\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3699",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Adaptive Control",title:"Adaptive Control",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Adaptive control has been a remarkable field for industrial and academic research since 1950s. 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\r\n\r\n\tThis book will provide chapters that will attempt to identify common denominators of HCC pathogenesis at the molecular, cellular, and immunologic levels prior to tumor development and during tumor progression. This will define critical targets for new prognostic assays and therapeutic approaches that would be valuable prior to and after a cancer diagnosis.
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Dr. Feitelson worked in a Nobel group for 9 years. He is CSO of SFA Therapeutics and has 11 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A highly innovative researcher who is developing a safe, oral treatment for psoriasis, and by extension, other autoimmune diseases. Dr. Arzumanyan is a Research Associate Professor at Temple University and a Chief Development Officer for SFA Therapeutics.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"252092",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Feitelson",slug:"mark-feitelson",fullName:"Mark Feitelson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252092/images/system/252092.jpg",biography:"Mark Feitelson received his Ph.D. in Microbiology and Immunology in 1979 from UCLA. He began his work with hepatitis B at Stanford University, and was then recruited to the Fox Chase Cancer Center by Dr. Baruch Blumberg (Nobel laureate). He has since worked on the pathogenesis of hepatitis B. In 1991, Dr. Feitelson moved to Thomas Jefferson University where he became Professor of Pathology and Cell Biology. He also was director of a Molecular Diagnostics Lab in Microbiology. In 2007, Dr. Feitelson went to Temple University as a Professor of Biology. His work has been supported by NIH, industry and foundations, has more than 150 publications, and 180 abstracts. He is also CSO of SFA Therapeutics. He has 11 patents, has mentored over 130 students.",institutionString:"Temple University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Temple University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"444732",title:"Dr.",name:"Alla",middleName:null,surname:"Arzumanyan",slug:"alla-arzumanyan",fullName:"Alla Arzumanyan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GuWb7QAF/Profile_Picture_1636653585738",biography:"Alla Arzumanyan received her Ph.D. in Biotechnology from Yerevan State University (YSU) in Armenia (2003). She then pursued postdoctoral training at Temple University and Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia, PA. In 2008 she came to Dr. Feitelson’s group and is currently a Research Associate Professor. She has worked on the pathogenesis of hepatitis B, on the impact of microbial metabolites on the pathogenesis of psoriasis, and is developing an artificial immune system to diagnose, and possibly treat serious human pathogens. She is Chief Development Officer for SFA Therapeutics and has been instrumental in developing a nontoxic, oral therapeutic from selected gut bacteria that is highly effective for the treatment of plaque psoriasis. She has coauthored 17 original papers, 3 book chapters, and has presented 17 posters/invited talks.",institutionString:"Temple University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Temple University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"45328",title:"Quantum Communication Processes and Their Complexity",doi:"10.5772/56356",slug:"quantum-communication-processes-and-their-complexity",body:'The complex systems and their dynamics are treated various way. Ohya looked for synthesizing method to treat complex systems. He established Information Dynamics [36] which is a new concept unifying the dynamics of a state and the complexity of the system itself. By applying Information Dynamics, one can discuss in a unified frame the problems such as in mathematics, physics, biology, information science. Information Dynamics is growing as one of the research fields, for instance, the international journal named "Open Systems and Information Dynamics" in 1992 has appeared. In ID, there are two types of complexity, that is, (a) a complexity of state describing system itself and (b) a transmitted complexity between two systems. Entropies of classical and quantum information theory are the example of the complexities of (a) and (b).
Shannon [52] found that the entropy, introduced in physical systems by Clausius and Boltzmann, can be used to express the amount of information by means of communication processes, and he proposed the so-called information communication theory at the middle part of the 20th century. In his information theory, the entropy and the mutual entropy (information) are most important concepts. The entropy relates to the complexity of ID measuring the amount of information of the state of system. The mutual entropy (information) corresponds to the transmitted complexity of ID representing the amount of information correctly transmitted from the initial system to the final system through a channel, and it was extended to the mutual entropy on the continuous probability space by Gelfand– Kolmogorov - Yaglom [17,23], which was defined by using the relative entropy of two states by Kullback-Leibler [26].
Laser is often used in the current communication. A formulation of information theory being able to treat quantum effects is necessary, which is the so-called quantum information theory. The quantum information theory is important in both mathematics and engineering. It has been developed with quantum entropy theory and quantum probability. In quantum information theory, one of the important problems is to investigate how much information is exactly transmitted to the output system from the input system through a quantum channel. The amount of information of the quantum input system is described by the quantum entropy defined by von Neumann [29] in 1932. The C*-entropy was introduced in [33,35] and its property is discussed in [28,21]. The quantum relative entropy was introduced by Umegaki [55] and it is extended to general quantum system by Araki [4,5], Uhlmann [54] and Donald [14]. Furthermore, it had been required to extend the Shannon’s mutual entropy (information) of classical information theory to that in the quantum one. The classical mutual entropy is defined by using the joint probability expressing a correlation between the input system and the output system. However, it was shown by Urbanik [56] that in quantum system there does not generally exists a joint probability distribution. The semi-classical mutual entropy was introduced by Holevo, Livitin, Ingarden [18,20] for classical input and output passing through a possible quantum channel. By introducing a new notion, the so-called compound state, in 1983 Ohya formulated the mutual entropy [31,32] in a complete quantum mechanical system (i.e., input state, output state and channel are all quantum mechanical), which is called the Ohya mutual entropy. It was generalized to C*-algebra in [Oent84]. The quantum capacity [40] is defined by taking the supremum for the Ohya mutual entropy. By using the Ohya quantum mutual entropy, one can discuss the efficiency of the information transmission in quantum systems [28,27,44,34,35], which allows the detailed analysis of optical communication processes. Concerning quantum communication processes, several studies have been done in [31,32,35,40,41]. Recently, several mutual entropy type measures (Lindblad - Nielsen entropy [10] and Coherent entropy [6]) were defined by using the entropy exchange. One can classify these mutual entropy type measures by calculating their measures for the quantum channel. These entropy type complexities are explained in [39,43].
The entangled state is an important concept for quantum theory and it has been studied recently by several authors. One of the remarkable formulations to search the entanglement state is the Jamiolkowski’s isomorphism [22]. It might be related to the construction of the compound state in quantum communication processes. One can discuss the entangled state generated by the beam splitting and the squeezed state.
The classical dynamical (or Kolmogorov-Sinai) entropy S(T) [23] for a measure preserving transformation T was defined on a message space through finite partitions of the measurable space. The classical coding theorems of Shannon are important tools to analyze communication processes which have been formulated by the mean dynamical entropy and the mean dynamical mutual entropy. The mean dynamical entropy represents the amount of information per one letter of a signal sequence sent from the input source, and the mean dynamical mutual entropy does the amount of information per one letter of the signal received in the output system. In this chapter, we will discuss the complexity of the quantum dynamical system to calculate the mean mutual entropy with respect to the modulated initial states and the attenuation channel for the quantum dynamical systems [59].
The quantum dynamical entropy (QDE) was studied by Connes-Størmer [13], Emch [15], Connes-Narnhofer-Thirring [12], Alicki-Fannes [3], and others [9,48,19,57,11]. Their dynamical entropies were defined in the observable spaces. Recently, the quantum dynamical entropy and the quantum dynamical mutual entropy were studied by the present authors [34,35]: (1) the dynamical entropy is defined in the state spaces through the complexity of Information Dynamics [36]. (2) It is defined through the quantum Markov chain (QMC) was done in [2]. (3) The dynamical entropy for a completely positive (CP) map was defined in [25]. In this chapter, we will discuss the complexity of the quantum dynamical process to calculate the generalized AOW entropy given by KOW entropy for the noisy optical channel [58].
The signal of the input quantum system is transmitted through a physical device, which is called a quantum channel. The concept of channel has been performed an important role in the progress of the quantum information communication theory. The mathematical representation of the quantum channel is a mapping from the input state space to the output state space. In particular, the attenuation channel [31] and the noisy optical channel [44] are remarkable examples of the quantum channels describing the quantum optical communication processes. These channels are related to the mathematical desctiption of the beam splitter.
Here we review the definition of the quantum channels.
Let
for any
Let
The above maps
The map
for any
Noisy optical channel
where
where
and
where
In particular for the coherent input states
the output state of
The noisy optical channel with a vacuum noise is called the attenuation channel introduced in [31] by
where
In particular, for the coherent input state
one can obtain the output state
Lifting
We are interested to study the dynamics of state change or the complexity of state for several systems. Information dynamics (ID) is a new concept introduced by Ohya [36] to construct a theory under the ID\'s framework by synthesizing these investigating schemes. In ID, a complexity of state describing system itself and a transmitted complexity between two systems are used. The examples of these complexities are the Shannon\'s entropy and the mutual entropy (information) in classical entropy theory. In quantum entropy theory, it was known that the von Neumann entropy and the Ohya mutual entropy relate to these complexities. Recently, several mutual entropy type measures (the Lindblad - Nielsen entropy [10] and the Coherent entropy [6]) were proposed by means of the entropy exchange for an input state and a channel.
Ohya introduced Information Dynamics (ID) synthesizing dynamics of state change and complexity of state. Based on ID, one can study various problems of physics and other fields. Channel and two complexities are key concepts of ID. Two kinds of complexities
For any
For a bijection
is hold, where
For
It means that the complexity of the state
(1’) For any
(4)
(5) If the channel
The examples of the above complexities are the Shannon entropy
Since the present optical communication is using the optical signal including quantum effect, it is necessary to construct new information theory dealing with those quantum phenomena in order to discuss the efficiency of information transmission of optical communication processes rigorously. The quantum information theory is important in both mathematics and engineering, and it contains several topics, for instance, quantum entropy theory, quantum communication theory, quantum teleportation, quantum entanglement, quantum algorithm, quantum coding theory and so on. It has been developed with quantum entropy theory and quantum probability. In quantum information theory, one of the important problems is to investigate how much information is exactly transmitted to the output system from the input system through a quantum channel. The amount of information of the quantum communication system is described by the quantum mutual entropy defined by Ohya [31], based on the quantum entropy by von Neumann [29], and the quantum relative entropy by Umegaki [55], Araki [4] and Uhlmann [54]. The quantum information theory directly relates to quantum communication theory, for instance, [40,41,45]. One of the most important communication processes is quantum teleportation, whose new treatment was studied in [24]. It is important to classify quantum states. One of such classifications is to study entanglement and separability of states (see [7,8]). There have been lots of trials in finite dimensional Hilbert spaces. Quantum mechanics should be basically discussed in infinite dimensional Hilbert spaces. We have to study such a classification in infinite dimensional Hilbert spaces.
The study of the entropy in quantum system was begun by von Neumann [29] in 1932. For any state given by the density operator
Since the von Neumann entropy satisfies the conditions (1),(2),(3) of the complexity of state of ID, it seems to be considered as an example of the complexity of state
Here we briefly explain Let us comment general entropies of states in C*-dynamical systems. The C*-entropy (
Let
where
where
For a state
It describes the amount of information of the state
The classical relative entropy in continuous probability space was defined by Kullback-Leibler [26]. It was developed in noncommutative probability space. The quantum relative entropy was first defined by Umegaki [55] for σ-finite von Neumann algebras, which denotes a certain difference between two states. It was extended by Araki [4] and Uhlmann [54] for general von Neumann algebras and *-algebras, respectively.
The relative entropy of two states was introduced by Umegaki in [55] for
where
The relative entropy for two general states was introduced by Araki [4,5] in von Neumann algebra and Uhlmann [54] in *-algebra. The above properties are held for these relative entropies.
Let
where
where
Let
For each
For any
This semi-norm
Let
The Ohya mutual entropy [31] with respect to the initial state
where
where
For a certain set
If
where
Based on the classical relative entropy, the mutual entropy was discussed by Shannon to study the information transmission in classical systems and it was extended by Ohya [33,34,35] for fully general quantum systems.
Let
The compound state
and the mutual entropy with respect to
Shor [53] and Bennet et al [6,10] proposed the mutual type measures so-called the coherent entropy and the Lindblad-Nielson entropy by using the entropy exchange [50] defined by
where
for a state
of a channel
In this section, we compare with these mutual types measures. By comparing these mutual entropies for quantum information communication processes, we have the following theorem [47]:
For the attenuation channel
The above Theorem shows that the coherent entropy
The classical dynamical (or Kolmogorov-Sinai) entropy S(T) [23] for a measure preserving transformation T was defined on a message space through finite partitions of the measurable space.
The classical coding theorems of Shannon are important tools to analyse communication processes which have been formulated by the mean dynamical entropy and the mean dynamical mutual entropy. The mean dynamical entropy represents the amount of information per one letter of a signal sequence sent from an input source, and the mean dynamical mutual entropy does the amount of information per one letter of the signal received in an output system.
The quantum dynamical entropy (QDE) was studied by Connes-Størmer [13], Emch [15], Connes- Narnhofer-Thirring [12], Alicki-Fannes [3], and others [9,48,19,57,11]. Their dynamical entropies were defined in the observable spaces. Recently, the quantum dynamical entropy and the quantum dynamical mutual entropy were studied by the present authors [34,35]: (1) The dynamical entropy is defined in the state spaces through the complexity of Information Dynamics [36]. (2) It is defined through the quantum Markov chain (QMC) was done in [2]. (3) The dynamical entropy for a completely positive (CP) maps was introduced in [25].
The classical Shannon ‘s coding theorems are important subject to study communication processes which have been formulated by the mean entropy and the mean mutual entropy based on the classical dynamical entropy. The mean entropy shows the amount of information per one letter of a signal sequence of an input source, and the mean mutual entropy denotes the amount of information per one letter of the signal received in an output system. Those mean entropies were extended in general quantum systems.
In this section, we briefly explain a new formulation of quantum mean mutual entropy of K-S type given by Ohya [35,27].
In quantum information theory, a stationary information source is denoted by a
Let an output
In this section, we explain functional
Let
Furthermore
For any pair
where
For a given pair of finite sequences of completely positive unitalmaps
Let
For each completely positive unital map
The functional
Then the fundamental inequality in information theory holds for
These functional
for any finite partitions
In general quantum structure, we have the following theorems [35,27].
The above theorem is a Kolmogorov-Sinai type convergence theorem for the mutual entropy [35,27,28,34].
In particular, a quantum extension of classical formulation for information transmission giving a basis of Shannon\'s coding theorems can be considered in the case that
Using this capacity, one can consider Shannon\'s coding theorems in fully quantum systems.
Based on the paper [59], we here explain general modulated states and briefly review some examples of modulated states (PPM, OOK, PSK).
Let
We denote the set of all density operators on
where an element of
where an element of
For any
where
For
where
For
where
Now we briefly review the calculation of the mean mutual entropy of K-S type for the modulated state (PSK) by means of the coherent state. Other calculations are obtained in [59].
where
PSK. For an initial state
where the eigenvalues
Two projections
where
For the above initial state
where the eigenvalues
When
The compound states through the attenuation channel
By using the above lemma, we have the following theorem.
and
In this section, we briefly explain the definition of the KOW entropy according to [25].
For a normal state
in the sense of [1,25], where
in the sense of Accardi and Ohya [1]. For a normal, unital CP map
and the lifting is defined by
where
for all
where
where
In this section, I briefly explain the generalized AF and AOW entropies based on the KOW entropy [25].
For a finite operational partition of unity
where
and
where
Therefore the generalized AF entropy
where the dynamical entropies
Then we have the following theorem [25]:
where
where
Based on [40,41,45,46], one can obtain
Thus we have
If
The oral-gastro-intestinal-sex-skin can be classified as unique large and heterogeneous apparatus populated by a huge variety of microorganisms, bacteria, virus, fungi, and other single-celled creatures, that compose the totality of human microbiota that contributes together with bone/skeleton system, to maintain the body energy homeostasis. The human body hosts something like 10–100 trillion microbial cells that coexist in a strict fruitful symbiotic relationship that persists as long as the body is kept in a balanced healthy state [1, 2]. The gut plays an important role in regulating metabolic immune activities. The gut’s essential task is the absorption of nutrients and the synthesis of important micromolecules obtained from food that cannot be assimilated by the stomach and small intestine [1, 2, 3]. Xyloglucans and fructo-oligosaccharides from vegetables and fruits, protein, and lipids; the assimilation of essential vitamins like vitamins B-12, D, and K; and the synthesis of hormones like serotonin from tryptophan amino acid take place right in the gut, thanks to the constant activity of its entire microbiota. The microbiota are able to produce 50–100 mmol·L—1 per day of extremely important short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as acetic, propionic, and butyric acids—and serve as an energy source to the host intestinal epithelium and skeleton [1, 2, 3, 4].
The importance of SCFAs has been well described by several studies during the last decade; the activity of acetic acid, for instance, has been found to be essential against infections, in blood pressure regulation and against sclerotic plaque deposition in arterial walls. The presence of butyric acid is an essential anti-IBS agent due to its immune-modulator properties and anti-inflammatory action, while propionic acid has been found to be important in preventing obesity and diabetes 2 [1, 2, 3, 4].
Although bacteria, viruses, and fungi might be very harmful and dangerous, they are indispensable for life as well. This symbiotic coexistence throughout the millennia made a deep crucial biological impact on human species, and it has become essential not only for survival but for evolution as well. Accumulating evidences have clearly demonstrated how part of these specific microorganisms can resume specific immunomodulatory roles and the way they affect either composition function or migration of various immune cell subpopulations from one site to a different location. For instance, oral macrophages may migrate under the influence of specific signal induction of local microbiota from oral either to the lungs or even the brain passing through the blood brain barrier (BBB) [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
The outcomes from experiments performed on germ-free (GF) mice confirmed the great role of gut microbiota in the upsurge of immune system deficiencies. GF animals were shown to have compromised Paneth cells and low levels of natural killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells (DCs), and α/β + and γ/δ + T cell populations that play an important role in defense and pathogenesis during inflammation and infection, especially against certain types of malignancies. In addition, GF animals were highly susceptible to frequent infections due to a decline in angiogenin-4 (Ang4), a powerful antimicrobial part of the class of microbicide proteins in Paneth cells [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
The alteration of the gut microbiota may contribute to open up the invasion of exogenous pathogens that may destabilize the whole intestinal mucosa. The pathogen systematic overgrowth will trigger a cascade of strong inflammatory responses making intestinal mucosa highly susceptible and motile. The chronic inflammation will weaken the endothelial tide junction to the point that the walls become highly relaxed and permeable causing the phenomenon known as “leaky gut” that allows the free, uncontrolled passage of microorganism into the system via the bloodstream and tissues where they start allocating. In fact, the presence of these typical gut residents could be found in eroded, inflamed, and degenerated joints and organs such as the lungs, heart, brain, and liver [11, 12, 13].
The high and uncontrolled levels of pathogenic microorganism colonizing the gut contribute to a condition known as dysbiosis [14]. Since few years the dysbiosis has been associated with a variety of degenerative patterns that tend to subvert the metabolic/neuro/hormonal/immune axis contributing to a variety of disorders that round to different body systems ranging from skeleton, cardiovascular, to neuro system. There are several mechanisms proposed that are able to trigger this state of systemic disorders; one of the possibilities is linked to bacterial metabolites and immune-modulating mediators that contribute to the high permeability of intestinal mucosa allowing local pathogens to get through the mucosal barriers triggering a huge variety of immune responses. A second and though related mechanism is the sabotage of SCFAs’ production; the consequences of this mechanism are the abrupt breakdown of energy balance mechanism, a reduction of cell-bacteria signaling pathway, and the worsening of epithelial cell layer integrity due to the decreased production of tight junction proteins which allows the translocation of LPS into the submucosa as well. The significant presence of pro-inflammatory cytokines and interleukins such as TNFα, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-6 is the peculiar trait of a dysbiotic gut (Figure 1) [14, 15, 16]. A third way of dysbiosis transmission is through the vagus nerve (VN), the main component of parasympathetic nervous system (PSN) which also constitutes an effective bridge of the gut/CNS axis. This hypothesis, today supported by a concrete line of evidences, proposes the existence of a reciprocal interference way between the CNS and gut through the VN. In this view the VN is able to perceive microbiota movement, grade of activity, and therefore degradation; on the other hand, pathogens once out from the gut mucosa barrier are able to communicate and move to the CNS through the VN pathway [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
The gut microbiota is a very dynamic ecosystem. The entire gut microbiota is composed of different sub-environments with unique features like niches with specific microbes and tissue interactions. The large intestine represents the more populated area and performs the highest variety of biotransformation under the guide of specific gene expression in charge of enzymes necessary for highly specific biotransformation necessary of the SCFAs. The local flora is crucial for the local microbiome homeostasis, and the whole chain of bio-reaction takes place in spaces with a specific mean pH of 6.5–7. The changes in local balance homeostasis and in pH negatively impact on the mucosa shield that repair the outside and inside permeability gradient. Once the stability and the equilibrium between all the components are broken, the gut walls become fragile under the constant attack of local immune cells that start to deteriorate the integrity of both endothelial wall and mucosa shield that induce on medium long term and accumulation of pro-inflammatory endotoxins, bacteria free passage into the system, and low antimicrobial peptide production with a consequent high gastrointestinal motility.
These essential structural alterations are at the base of neurodegenerative pathologies. Though it is a unique pathological aspect, we may see the presence of a common configuration indeed, which is a shared neurological chronic inflammatory pattern. In all these cases, the chronic neuro-inflammatory condition is characterized by an abnormal hyperactive behavior of neural immune cells, the microglia, known as macrophages of the brain [18, 19]. The chronic inflammatory state that from the gut opens up the pathway of pathogenic microbiota invasion all the way through oral and brain compartment, which is the hallmark of neurodegenerative disorders’ dynamic pathogenesis. Patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s (AD), multiple sclerosis (MS), or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis all present a variety of disturbances in intestinal microbial compared to healthy individuals. Neurodegenerative-affected patients’ intestinal and fecal analysis showed a clear clinical picture of microbiota dysbiosis. The test outcomes showed high level of coliform and gram-negative bacteria from
Disruption of the BBB is a hallmark in individuals with neurodegenerative diseases that contributes to a steady and progressive death of dopaminergic neurons in the CNS. The BBB is a part of a systemic condition that eventually allows the invasion of pathogens and immune agents from a dysbiotic gut into the CNS. However, damages are also due to a series of changes that weaken the integrity of microvasculature and blood vessels; these modifications are mainly due to nutritional impairment as a consequence of gut microbiota disturbances that cause low-level intake of important nutrients. Deficiencies in vitamins like C, K, D, and folates responsible for low hydroxylation for the formation of chondro-sulfate necessary for healthy microvessel endothelial walls, the augmentation of free radicals, and depletion in oxygen contents and nitrogen, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), cyclooxygenases (COXs), and hypoxia-inducible factor-1
Thus the scenario existing in the great majority of neurodegenerative pathologies presents a combination of higher permeability of the intestinal barriers and the BBB, inducing a greater access between gut microbiota and the CNS compartment. Experiments conducted with the use of high dose of minocycline antibiotic are well known to have an impact on specific gut and oral invasive bacteria; the post-administration results showed significant protection on LPS-induced PD in mice data confirmed by a significant amelioration of neuro-inflammatory markers such as TNF-α expression, IL-1α expression, and microglia activation and a substantial amelioration of astrocyte loss with an increased number of surviving dopaminergic neurons compared to control LPS only-injected mice [36, 37]. It follows that a correct use of antibiotics generally known to alter gut microbial diversity may disclose a positive immune protective side effect on inflammatory mechanism existent in PD patients [36, 37, 38]. Several other outcomes have shown the beneficial effects of oral antibiotic, minocycline, and tetracycline, in CNS degenerative condition like the experimental autoimmune encephalopathy (EAE) disease and MS. It was found a significant increase of IL-10 expression concomitant with a favorable increase of a subset of invariant NK T cells and in patients with MS, and there was a substantial reduction of CNS deteriorations [38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
Aging brings generally substantial physiological alterations—hormonal, humoral, and physical—that involves the entire homeostatic organization of the human body. Of course the GI tract and its microbiota as well undergo through profound changes that under the variations of dietary influences bring to a general decline of cognitive and immune activities. With aging, the gut microbiota lost bacterial balanced diversity with an increase of “pathogenic Proteobacteria” vs. a continuing, steady, and progressive lower level of “friend bacteria” such as Firmicutes,
Another important feature of gut microbiota is the ability to modulate genes that can be seen either on regulation or variation; this is one of the main factors that may explain the influences that gut microbiota eventually exert on bone development and on bone-related diseases such as osteoporosis, osteopenia, or the different types of arthritis. The delicate homeostatic balance that regulates bone formation and resorption is partly played by the activity of intestinal microorganisms. This activity is basically performed through the interaction with endocrine/nervous system axis; thereby the hormonal activity such as serotonin, cortisol, and sex hormones and several growth factors affect bone mass in mice and humans. In addition, bone marrow stem cells, circulatory stem cells, and stem cells from bone marrow niche are highly sensitive to gut microenvironment condition which eventually affects the differentiation process toward either osteoblasts or osteoclasts. In this case it has been proven that the metabolic pathway compartment which involves the ribosome activity, glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, carbon metabolism, and mitochondria ATP are fully responsible of regulating MSCs’ functionality, growth, proliferation, and differentiation [45, 46].
This important connection has also been confirmed by Xiao and colleagues; they were able to highlight through the single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis the existing connection between the gut microbiota, BM-MSCs, and bone metabolic functionality. The presence of several factors such as the HIF-1 together with the expression of infection/inflammatory signaling pathways could be the scattering patterns that influence MSC mobility and immunomodulation. These outcomes showed how HIF-1 signaling is involved in BM-MSC immunomodulation. In fact, the HIF-1 is notoriously known as a triggering factor of inflammatory transcription factor NFκB and an active regulator of specific cytokine and chemokine recruitment in inflammation and infection situations. The chronic presence of an inflammatory response under the triggering activity of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as the TNF superfamily IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, and IL-17 can deeply disturb the osteoclast and osteoblast balance, typically resulting in a net hyper-osteoclast activity and thus bone loss. While there is an evident mechanical effect on the bone where these cytokines stimulate osteoclast differentiation with a consequent upregulation of RANKL expression in progenitor osteoblasts together with a higher RANKL expression, a concomitant nonmechanical effect under the downregulation of specific deficit due to a metabolic inability of vitamin K and vitamin D synthesis in the intestinal lumen should be mentioned (Figure 2) [47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54].
The gut dysbiosis is one of the main contributors in osteo-degenerative conditions. The dysbiotic microenvironment increase the viability of systemic pro-inflammatory cytokines and interleukins generating three main anti-regenerative patterns, the increase of pH acidic level, decrease of the differentiating pathway from MSCs and SCs toward osteoblasts, and hyper-expression of osteoclast activity. The dysbiosis generates a defective absorption mechanism of important nutrients for bone homeostasis like vitamins, among them K and D, and hormones such as serotonin, testosterone, and estrogen. The prerogative of this condition is a cascade of events that will involve systemically and progressively the whole vital activity of cells, tissues, and systems of the organism.
The potential impact of the therapeutic effect of probiotic on a dysbiotic situation could not be seen without taking in consideration a change of lifestyle. Diet habits, stress, poor healthy conditions, and lack of exercise can significantly impact the gut microbiota stability [55, 56, 57]. There are many evidences that nutritional habits based on “Western diet” composed of huge additive and animal fats, processed glucose and excessive quantities of hypercaloric nutritional facts, low contents of fresh food, and low level of vitamins and minerals, essential for our body, all negatively affect the correct balance of gut microbiota, which eventually lead to the insurgence of metabolic dysfunctions. It is also well known that these bad behaviors are associated with an increased risk of developing several chronic diseases that may attack oral microbiota and vaginal microbiota that recent study findings have indicated as an independent risk factor for severe neurodegenerative conditions [9, 58, 59, 60].
By definition, probiotic refers to large and diverse types of microbes both commensal that normally reside in the gut and exogenous that may migrate through the intestine following food or diet and supplement consumption. Probiotics might be composed of different microbial strains, the most common include species of
As previously mentioned, currently there is a great interest on the use of specific probiotics as therapeutic tool to be associated as clinical approach toward immune system pathologies that may include autoimmune conditions that may attack nerves, bone, and bowel. Given the prevalence of probiotic use, the effects of probiotics on bone health is of significant interest.
Significant positive clinical outcomes have been obtained in numerous studies conducted on CNS inflammatory condition that have therapeutically used different types of probiotic strains. The results showed a reduction of CNS inflammatory level and progression; these outcomes were eventually explained by the capacity of certain strains (
In addition, an experiment with genetically engineered microbial strains such as
Therefore beneficial homeostatic-metabolic effect of specific probiotic strains can be seen on different systems such as the cardiovascular, immune, and CNS. For instance, few strains conserve a natural ability of inhibiting the insurgence of hypercholesteremia in both mice and human. In fact the use of
Major depressive disorders have been seen even today as a consequence of decreased serotonin level; therefore, the therapeutic strategy has mainly concentrated on producing medication, which focused on serotonin only. The major treatments are based on a class of drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). These SSRIs stimulate the serotonin uptake between neurons, and, though it has been seen some improvements, the medium long-term use has produced serious side effects on gut homeostatic balance with severe metabolic disturbances. Nowadays, as above mentioned, following the fact that current researches have established associations between gut microbes, digestive function, and mental well-being especially under the fact that serotonin is synthesized in the gut by the combined activity of different microbiota strain such as
Overall the data on this specific topic all have evidenced the positive effects of probiotics in CNS health. These effects are explained by the ability of probiotics to directly interact with fundamental metabolic agents either within the gut or outside that eventually explain the Gut-CNS axis. The use of probiotics and in specific the
To conclude, the higher permeability of gut or “leaky gut” intensifies the fee passage of endotoxins such as the LPS and other forms of molecules and pathogens to leak into the bloodstream and thus in the entire system. The upsurge of these endotoxins, pathogens, and waste molecules eventually trigger the activation of a cascade of immune responses through switching on the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) that mediates the recruitment of T and B lymphocytes together with a huge number of pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukins, and IgA (Figure 3) [80, 81]. The current position therefore considers the use of probiotics as a therapeutic tool that may exert beneficial effects on the CNS by improving the stability homeostasis and integrity of gut microbiota, decreasing systemic inflammation.
There is a strict connection between CNS and gut system. The connection takes place through the afferent and efferent pathways of vagus nerve that physically connects both CNS and gut. Both CNS and gut may undergo leaky phenomena; in both cases, the barriers of either CNS or gut become extremely permeable under the chronic attack of both pathogens and immune agents overexpressed on the site. This event may eventually explain degenerative condition of both systems including IBS, ulcerative colitis, depression, PD, AD, and MS.
The skin represents another system where an immense variegation of microbiota environment can be found. Skin diseases caused by disturbances at the level of local microbiota that also showed to have strict connection with gut dysbiosis are quite exhaustive in explaining these malevolence patterns. Psoriatic lesions show a very specific histopathological conformation which present highly infiltrated immune cells like the CD3+ T cells and dendritic cells (DCs). Psoriasis showed to have a genetic family trait prevalent in twins; researchers have spotted 36 genetic loci associated with PS susceptibility 1 (
In oral dysbiosis, we are facing a similar inflammatory arrangement; oral diseases manifest with high-grade inflammatory patterns that spread from the gums to the adjacent structures gradually destroying the supporting tissues of the teeth, both ligaments and alveolar bones, causing early loss. Similarly to psoriasis in periodontitis, we may encounter multifactorial condition due to a combination of genetic variants triggered by the initial subgingival dysbiosis and then become highly susceptible to wider disease progression [85].
The gram-negative bacteria such as
As can be seen from published studies, different strains of probiotics have been used for the treatment of periodontitis.
Therefore an associated altered gut microbiota may lead to chronic gut dysbiosis and propagation of systemic injuries that involve cells, tissues, system, and the intrinsic dysfunction of the regenerative mechanism.
In summary, the present chapter reveals that gut microbiota and a correct use of probiotic may play important pleiotropic functions on several levels and systems. It is now clear that there is a bidirectional interaction between microbiota and nervous system, microbiota and immunity, microbiota and bones, and eventually microbiota and mitochondria. Probiotics are getting more and more attention due to the increase of evidence of their benefits in many degenerative disorders. It shows the capacity of microbiota to restore gut and vaginal and oral microbiota, thus attenuating various severe inflammatory responses. All these findings suggest that probiotics could play a role in clinical procedure and therapy approaches to decrease the risk of morbidity and mortality related to CNS diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and bone degenerations. The shared information presented on this chapter may also demonstrate that the traditional view on gut microbiota and microbiome has changed and may be eventually useful as a prospective medium for the delivery of superior, more precise, and personalized treatments in the achievement of better protective health benefits for a more and more aging society.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
The authors contributed equally to this work.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
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\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
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\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
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Corrosion is an ubiquitous phenomena that deteriorates all materials, metals, plastics, glass and concrete. The costs of corrosion are tremendous and amounts to 4.0% of gross domestic product (GDP) in USA. The similar losses of GDP are noted in all countries around the world. At this point of time, there is no way to completely stop the corrosion processes. Some new solutions can only slow this process. Organic corrosion inhibitors are widely used in industry because of their effectiveness at wide range of temperatures, compatibility with protected materials, good solubility in water, low costs and relatively low toxicity. Organic corrosion inhibitors adsorb on the surface to form protective film which displace water and protect it against deteriorating. Effective organic corrosion inhibitors contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus with lone electron pairs as well can contain structural moieties with π-electrons that interact with metal favoring the adsorption process. This review presents mechanisms and monitoring of corrosion, laboratory methods for corrosion study, relationship between structure and efficacy of corrosion inhibitions, theoretical approach to design new inhibitors and some aspects of biocorrosion.",book:{id:"6402",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications"},signatures:"Bogumił Eugeniusz Brycki, Iwona H. Kowalczyk, Adrianna Szulc,\nOlga Kaczerewska and Marta Pakiet",authors:[{id:"197271",title:"Prof.",name:"Bogumil E.",middleName:null,surname:"Brycki",slug:"bogumil-e.-brycki",fullName:"Bogumil E. Brycki"},{id:"207547",title:"Dr.",name:"Iwona",middleName:null,surname:"Kowalczyk",slug:"iwona-kowalczyk",fullName:"Iwona Kowalczyk"},{id:"207548",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrianna",middleName:null,surname:"Szulc",slug:"adrianna-szulc",fullName:"Adrianna Szulc"},{id:"207549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Kaczerewska",slug:"olga-kaczerewska",fullName:"Olga Kaczerewska"},{id:"220728",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Pakiet",slug:"marta-pakiet",fullName:"Marta Pakiet"}]},{id:"33625",doi:"10.5772/32333",title:"Corrosive Effects of Chlorides on Metals",slug:"corrosive-effects-of-chlorides-on-metals",totalDownloads:31454,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:null,book:{id:"1386",slug:"pitting-corrosion",title:"Pitting Corrosion",fullTitle:"Pitting Corrosion"},signatures:"Fong-Yuan Ma",authors:[{id:"91052",title:"Dr.",name:"Fong Yuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"fong-yuan-ma",fullName:"Fong Yuan Ma"}]},{id:"31704",doi:"10.5772/29784",title:"Analysis of Abrasion Characteristics in Textiles",slug:"analysis-of-abrasion-characteristics-in-textiles",totalDownloads:27670,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"572",slug:"abrasion-resistance-of-materials",title:"Abrasion Resistance of Materials",fullTitle:"Abrasion Resistance of Materials"},signatures:"Nilgün Özdil, Gonca Özçelik Kayseri and Gamze Süpüren Mengüç",authors:[{id:"79302",title:"Dr.",name:"Nilgün",middleName:null,surname:"Özdil",slug:"nilgun-ozdil",fullName:"Nilgün Özdil"},{id:"113444",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonca",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcelik",slug:"gonca-ozcelik",fullName:"Gonca Ozcelik"},{id:"118975",title:"Dr.",name:"Gamze",middleName:null,surname:"Supuren Menguc",slug:"gamze-supuren-menguc",fullName:"Gamze Supuren Menguc"}]},{id:"58797",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72753",title:"Green Corrosion Inhibitors, Past, Present, and Future",slug:"green-corrosion-inhibitors-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:3697,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Green corrosion inhibitors are of interest because there has been an increase in environmental awareness and a change in regulations that restrict regular corrosion inhibitors due to their toxicity. Natural products are a good source of green corrosion inhibitors, where most of their extracts containing the necessary elements such as O, C, N, and S, which are active in organic compounds, assist in adsorption of these compounds on metals or alloys to form a film that protects the surface and hinders corrosion. Numerous natural products and their application in different processes, especially in steel reinforcement embedded in concrete, are discussed. Development of green chemistry and green chemical technologies offers novel synthetic methods for ionic liquids, which are considered as new corrosion green inhibitors, and their mechanism of adsorption, how these green inhibitors act in different media, and their protective role for different metals and alloys are discussed. Finally, industrial applications of vapor-phase inhibitors and their mechanisms are presented.",book:{id:"6402",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications"},signatures:"Omnia S. Shehata, Lobna A. Korshed and Adel Attia",authors:[{id:"220734",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Omnia",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"omnia-shehata",fullName:"Omnia Shehata"},{id:"227918",title:"Prof.",name:"Adel",middleName:null,surname:"Attia",slug:"adel-attia",fullName:"Adel Attia"},{id:"227919",title:"Dr.",name:"Lobna",middleName:null,surname:"Korshed",slug:"lobna-korshed",fullName:"Lobna Korshed"}]},{id:"58232",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72572",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors for Reinforced Concrete: A Review",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-for-reinforced-concrete-a-review",totalDownloads:2979,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"The objective of the topic is to review the recent trends in corrosion inhibitors for reinforced concrete and their application in the laboratory and field conditions. Inhibitors are chemical substances which when added to the concrete in small concentrations will inhibit or prolong the time to initiation of corrosion in concrete structures. This chapter focuses on the type of inhibitors used in concrete based upon their mode of action and the way of application. The section deals with anodic, cathodic, mixed inhibitors; performance of admixed inhibitor vs. migrating/surface applied inhibitor and their evaluation studies; and electrochemical injection of corrosion inhibitor (EICI) in concrete and electrochemical chloride extraction techniques has been reviewed.",book:{id:"6402",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications"},signatures:"Han-Seung Lee, Velu Saraswathy, Seung-Jun Kwon and Subbiah\nKarthick",authors:[{id:"181893",title:"Dr.",name:"Saraswathy",middleName:null,surname:"V",slug:"saraswathy-v",fullName:"Saraswathy V"},{id:"215347",title:"Prof.",name:"Han Seung",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"han-seung-lee",fullName:"Han Seung Lee"},{id:"215438",title:"Prof.",name:"Seung Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Kwon",slug:"seung-jun-kwon",fullName:"Seung Jun Kwon"},{id:"215440",title:"MSc.",name:"Subbiah",middleName:null,surname:"Karthick",slug:"subbiah-karthick",fullName:"Subbiah Karthick"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58498",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors for Reinforced Concrete",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-for-reinforced-concrete",totalDownloads:2505,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Reinforced concrete has been widely used in the last century, however, due to aggressive agents such as carbonic gas and chloride ions, it suffers premature deterioration. The concrete is a physical barrier that protects steel from corrosion, and the alkalinity of concrete leads to the formation of a passive layer around the reinforcement, which increases protection against corrosive processes. However, concrete is a porous material and has cracks that allow the entrance of aggressive agents, destabilizing the passive layer and corroding steel. The corrosion is the major cause of deterioration of concrete structures and several methods of protection and repair have been developed to increase the durability of such structures. Corrosion inhibitors, chemical substances that reduce the corrosion rate, have been widely used, both for prevention and correction. Inhibitors are classified according to their method of application, their mechanism of protection and chemical composition. In this chapter, through a literature review the main inhibitors used in reinforced concrete structures and their acting mechanisms are presented, as well as their efficiency and some side effects on concrete. It is very important to know the different types of inhibitors for correct use, thus increasing the life span of reinforced concrete structures.",book:{id:"6402",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications"},signatures:"Marianna Luna Sousa Rivetti, José da Silva Andrade Neto, Nilson\nSantana de Amorim Júnior and Daniel Véras Ribeiro",authors:[{id:"216069",title:"Mr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade Neto",slug:"jose-andrade-neto",fullName:"José Andrade Neto"},{id:"216070",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Véras",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"daniel-ribeiro",fullName:"Daniel Ribeiro"},{id:"216073",title:"MSc.",name:"Marianna",middleName:null,surname:"Rivetti",slug:"marianna-rivetti",fullName:"Marianna Rivetti"},{id:"216075",title:"Mr.",name:"Nilson",middleName:null,surname:"Amorim Júnior",slug:"nilson-amorim-junior",fullName:"Nilson Amorim Júnior"}]},{id:"58695",title:"Organic Corrosion Inhibitors",slug:"organic-corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:4204,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:"Organic corrosion inhibitors are one of the five ways, besides material selection, design, cathodic protection and coatings, to protect materials against corrosion. Corrosion is an ubiquitous phenomena that deteriorates all materials, metals, plastics, glass and concrete. The costs of corrosion are tremendous and amounts to 4.0% of gross domestic product (GDP) in USA. The similar losses of GDP are noted in all countries around the world. At this point of time, there is no way to completely stop the corrosion processes. Some new solutions can only slow this process. Organic corrosion inhibitors are widely used in industry because of their effectiveness at wide range of temperatures, compatibility with protected materials, good solubility in water, low costs and relatively low toxicity. Organic corrosion inhibitors adsorb on the surface to form protective film which displace water and protect it against deteriorating. Effective organic corrosion inhibitors contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus with lone electron pairs as well can contain structural moieties with π-electrons that interact with metal favoring the adsorption process. This review presents mechanisms and monitoring of corrosion, laboratory methods for corrosion study, relationship between structure and efficacy of corrosion inhibitions, theoretical approach to design new inhibitors and some aspects of biocorrosion.",book:{id:"6402",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications"},signatures:"Bogumił Eugeniusz Brycki, Iwona H. Kowalczyk, Adrianna Szulc,\nOlga Kaczerewska and Marta Pakiet",authors:[{id:"197271",title:"Prof.",name:"Bogumil E.",middleName:null,surname:"Brycki",slug:"bogumil-e.-brycki",fullName:"Bogumil E. Brycki"},{id:"207547",title:"Dr.",name:"Iwona",middleName:null,surname:"Kowalczyk",slug:"iwona-kowalczyk",fullName:"Iwona Kowalczyk"},{id:"207548",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrianna",middleName:null,surname:"Szulc",slug:"adrianna-szulc",fullName:"Adrianna Szulc"},{id:"207549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Kaczerewska",slug:"olga-kaczerewska",fullName:"Olga Kaczerewska"},{id:"220728",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Pakiet",slug:"marta-pakiet",fullName:"Marta Pakiet"}]},{id:"58797",title:"Green Corrosion Inhibitors, Past, Present, and Future",slug:"green-corrosion-inhibitors-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:3707,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Green corrosion inhibitors are of interest because there has been an increase in environmental awareness and a change in regulations that restrict regular corrosion inhibitors due to their toxicity. Natural products are a good source of green corrosion inhibitors, where most of their extracts containing the necessary elements such as O, C, N, and S, which are active in organic compounds, assist in adsorption of these compounds on metals or alloys to form a film that protects the surface and hinders corrosion. Numerous natural products and their application in different processes, especially in steel reinforcement embedded in concrete, are discussed. Development of green chemistry and green chemical technologies offers novel synthetic methods for ionic liquids, which are considered as new corrosion green inhibitors, and their mechanism of adsorption, how these green inhibitors act in different media, and their protective role for different metals and alloys are discussed. Finally, industrial applications of vapor-phase inhibitors and their mechanisms are presented.",book:{id:"6402",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications"},signatures:"Omnia S. Shehata, Lobna A. Korshed and Adel Attia",authors:[{id:"220734",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Omnia",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"omnia-shehata",fullName:"Omnia Shehata"},{id:"227918",title:"Prof.",name:"Adel",middleName:null,surname:"Attia",slug:"adel-attia",fullName:"Adel Attia"},{id:"227919",title:"Dr.",name:"Lobna",middleName:null,surname:"Korshed",slug:"lobna-korshed",fullName:"Lobna Korshed"}]},{id:"33625",title:"Corrosive Effects of Chlorides on Metals",slug:"corrosive-effects-of-chlorides-on-metals",totalDownloads:31460,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:null,book:{id:"1386",slug:"pitting-corrosion",title:"Pitting Corrosion",fullTitle:"Pitting Corrosion"},signatures:"Fong-Yuan Ma",authors:[{id:"91052",title:"Dr.",name:"Fong Yuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"fong-yuan-ma",fullName:"Fong Yuan Ma"}]},{id:"58538",title:"Green Methods for Corrosion Control",slug:"green-methods-for-corrosion-control",totalDownloads:2042,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Corrosion of metals is a serious environmental problem. Most of the corrosion inhibitors are synthetic chemicals that are hazardous to environments and expensive. Today, there has been an increasing search for green corrosion inhibitors, due to the toxicity of some inhibitors. Green corrosion inhibitors are biodegradable and free of heavy metals or other toxic compounds. There is an intensive effort underway to develop new plant origin corrosion inhibitors for metal subjected to various environmental conditions. Salts of rare earth elements can be also used as inorganic alternative nontoxic corrosion inhibitors. Sol-gel coatings can be recommended as green protective films for metal corrosion. 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