 | 37807.382 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .006 | .000 | .b | |
Anger (−) | −17.882 | 79534.322 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.713E-8 | .000 | .b | |
Depression (−) | −14.205 | 82741.329 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 6.777E-7 | .000 | .b | |
Rejection (−) | 24.921 | 9436.227 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 66533189065.058 | .000 | .b | |
Frustration (−) | 30.958 | 24413.461 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 27847338461359.742 | .000 | .b | |
Jealousy (−) | 21.971 | 45327.033 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 3483997796.992 | .000 | .b | |
Shame (−) | 43.908 | 15195.137 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 11719077213841310000.000 | .000 | .b | |
Fear (−) | −3.601 | 44078.805 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .027 | .000 | .b | |
Sadness (−) | −32.828 | 20159.582 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 5.531E-15 | .000 | .b | |
Joy (+) | 44.629 | 36308.886 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 24096244549266317000.000 | .000 | .b | |
Forgiveness (+) | 29.357 | 45828.959 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 5618462657828.428 | .000 | .b | |
Love (+) | 28.429 | 68809.244 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 2221343412505.831 | .000 | .b | |
Thankfulness (+) | −46.389 | 33238.126 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 7.139E-21 | .000 | .b | |
Pride (+) | 51.398 | 24718.421 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 20974296918467923000000.000 | .000 | .b | |
Gladness (+) | −72.392 | 50294.937 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 3.635E-32 | .000 | .b | |
Inspiration (+) | −55.492 | 85436.525 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 7.948E-25 | .000 | .b | |
Hope (+) | 11.827 | 63358.506 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 136961.278 | .000 | .b | |
Kindness (+) | 31.787 | .000 | . | 1 | . | 63787421138352.160 | 63787421138352.160 | 63787421138352.160 | |
Warmth (+) | 8.409 | .000 | . | 1 | . | 4485.333 | 4485.333 | 4485.333 | |
Almost never | Almost never experiencing… | ||||||||
Worry (−) | 17.337 | 62730.027 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 33830667.954 | .000 | .b | |
Loneliness (−) | −9.711 | 34034.477 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 6.059E-5 | .000 | .b | |
Anger (−) | −1.924 | 19347.725 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .146 | .000 | .b | |
Depression (−) | 9.818 | 23029.240 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 18363.795 | .000 | .b | |
Rejection (−) | 8.158 | 34567.475 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 3489.671 | .000 | .b | |
Frustration (−) | 13.964 | 16139.542 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 1160449.712 | .000 | .b | |
Jealousy (−) | 22.533 | 32665.601 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 6105775901.719 | .000 | .b | |
Shame (−) | 35.521 | 46428.161 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 2670030769720042.500 | .000 | .b | |
Fear (−) | 35.521 | 46428.161 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 2670030769720042.500 | .000 | .b | |
Sadness (−) | 17.608 | 42357.809 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 44381092.351 | .000 | .b | |
Joy (+) | 1.402 | 63332.243 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 4.064 | .000 | .b | |
Forgiveness (+) | −1.440 | 57396.565 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .237 | .000 | .b | |
Love (+) | .313 | 16938.360 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.367 | .000 | .b | |
Thankfulness (+) | −3.646 | 33406.056 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .026 | .000 | .b | |
Pride (+) | −4.300 | 32548.244 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .014 | .000 | .b | |
Gladness (+) | −21.410 | 32410.214 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 5.030E-10 | .000 | .b | |
Inspiration (+) | −15.599 | 53537.876 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.681E-7 | .000 | .b | |
Hope (+) | −4.277 | 12318.961 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .014 | .000 | .b | |
Kindness (+) | 21.446 | 22120.485 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 2059283298.525 | .000 | .b | |
Warmth (+) | −14.930 | 8827.409 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 3.280E-7 | .000 | .b | |
Sometimes | Sometimes experiencing… | ||||||||
Worry (−) | 25.756 | 21842.662 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 153345818008.820 | .000 | .b | |
Loneliness (−) | −7.627 | 23144.438 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .000 | .000 | .b | |
Anger (−) | −7.814 | 20611.045 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .000 | .000 | .b | |
Depression (−) | 10.880 | 19572.240 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 53084.629 | .000 | .b | |
Rejection (−) | 2.386 | 14377.750 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 10.866 | .000 | .b | |
Frustration (−) | 23.451 | 6961.863 | .000 | 1 | .997 | 15305137329.349 | .000 | .b | |
Jealousy (−) | 21.023 | 35452.621 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1350132117.246 | .000 | .b | |
Shame (−) | 46.349 | 19147.919 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 134687881868218000000.000 | .000 | .b | |
Fear (−) | .464 | 17216.104 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.591 | .000 | .b | |
Sadness (−) | 3.031 | 13855.955 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 20.726 | .000 | .b | |
Joy (+) | −.480 | 19549.724 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .619 | .000 | .b | |
Forgiveness (+) | 7.455 | 24432.265 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1729.107 | .000 | .b | |
Love (+) | 1.239 | 26718.325 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 3.452 | .000 | .b | |
Thankfulness (+) | 9.055 | 7536.983 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 8560.522 | .000 | .b | |
Pride (+) | 1.837 | 10838.583 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 6.278 | .000 | .b | |
Gladness (+) | −33.519 | 28558.496 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 2.772E-15 | .000 | .b | |
Inspiration (+) | −8.211 | 43149.464 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .000 | .000 | .b | |
Hope (+) | −5.634 | 11332.098 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .004 | .000 | .b | |
Kindness (+) | 12.634 | .000 | . | 1 | . | 306728.293 | 306728.293 | 306728.293 | |
Warmth (+) | −16.876 | .000 | . | 1 | . | 4.686E-8 | 4.686E-8 | 4.686E-8 | |
Almost always | Almost always experiencing… | ||||||||
Worry (−) | 20.506 | 17453.044 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 804770902.727 | .000 | .b | |
Loneliness (−) | −1.592 | 17924.925 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .203 | .000 | .b | |
Anger (−) | −2.581 | 17950.704 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .076 | .000 | .b | |
Depression (−) | 13.616 | 23382.990 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 819226.292 | .000 | .b | |
Rejection (−) | 3.583 | 6386.837 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 35.979 | .000 | .b | |
Frustration (−) | 18.653 | 14439.424 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 126090251.289 | .000 | .b | |
Jealousy (−) | 14.808 | 29716.579 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 2699157.783 | .000 | .b | |
Shame (−) | 45.466 | 21327.045 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 55691661855071380000.000 | .000 | .b | |
Fear (−) | 5.595 | 14237.673 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 269.191 | .000 | .b | |
Sadness (−) | 1.510 | 24004.762 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 4.529 | .000 | .b | |
Joy (+) | .109 | 9914.736 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.115 | .000 | .b | |
Forgiveness (+) | 5.222 | 12493.560 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 185.332 | .000 | .b | |
Love (+) | −3.497 | 15974.687 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .030 | .000 | .b | |
Thankfulness (+) | 7.421 | 2682.184 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 1671.232 | .000 | .b | |
Pride (+) | −4.543 | 7817.173 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .011 | .000 | .b | |
Gladness (+) | −33.649 | 16456.088 | .000 | 1 | .998 | 2.436E-15 | .000 | .b | |
Inspiration (+) | −16.021 | 38348.256 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.102E-7 | .000 | .b | |
Hope (+) | −7.183 | 6199.960 | .000 | 1 | .999 | .001 | .000 | .b | |
Kindness (+) | 19.455 | .000 | . | 1 | . | 281332174.318 | 281332174.318 | 281332174.318 | |
Warmth (+) | −6.874 | .000 | . | 1 | . | .001 | .001 | .001 |
Parameter estimates.
The reference category is: Always.
Floating point overflow occurred while computing this statistic. Its value is therefore set to system missing.
This parameter is set to zero because it is redundant.
No empirical research is free of limitations; henceforth, such limitations should be acknowledged prior to any conceptualization of our hypotheses. Initially, it should be noted thatSt. Vincent and the Grenadines – as any given society or nation – has social norms and moral values that might be different or conflicting in another social sphere. It may be possible that some commonality still exists among institutionalized males or even among different nations within the Caribbean region. Though, these elements are not sufficient to ignore the issue of representativeness. Keeping in mind the exceptionally high percentage of the particular men who had experienced emotional and psychological distress in their lives linked to prevalent standards of manliness or masculinity taboos, as well as the regional cultural and ethnical diversity, it would have been scientifically imprecise to claim that the results are generalizable and that the present sample represents an area larger than SVG. In addition, given the relatively small – but randomized – size of the sample and population as well as the nature of the questions, conclusions were drawn with extreme caution. Due to conceptual and structural limitations related to constraints on generalizability, this study could not test complex theoretical models from the existing literature; yet, it helped us formulate more specific hypotheses for more definite future investigation.
Research evidence consistently shows high rates of unresolved issues among incarcerated samples. Our study provided evidence that emotional problems among incarcerated men in SVG is associated with a wide range of relational issues such as refrain from crying, suppression of feelings, lack of strong family bonds, and exposure to past abuse. Although, many respondents had the idea of ending their lives, the intensity of such thoughts varied greatly. There was no clear demarcation between those who embrace positive emotions and those who experience a weaker pull in that direction and vice-versa. Inmates having strong positive emotions also displayed a propensity for negative emotions falling the “sometimes” vacuum. Based on the inmates’ responses, it was feasible to make a definitive statement that inmates find it hard to deal with their negative emotions due to past abuse. There is ample indication to show that sharing or dealing with negative emotions is very difficult for all inmates, either they had suffered an abuse or not. Due to intervening factors, with culture being the main one, crying accounted for one of the reasons why inmates may feel uncomfortable to talk about issues of emotional nature. By observation, those persons who were able to pick the issues that bothered them the most and talk about them were also not afraid of crying.
Historically, research attention has focused on the emotional and psychological needs or problems of incarcerated women (e.g. [26, 27, 28, 29, 30]), not those of men. This study findings call for further action; action to screen for and treat emotion-related traumas among incarcerated men. Treatment for emotional problems and their consequences inside correctional settings is pivotal; especially for incarcerated men – a largely neglected but serially traumatized population [31, 32]. In St. Vincent and the Grenadines, a programme whose focus is to address the issue of recidivism, mental health and to overcome behavioral issues, helping inmates to regulate their emotions, develop social skills, and address thinking that can lead to violence and criminality, such as aggressive or antisocial behavior has just gotten under way. The more obvious understanding to stereotypical behaviors is that the society has predetermined the course of males’ emotional reactions. A conceptual “mold” has been created, which has gathered widespread acceptability. As Way [33] argues, the solution lies with exposing the inaccuracies of our gender stereotypes in which human needs and capabilities are given a sex and sexuality. The issue of males being able to reveal their emotions will remain a stigmatized issue unless academics and practitioners are willing to make the issue an urgent one.
In the meantime, helping men to work their way out of the dilemma of having to succumb to “suck it up”, “man it up”, “stop acting like a baby”, “men don’t cry” and other derogative emotive
Family environment could play a viable role in desisting such shaming and stigmatization processes. Respondents put high premium on family and family values, as their deep sense of neglect and the limited interaction with their family members acted as a springboard to their delinquency. They were able to talk about how their families’ aloofness and lack of caring created an emotional void inside them. A noticeable absence of family members’ contribution to relationship building is that of the fathers’. Fathers played little or no role in the lives of the respondents. Generally, fathers have played a limited role in the lives of most Caribbean males, due to the high single parent household that are featured [34]. The extent to which this affect males when dealing with situations that warrant much display of strong emotions is relatively unknown.
We should also have a deeper look into the extent, complexity, and motives of those 120 male inmates who admitted of having some form of suicidal ideation in the past. Given the raising numbers of incarcerated men in SVG and the strength of these associations, targeted intervention is critical. To put this issue in context, the changing of our the local society’s beliefs about males social and emotional capacities would never happen overnight, but invariably rely on the combined skills of educators and parents to help cultivate the inert capacities males possess [35]. This study also unearthed stimulating information for more in-depth research. It allowed for the collection of information regarding imprisoned males and their emotions revealing the various components of those motions and their possible inter-relationships. In the meanwhile, it is anticipated that the present study would contribute in fostering a research culture in prisons and at the same time stimulate individuals to address the pressing issues of health and wellness among the male population in St. Vincent and the Grenadines.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Informed consent was obtained from all individual adult participants included in the study.
The authors have no funding to disclose.
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
cruel and violent treatment of a person
psychological dysfunction in an individual that is associated with distress or impairment and a reaction that is not culturally expected.
strong feelings deriving from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages,
\nPublisher: IntechOpen
\nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license
\nDOI: 10.5772/61430
\nEdited Volume
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\\n\\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\\n\\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\\n\\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\\n\\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\\n\\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\\n\\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\\n\\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\\n\\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\n\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\n\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\n\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\n\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\n\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\n\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\n\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"13",type:"subseries",title:"Plant Physiology",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11409,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. 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