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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Clarke). Life has been originated in the oceans, human health and activities depend from the oceans and the world life is modulated by marine and oceanic processes. From the micro-scale, like coastal processes, to macro-scale, the oceans, the seas and the marine life, play the main role to maintain the earth equilibrium, both from a physical and a chemical point of view. Since ancient times, the world\'s oceans discovery has brought to humanity development and wealth of knowledge, the metaphors of Ulysses and Jason, represent the cultural growth gained through the explorations and discoveries. The modern oceanographic research represents one of the last frontier of the knowledge of our planet, it depends on the oceans exploration and so it is strictly connected to the development of new technologies. Furthermore, other scientific and social disciplines can provide many fundamental inputs to complete the description of the entire ocean ecosystem. Such multidisciplinary approach will lead us to understand the better way to preserve our "Blue Planet": the Earth.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0301-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4978-1",doi:"10.5772/1376",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"oceanography",numberOfPages:362,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c5ef83b6ccaff0d55f0702dd7a3fe20d",bookSignature:"Marco Marcelli",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/867.jpg",numberOfDownloads:39113,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:42,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:117,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 7th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 7th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 12th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 9th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"41631",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Marcelli",slug:"marco-marcelli",fullName:"Marco Marcelli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41631/images/system/41631.jpg",biography:"Head of Laboratory of Experimental Oceanology and Marine Ecology in Civitavecchia. Department of Ecology and Sustainable Economic Development (DECOS), Tuscia University.\nProfessor of: Biological Oceanography, Applied Marine Ecology with Laboratory, Applied Oceanography; Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Tuscia\nProfessor of: Management and protection of marine resources and fisheries resources; Naval Academy, Italian Navy.\nMember of University for Civitavecchia Consortium's board\nVicePresident of Italian FEE (Foundation for Environmental Education). \nGraduated in Geological Sciences at University of Rome La Sapienza . In Seattle (USA) achieve the Biosonics Certificate Course of: underwater electroacoustic and bioacoustic (evaluation of biological resources).\n1987-89) He began working for Generale Prospezioni of Rome for the characterization of marine areas facing power plants under the PEN (National Energy Plan). Secondments: 2 years Ministry of Environment , part of the “Crisis Unit†of the Ministry of Environment for the sinking of the “Havenâ€; 5 years working at the Laboratory of Experimental Ecology and Aquaculture of the Tor Vergata University of Rome. Was part of the Italian delegation to the work of the World Climate Conference in Rio de Janeiro (1992). \n2 years collaborating with the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn of Naples. 1998-2001) Works for ENEL (Environmental section) Since 1999 contract professor, Faculty of Science, University of Tuscia. \n2001-2011) Becomes Associate Professor at the Faculty of Science of Tuscia University. Based and coordinates in Civitavecchia the Laboratory of Experimental Oceanology and Marine Ecology. \nMain scientific expertise: \nExperimental and numerical study of pelagic ecosystems: primary productivity, interaction between physical phenomena and ecological processes; development and application of oceanographic measurement techniques, with particular reference to bio-optical measures, bio-optical mathematical models. \nHe participated in over 35 oceanographic cruises. Author of about 120 between scientific and technical publications on Italian and international magazines and scientific technical reports all concerning oceanography. \nParticipates in numerous national and European research projects and applied research. Has coordinated several national research projects and two subtasks of a European program (MFSTEP). \nCreator of Oceanographic instruments and platforms for the study of physical and ecological processes at meso and macro-scale.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Tuscia University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"662",title:"Oceanology",slug:"oceanology"}],chapters:[{id:"33939",title:"Open-Sea Observatories: A New Technology to Bring the Pulse of the Sea to Human Awareness",doi:"10.5772/26955",slug:"open-sea-observatories-a-new-technology-to-take-the-pulse-of-the-sea-with-internet-in-the-ocean",totalDownloads:2615,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"I. 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The first experimental hydraulic fracturing operation took place in the United States in 1947 in the Hugoton gas field in Grant County, Kansas, and after decades, the hydraulic fracturing technology has being widely used and become the dominant factor that determines the development plan of low permeability oilfield. In practical applications, most of the hydraulic fracturing operations in the oil and gas fields are performed through casing, and, the regular or complex bedding structures likely exist in the rock mass formed in the course of rock formation and tectonic movement, so the research of the effect of perforation and bedding angle and modulus contrasts of rock and bedding in heterogeneous rocks under hydraulic fracturing is necessary. It can not only make fracturing decision-making more scientific, but reduce the fracturing cost and improve the fracturing efficiency, and has great theoretical significance and practical value on the perforation parameters optimization design and hydraulic fracturing construction of bedding rockmass.
At present, the perforation parameters are controllable which can be realized easily in practice. Since the hydraulic fracturing technology appeared, many experts have made various researches about the influence of perforation parameters on fracture evolutions under hydraulic fracturing. In [1], Daneshy et al. studied the hydraulic fracturing through perforation in 1973 and found that breakdown pressures of hydraulic fractures would decrease as the number of perforations increased, moreover, the existence of the casing and the perforations had little influence on the direction of the created fracture, which is perpendicular to the minimum principal stress. In [2], Weng et al. studied the hydraulic fracture initiation and propagation from deviated wellbores in 1993, investigated the interaction and link-up of the starter fractures initiated from perforations and the turning of the linked fracture and established a criterion that correlates fracture link-up to stresses and wellbore parameters. In [3], Zhang et al. used two-dimensional model to simulate the initiation and growth of hydraulic fractures in 2011 and developed a dimensionless parameter that is shown to characterise near-wellbore reorientation and curving of hydraulic fractures driven by viscous fluid. In [4], Zhang et al. employed three-dimensional finite element model together with the tensile criterion of rock materials in 2004, investigated that perforation density and perforation angle are the most important parameters controlling the formation fracturing pressure, but the influences of perforation diameter and perforation length are much slighter. In [5], Jiang et al. studied the fracture propagation mechanism of hydraulic fracturing through the experiment in 2009, and the results showed that the turning fracture can be generated by using oriented perforation fracturing technology, and with the increase of azimuth of oriented perforating, the breakdown pressure and turning distance are both growing.
Few studies have been carried on for fracture evolutions on heterogeneous rocks with different bedding angles under hydraulic fracturing at present stage. In [6], Bruno and Nakagawa studied fracture propagation path in non-uniform pore pressure field by test method in 1991, and proved that the fracture is influenced by both pore pressure magnitude on a local scale around the crack tip and the orientation and distribution of pore pressure gradient on a global scale. In [7], Li et al. simulated the experiment of hydraulic fracturing in non-uniform pore pressure field in 2005, and the results are well agreeable to that of Bruno and Nakagawa’s experiments. In 2010, Abbass et al.’s study on Brazilian tensile text of sandstone in [8-9] showed that the breakdown pressure and fracture pattern are considerably affected by the bedding orientation and larger fracture length correlating with higher strength and applied energy.
In this paper, the effect of perforation and bedding angles and bedding materials on initiation pressure, breakdown pressure and hydraulic fractures evolutions of rock specimens under hydraulic fracturing is simulated and analyzed by using RFPA2D(2.0)-Flow which adopts the finite element method and considers the heterogeneous characteristics of rock in meso-scale.
RFPA is a numerical experiment tool basing on the realistic failure process analysis method, which can simulate the gradual damage of materials. Its calculation method bases on finite element and statistical damage theory. RFPA considers both heterogeneity of materials and randomness of defect distribution, and puts the statistical distribution hypothesis of these material properties into the numerical calculation method (finite element method) to break the elements which satisfy the strength criterion. The material properties of each element follow Weibull distribution and are different from each other, and the element will fail if its stress reaches the failure strength, moreover, the number of fail elements will increase, which will be connected to each other and form fractures, as the load increases, so that the numerical simulation of heterogeneous material failure process can be realized. RFPA transforms the complex macroscopic nonlinear problem into simple mesoscopic linear problem by considering the heterogeneous characteristics of material and the complicated non-continuum mechanics problems into simple continuum mechanics problems by introducing the mathematics continuous and physical discontinuous concept, making the calculation results closer to the actual situation.
In mining and civil engineering projects, the re-distribution of the stress field during the excavation of tunnels and underground chambers leads to the formation of new fractures. The flow and transport behaviour within developing fractures are dramatically different from those in rocks with existing fractures under the same loading, therefore, the permeability of rocks changes dramatically in the process of damage evolution in fracture rocks. RFPA2D2.0-Flow is the software considering the effects of the extension of existing fractures, the initiation of new fractures, the coupled effects of flow, stress and damage on the extension of existing/new fractures, and the permeability change due to damage evolution of the rocks, and is based on the theories of fluid-saturated porous media and damage mechanics. Flow-stress-damage (FSD) coupling model for heterogeneous rocks that takes into account the growth of existing fractures and the formation of new fractures is established herein. In [10-16], RFPA2D2.0-Flow bases on the following five basic assumptions:
The fluid in the rock follows Biot consolidation theory;
Rock is the elastic brittle material with residual strength and the mechanical behaviour of loading and unloading process is in accordance with the elastic damage theory;
The maximum tensile strength criterion and Mohr Coulomb criterion are used as the damage threshold to judge whether the elements damage or not;
In elastic state, stress-permeability coefficient relationship of material is described by negative exponential function;
The mechanical parameters (such as uniaxial compressive strength
In this formula,
Weibull’s distribution for mechanical properties of materials with different homogeneity indexes
Numerical model is divided into three groups and each of them contains seven models, the fracturing process of rock specimens with different perforation angles, different bedding angles and different bedding materials under increasing hydraulic pressure and constant confining pressure are simulated. Perforation angle α is the angle between perforation and the maximum principal stress direction (horizontal direction), bedding angle α is the angle between bedding and the maximum principal stress direction (horizontal direction), and both of perforation and bedding angles chosen in the simulation are 0o, 15o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 75o and 90o respectively. The geometry of 2D rock model is 0.64m×0.64m and has been discretized into a 320×320(6400 elements) mesh, and the model is calculated by using plane strain. As shown in figure 2, there is a well in the centre of model with radius 0.064m, two perforations approx 0.002m wide and 0.03m long cut into the well to provide initial direction for hydraulic fracture. Casing is in the non perforation area of the well with its strength and stiffness higher and permeability less than rock, so the initiation of fracture only occurs on perforation tip, which is in line with the actual engineering situation. As shown in figure 3, the well’s radius is 0.032m and the space of two adjacent parallel beddings 0.04m. In figure 2 and figure 3, the confining pressure of the modelσ
Schematic diagram and RFPA model diagram
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Homogeneity index | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t
Elastic modulus | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t30 GPa | \n\t\t
Poisson’s ratio | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t
Internal friction angle | \n\t\t\t37 | \n|
Uniaxial compressive strength | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t200 MPa | \n
Coefficient of permeability | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t0.000864 m/d | \n
Rock material mechanical parameter
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Homogeneity index | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t2 | \n\t
Elastic modulus | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t3.0 GPa | \n\t
Poisson’s ratio | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t0.25 | \n\t
Internal friction angle | \n\t\t37 | \n|
Uniaxial compressive strength | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t20 MPa | \n
Coefficient of permeability | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t0.00864 m/d | \n
Bedding material mechanical parameter
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t||
30GPa | \n\t\t200MPa | \n\t\t3.0GPa(1/10) | \n\t\t200MPa(1) | \n\t
30GPa | \n\t\t200MPa | \n\t\t1.5GPa(1/20) | \n\t\t200MPa(1) | \n\t
30GPa | \n\t\t200MPa | \n\t\t0.5GPa(1/60) | \n\t\t200MPa(1) | \n\t
30GPa | \n\t\t200MPa | \n\t\t30GPa(1) | \n\t\t20MPa(1/10) | \n\t
30GPa | \n\t\t200MPa | \n\t\t30GPa(1) | \n\t\t10MPa(1/20) | \n\t
30GPa | \n\t\t200MPa | \n\t\t30GPa(1) | \n\t\t3.33MPa(1/60) | \n\t
30GPa | \n\t\t200MPa | \n\t\t3.0GPa(1/10) | \n\t\t20MPa(1/10) | \n\t
Change of elastic modulus and uniaxial compressive strength values of bedding material
The initiation pressure, the breakdown pressure and the fracture evolution of seven rock specimens with different perforation angles under constant confining pressure and increasing hydraulic pressure are simulated. The results reflect the damage evolution process of rock specimen, which causes the macroscopic damage by microscopic under hydraulic fracturing and is consistent with the experimental result in [4]. Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution of specimens with different perforation angles which achieved by numerical simulation are shown from figure 4 to figure 10. The comparison of the numerical simulation result and the experimental result which has the same perforation angle (60o) and under the same ground stress difference (5MPa) is shown in figure 11, and the values of the initiation and the breakdown pressure are shown in figure 12.
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (0o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (15o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (30o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (45o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (60o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (75o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (90o)
Comparison of numerical simulation and experimental results in [
Changes of initiation and breakdown pressure of different perforation angle specimens
The initiation pressure, the breakdown pressure and the fracture evolution of seven rock specimens with different bedding angles are simulated. Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution achieved by numerical simulation are shown from figure 13 to figure 19, and the values of initiation and breakdown pressure shown in figure 20.
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (0o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (15o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (30o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (45o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (60o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (75o)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (90o)
Changes of initiation and breakdown pressure of different bedding angle specimens
Taking the rock specimen of 60o bedding angle for example, the initiation pressure, the breakdown pressure and the fracture evolution of seven rock specimens with different bedding materials are simulated. Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution achieved by numerical simulation are shown from figure 21 to figure 27 and the values of initiation and breakdown pressure shown in figure 28.
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (elastic modulus value is 3.0GPa)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (elastic modulus value is 1.5GPa)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (elastic modulus value is 0.5GPa)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (uniaxial compressive strength value is 20MPa)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (uniaxial compressive strength value is 10MPa)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (uniaxial compressive strength value is 3.33MPa)
Pore pressure and the minimum principal stress distribution in fracture evolution process (elastic modulus value is 3.0GPa and uniaxial compressive strength value is 20MPa)
Changes of initiation and breakdown pressure of different bedding material specimens
From the simulation results of the first group, we can see that the hydraulic fracturing process of the rock specimens with different perforation angle under constant confining pressure is divided into three stages:
Stress accumulation stage
In this stage, there doesn’t appear any fracture and broken element, but as the pore pressure increases step by step, the stress is accumulating on perforation tip gradually and forming a high minimum principal stress area (green zone). Because of the tensile strength of rock is far less than the compressive strength, it can be speculated that the fracture initiation will be happened on the perforation tip where tensile stress is the largest;
Steady propagation stage
The fracture will initiate and propagate on perforation tip when the minimum principal stress accumulates to a certain point (tensile strength). In this stage, lots of micro fractures will appear on the main fracture tip as the loading step increases, and distributing as an umbrella and disconnected to each other;
Unsteady propagation stage
As the number of micro fractures increase, some micro fractures connect to each other and become secondary fractures. In this stage, in the process of fracture propagation, stress is released from parts of the high stress area and transferred to the fracture tip, which makes the fracture propagate continually under the constant hydraulic pressure. The speed of fracture propagation become faster and faster and the main fracture and the secondary fractures are connected finally.
From figure 4 to figure 10, it can be concluded that no matter how the perforation azimuth changes, the fracture is still initiating on the perforation tip, which is because of the casing. But after the fracture initiate, the fracture propagation will turn to the horizontal direction (the maximum principal stress direction) gradually under the increasing hydraulic pressure and form a turning fracture finally. The perforation angle is bigger, the fracture turning will be more obvious and the turning distance will be bigger. Fracture propagation is always deviating from the perforation direction to the maximum principal stress direction (horizontal direction), which proves that the effect of perforation angle on the direction of fracture propagation is small and the maximum principal stress control the final fracture propagation direction.
The results also show that the perforation angle determines the initiation and the breakdown pressure of rock specimens. With the perforation angle increases, the initiation pressure are 15.2MPa, 15.2MPa, 15.3MPa, 15.2MPa, 15.2MPa, 20.1MPa and 21.4MPa respectively, and the breakdown pressure 16.8MPa, 16.7MPa, 17.1MPa, 19.4MPa, 19.4MPa, 22.5MPa and 23.2MPa respectively. The initiation pressure and the breakdown pressure are divided into two stages (figure 12): When α≤60o, the values of initiation pressure are small and basically constant, while as α>60o, the values of initiation pressure increase obviously and with the increase of α, the values of initiation pressure will increase gradually; When α≤30o, the values of breakdown pressure are small and basically constant, while as α>30o, the value of breakdown pressure will increase obviously and with the increase of α, the values of breakdown pressure will increase gradually, of which the increase rate is smaller than that of initiation pressure. Therefore, 0o-30o is the best perforation azimuth area and the values of initiation and breakdown pressure are small, which may help reduce fracturing cost and improve the fracturing efficiency. The comparison of numerical simulation results and the experimental results with the same perforation angle (60o) and ground stress difference (5MPa) is shown in figure 11 and we can find that the macroscopic fracture propagation of the numerical simulation is basically consistent with the experimental results.
The results of first group simulation indicates that the maximum principal stress determines the fracture propagation direction, and the effect of bedding angles of rock specimens under the same confining pressure on fracture propagation will be studied in the second group.
From the simulation results of the second group, we can conclude that the fracture initiation and the propagation pattern of rock specimens under constant confining pressure are changing gradually as bedding angle increases. From figure 13 to figure 19, we can see that, when bedding angle α is small (0o~15o), the initiation and propagation of fracture are only along with the tension failure bedding. Because of the stress accumulation, there exist a high tensile stress area on the fracture tip and because the bedding material is weaker than rock material, the fracture propagation is along the cracked bedding and form a straight fracture eventually. In this case, the bedding plane determines the fracture evolution.
When bedding angle α increases slightly (30o~45o), the initiation and propagation of fracture is still along the tension failure bedding. With the increase of loading step, there is a high tensile stress area on the main fracture tip which is along the cracked bedding and the beddings in the high tensile stress area are cracked and form secondary fractures paralleling to the main fracture, moreover, with the increase of bedding angle, the number of secondary fractures is increasing gradually. Because of the advantage of main fracture, the fracture propagation is still along the main fracture bedding.
When the bedding angle α continues to increase (60o), the fracture will turn from along the tension failure bedding to the horizontal direction that is the main fracture and the secondary fractures paralleling to the main fracture is still initiating and propagating in bedding plane with the horizontal secondary fracture initiating at the same time and connecting the main fracture and the parallel secondary fractures gradually. In this case, the bedding plane and the maximum principal stress determine the fracture evolution together.
When bedding angle α is big (75o~90o), the initiation and propagation of fracture is no longer along the bedding plane. Because of the heterogeneous characteristics of rock and bedding materials, different strength elements are in random distribution causing an uneven stress distribution and the local stress concentration thus making the fracture become bend and rough, but the general trend is the maximum principal stress direction. In this case, the effect of bedding plane on fracture evolution is almost disappeared, but the maximum principal stress controls the fracture initiation and propagation. Comparing figure 4 and figure 19, we can find that the existence of bedding influences the fracture shape greatly in the same condition as the maximum principal stress controls the fracture evolution.
From the numerical simulation results, as bedding angle increase, the values of initiation pressure are 13.3MPa, 13.7MPa, 14.2MPa, 16.8MPa, 17.1MPa, 16.9MPa and 18.2MPa respectively, and the values of breakdown pressure 15.3MPa, 16.4MPa, 17.4MPa, 18MPa, 21.2MPa, 21.3MPa and 20.5MPa respectively. Both of the values of initiation and breakdown pressure are in a linear growth (figure 20) with the growth rate similar and as the bedding plane is parallel to the maximum principal stress direction (bedding angle is 0o), the specimen is in the most unstable situation.
Because the fracture propagation is determined by the maximum principal stress and the bedding plane together when bedding angle is 60o seeing from the second group simulation, taking the bedding angle of 60o for example, in the third group, the effect of strength and stiffness of bedding material on fracture evolution will be studied under the combined effects of the maximum principal stress and the bedding plane.
In the third group, the rock specimens with the same bedding angle but different materials are under the constant confining and increasing hydraulic pressure. As the strength of bedding material is constant (bedding strength/rock strength is 1), but the stiffness decreased (bedding elastic modulus/rock elastic modulus is 1/10, 1/20, 1/60), the pattern of fracture propagation will be unchanged. Because of the reduction of elastic modulus, the initiation pressure reduced (15.5 MPa, 15.2 MPa, 14.7 MPa) and the breakdown pressure increased slightly (19.7 MPa, 19.9 MPa, 20.4 MPa), however, both of the reduction and the increase can be ignored because the values of the initiation and the breakdown pressure are almost constant (figure 28). As the stiffness of the bedding material (bedding elastic modulus/rock elastic modulus is 1) is constant but the strength decreased (bedding strength/rock strength is 1/10, 1/20, 1/60), the pattern of the fracture propagation will be unchanged, and the values of initiation (14.8 MPa, 14.7 MPa, 12.8 MPa) and breakdown pressure (20 MPa, 19.2 MPa, 18.4 MPa) decreased gradually with almost the same decrease rates (figure 28). As both of the stiffness and strength are decreased (bedding elastic modulus/rock elastic modulus is 1/10, bedding strength/rock strength is 1/10), the initiation pressure, the breakdown pressure and the pattern of fracture propagation are almost the same as the condition of (1, 1/10). As suggested above, the stiffness of bedding material has little influence on initiation pressure, breakdown pressure and fracture evolution of rock specimens, except that the strength determines them.
In summary, the damage process of rock specimen are determined by the maximum principal stress, the bedding angle and the strength of bedding material, while the effect of perforation angle and stiffness is small and can be ignored.
Based on the simulation results of three groups, the following can be concluded:
When perforation angle is larger than 0o, a turning fracture will be formed, and if the perforation angle turns bigger, the fracture turning will be more obvious and the turning distance bigger. The effect of perforation angle on fracture propagation direction is small, and the maximum principal stress controls the fracture propagation direction.
The initiation and the breakdown pressure of specimens with different perforation angles are divided into two stages and 0o-30o is the best perforation angle area. The initiation and the breakdown pressure can be predicted through the numerical simulation.
The influence of bedding angle on initiation pressure, breakdown pressure, fracture shape and fracture propagation pattern is great. As the bedding angle increases, the bedding plane and the maximum principal stress will control the fracture evolution respectively and the initiation and the breakdown pressure are in a linear growth with the similar rates. The specimen will be in the most unstable situation as the bedding plane paralleling to the maximum principal stress direction.
The stiffness of bedding material has little influence on damage process of rock specimens, except that the strength controls it. With the decrease of bedding material strength, the initiation and the breakdown pressure will decrease gradually with the similar decrease rates.
Aflatoxins are toxic substances formed by certain kind of fungi (molds) that have the potential to contaminate food, feed, crops and pose a serious health risk to humans and livestock. Aflatoxins are also assumed to be responsible for the annual loss of 25% or more of the world’s food crops, which has significant economic implications. Various procedures for the detection and analysis of aflatoxins are available in feed and food, as they are highly specific, practical, and useful [1].
Aflatoxins are cancerous secondary metabolites produced primarily by Aspergillus
To protect consumer health, maximum levels (MLs) for mycotoxins in foodstuffs have been established worldwide. In particular, the European Union legislation (often considered as the most stringent one) has established MLs for aflatoxins [10].
International organizations for example AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists), CEN (European Committee for Standardization) and ISO (International Organization for Standardization) have continued rendezvous experts over the years to develop internationally recognized analytical standards. The main objective is to evade the discrepancies in outcomes that may arise from the use of different analytical methodologies, with the risk to partial worldwide food trade. Currently, seventy-two official methods are offered from these organizations for scrutinizing the mycotoxins in food commodities.
A variety of methods to detect aflatoxins in food and feed are available for different needs and different techniques for their detection and analysis have been extensively researched to develop those that are highly specific, useful and practical.
Owing to its common incidence and toxic nature, numerous analytical and immunological methods were developed. However, there are minor modifications actually in most of these analytical methods from the officially adopted basic methods for certain food commodities. They differ only in the analytical techniques used for assessing the strength of fluorescence of the analyzed mycotoxins and in the extraction solvents used to extract the mycotoxins from different food matrixes. A plethora of methods are available for different needs, ranging from techniques/methods for regulatory control in Official laboratories starting from simple rapid test kits (AgraStrip®, CHARM EZ-M) to advanced methods [including immunochemical methods comprises radioimmunoassay (RIA), Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Immunoaffinity column assay (ICA), Immunodipstick and immunosensors; Spectroscopic methods including Fluorometer, Spectrophotometer, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Quartz Crystal Microbalances (QCMs), Surface Plasmon resonance Spectroscopy (SPRS); and some Chromatographic methods such as Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) with densitometer, High-performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC), High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography (GC), Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC–MS)] for factories and grain silos (Table 1).
Method | Sample preparation | LOD | Field Applicable | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
AgraStrip® | Simple extraction with Methanol | 4 ppb | Appropriate | [11] |
Immunodipstick | Extraction only | 5 μg/Kg | Appropriate | [12] |
CHARM EZ-M | Water based extraction | 1 ppb | Inappropriate | [13] |
Fluorometer | IAC | 5–5000 μg/Kg | Inappropriate | [14] |
TLC densitometer | Liquid Extraction, SPE | 1–20 ng/kg | Inappropriate | [15, 16] |
HPTLC | Liquid Extraction | Pictogram | Inappropriate | [17] |
RIA | Liquid Extraction | 1 μg/Kg | Inappropriate | [18] |
FTIR | Liquid Extraction | <10 μg/Kg | Inappropriate | [19] |
ELISA | Liquid Extraction | 1 μg/Kg | Inappropriate | [20] |
HPLC | IAC or SPE | 0.5 μg/Kg | Inappropriate | [21] |
LC-MS | Liquid Extraction | 0.1 μg/Kg | Inappropriate | [22] |
QCMs | Liquid Extraction | 0.01–10 ng/mL | Inappropriate | [23, 24] |
SPRS | Liquid Extraction | 3.0–98 ng/mL | Inappropriate | [25] |
Electrochemical | Liquid Extraction | 0.1–2 μg/Kg | Inappropriate | [26, 27] |
Evaluation of different methods for analysis of aflatoxins in food and feed.
Quickness and effortlessness in analysis are the other features that have gain worldwide consideration recently. When a large number of samples have to be analyzed in a short time period then enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), mini-column quick methods, and radio-immunoassay (RIA) techniques may be used.
Potential innovative aflatoxins-detection techniques, based on the emerging techniques, include electronic noses, dip-stick kits, molecularly imprinted polymers, hyper-spectral imaging, and aptamer-based biosensors (small organic molecules that can bind specific target molecules). The latter techniques may have significance in remote areas because of their use, stability and ease of production. However, any method recommended for aflatoxin analysis should be economical and convenient to the handlers, taking into account their available laboratory facilities, as well as providing greater accuracy in the results.
All analytical methods for aflatoxins involve basically the same steps: sampling and sample extraction, clean-up, work-up, detection, and confirmation, as well as estimation of the toxin.
Adequate sampling techniques as well as appropriate sample preparation procedures are the most significant steps before performing the chemical analysis of aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are present in only a few grains and kernels obviously and have highly crooked distribution in food and feed commodities therefore, some variations in analytical results might be possible if the sample collected for analysis is not representative of the bulk [28, 29, 30, 31].
As molds and aflatoxins aren’t equally dispersed all through the bulk shipments and batches of stored grain, proper sampling is essential for obtaining a representative result. Proper protocols for sampling have been established, particularly in the perspective of regulatory control. For example, the Codex Alimentarius Commission has set the protocols to be used for various food commodities in setting maximum levels for aflatoxins. The United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has established a mycotoxins sampling contrivance that is available on-line. The use of recommended sampling methods is a problem, especially for subsistence farmers in rural areas who do not produce enough grain to allow for accurate testing. As a result, to improve surveillance and control in rural areas, low-cost, rapid and low-technology aflatoxins detection techniques are required. Food organizations trying their best to control aflatoxins in Africa and the World Food Programme’s are also addressing these issues, for example, the World Food Programme has introduced the appropriate Purchase guidelines to ensure grain quality.
A precise and accurate sample can be selected by collecting a representative sample in large quantity and then dividing it into three equal parts. Differences in weight of selected samples may also be critical which depend on the regulations of a specific country. For example; the United Kingdom (UK) has proposed a sample weight of 10.5 kg, while the United States (US) has recommended the sample weight of 66 kg, greatly a larger amount. However, an average sample weight of 5–10 kg has been adopted by most of the countries. Precise grinding and sub-division of the sample would also be critical for accurate determination of aflatoxins. Spinning riffles, rotary sample divisors, and cascade samplers may also be used to select the representative sub-samples [31, 32, 33]. The size of the sub-samples may vary from 20 to 100 g. However, in most of the methods 50 g sample was used for analysis of aflatoxins, which looks to be the best in terms of economy in using costly extraction solvents.
The frequently used extraction and clean-up techniques for aflatoxins analysis are liquid–liquid extraction (LLE), solid-phase extraction (SPE) and “Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe” (QuEChERS) methods. Furthermore, some other extraction methods are also offered in the literatures that are not commonly used in routine analysis at the moment.
Liquid–liquid extraction procedures are the simple, easy and cheap methods for the extraction of aflatoxins. It is based on the partition coefficient and different solubility properties of the mycotoxin in the organic or aqueous phase or in their combination mixtures. However, the shortcomings of these extraction techniques are that it does not provide appropriately clean analyte in all cases.
An efficient extraction method is required for the qualitative detection and quantification of aflatoxins in food and feed samples. Aflatoxins are commonly soluble in the polar-protic solvents like acetone, acetonitrile, chloroform and methanol. Hence, aflatoxins can be extracted by using either any of the mentioned pure solvents or in combination of these solvents as well as with small quantity of water [34, 35]. Several studies have been conducted on different food matrices to determine the extraction efficiency of various aqueous-organic solvents [36, 37, 38] and the different extraction recoveries have been reported. Since methanol has a minor negative effect on antibodies than other organic solvents like acetone and acetonitrile therefore aflatoxins extraction using a mixture of methanol with water (e.g.; 8 + 2 v/v) [37, 39] is required for determination of aflatoxins on immunoassay technique.
Liquid–solid extraction technique is another simple and easy extraction method for the extraction of aflatoxins using solid matrices of different consistency. Initially, the selection of an appropriate and the most effective extraction solvents is a crucial step to extract the component of interest. Most frequently used extraction solvents are mixtures of methanol/water or acetonitrile/water in different ratios [40]. For instance, the 80% methanol/water mixture proved to be the most optimal for extraction of aflatoxins in the case of nutmeg samples. The choice of methanol for further use is also preferable, because the antibodies better tolerate higher concentrations of methanol than acetonitrile. Methanol was also suitable for chromatographic separation, as aflatoxins were measurable without interference [41]. The extraction efficiency is significantly influenced by the composition of the extraction agents, the sample/solvent ratio, and the time of extraction. Sometimes, the use of only LSE method is inadequate to extract aflatoxins without interference and additionally some purification step(s) are required for proper extraction. The extraction process comprises the different steps including the weighing of homogenized sample which will be properly grind having appropriate particle size, addition of suitable extraction solvents and then dissolution or disintegrating the mixture applying, e.g., vortex, blender, shaker, or other approaches to extract the required components. After extraction, sample is filtered and cleaned prior to analysis.
Liquid–solid extraction efficiency can substantially be improved with the use of ultrasound. In the ultrasound extraction process the container (e.g., flask, centrifuge tube or vials) containing the sample to be extracted and the extraction solvent is most often immersed into an ultrasonic bath that contains water. After a few minutes, the acoustic cavitation under the influence of ultrasonic field in liquids significantly increases the transfer of the analytes and matrix components from the sample to the extraction solvent, thereby increasing the recovery and efficiency of extraction [42].
Supercritical fluid extraction uses a supercritical fluid for the extraction of the required compound from the matrix. The SFE procedure is mainly used efficiently for the extraction of apolar organic molecules [43]. During the extraction of polar aflatoxins with SFE a number of problems have arisen, e.g., low recoveries and high concentrations of co-extracts. Furthermore, lipids may cause difficulties during further cleanup and chromatographic separation [44].
Solid phase extraction techniques are considered the most accurate and reliable approaches to clean-up the mixtures before qualitative and quantitative estimations. With the help of SPE, required analyte can be separated and unwanted components which may interfere during analysis can be removed accurately. Two types of SPE are used.
SPE is a multi-step process, starting from the conditioning then followed by the sample loading, washing and at the end elution of required analyte. In the SPE, the required analyte either bound to the matrix component(s) or removed from the sample [45]. Various extenders are used in the SPE columns. Aflatoxins are often analyzed by using C-18 (octadecylsilane) column. A specific application of SPE is the so-called immunoaffinity clean-up columns (IAC) and Multi-functional clean-up columns (MFC) including MultiSep®, MycoSep®, and Myco6in1 column [46]. The extraction of aflatoxins is usually followed by a cleanup step. The common cleanup technique used is immunoaffinity column (IAC) chromatography and Mycosep multi-functional cleanup (MFC) columns [47]. These purification techniques are considered the best choice for isolation of target analyte (like aflatoxins) and to clean-up or remove the unwanted components before their quantitative estmation using HPLC [48].
Immunoaffinity chromatographic technique proved to be the accurate and highly specific which reversibility of binding between an antigen and antibody to isolate, purify and separate the target molecule from matrices [49]. During the cleanup process, the extracted liquid sample is applied to the IAC which holding the specific antibodies to bind with aflatoxins that immobilized on a solid surface such as silica or agarose. As the extracted sample moves down the IAC column, the aflatoxins bind to the antibodies and are retained onto the column. To remove the unbound proteins and impurities washing step is generally required using appropriate ionic strength buffers or distilled water. Thereafter, the aflatoxins are recovered or removed from the IAC by using pure solvents like acetonitrile or methanol which breaks the bond between the antibody and the aflatoxins.
Mycosep multi-functional cleanup (MFC) columns are also recognized a best approach for purification of aflatoxins. It is simple, easy, handy to use and a rapid one-step purification technique. These columns are designed to retain certain groups of basic compounds that may create interferences in HPLC analysis. On the other hand, MFC purification columns allow the molecules of interest to pass through the columns. During the MFC cleanup procedure, after extraction of aflatoxins using suitable solvents a portion of the extract is passed through an MFC column designed particularly for aflatoxins analysis. Compounds that may create interferences are retained in MFC, whereas aflatoxins pass through the column. Ideal recovery (> 95%), precision and coefficient of variation (< 3%) of aflatoxins were observed by these columns [50].
After the clean-up step, the extract must be worked up to make it suitable for the estimations. The purified pooled extract can be treated with sodium sulphate (anhydrous) to remove the moisture if present in the extract. To concentrate the extracted solvent evaporated it to dryness using nitrogen stream or in a rotary evaporator at 50°C. On the other hand, evaporation of solvents can be achieved with the help of steam bath under the nitrogen stream preferably. Finally, reconstituted the residues using pure organic solvents like acetonitrile or methanol and used for estimations.
The most commonly used chromatography techniques for analysis of aflatoxins are Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC), High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas chromatography (GC) and Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC–MS). Although many of the chromatographic techniques are very sensitive, they require trained skilled technician, cumbersome pretreatment of sample, and expensive apparatus/equipment [51].
Thin-layer chromatography is one of the most widely used separation techniques for detection of aflatoxins. TLC has been regarded by the Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC) as the method of choice since 1990. It consists of a solid immobilized stationary phase may contain either alumina or cellulose or silica on an inert material such as plastic or glass, called the matrix. The mobile phase is contained of acetonitrile: methanol: water mixture [52], which brings the sample along as it moves through the stationary phase. In TLC, aflatoxins are distributed between the mobile phase and stationary phases on the basis of partition coefficient or differences in solubility of the analytes in the two phases. Different types of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 & G2), according to their interaction with the stationary and mobile phases as well as due to the different molecular structures, either adhere to the solid surface of stationary phase more or remain in the mobile phase, thus allowing for effective and quick separation. TLC technique has been commonly used in food industry for the determination of aflatoxins [53, 54, 55] and detection limit of 1–20 ppb of different types of aflatoxins has been reported. The major advantage the TLC is that it can detect different types of mycotoxins with good resolution and excellent sensitivities [56]. It also requires pre-treatment of sample, skilled and trained technician, and expensive equipment as well [57]. In addition, there are also some drawbacks of TLC which may probably be occurring during spotting, TLC plate development, and interpretation.
Quantification of aflatoxins on TLC plates using fluoro-densitometer is considered to be a more precise and accurate method than visual estimates [58] with the minimum limit of detection (LOD) is 1 μg/kg. Although fluoro-densitometers are commercially available, but not commonly used due to its high cost and visual fluorescence identification method is still to be continue for identification of aflatoxins [59].
Attempts to improve TLC have led to the development of automated form of TLC, called the high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC).
The conventional TLC method has improved through the automation of sample spotting, plate development and interpretation in HPTLC. Currently, HPTLC is one of the best analytical methods for estimation of aflatoxins [60, 61].
Automated sample applicator, digital scanner, and a computing integrator, lead to improve the sensitivity and precision in the quantification of aflatoxins. The other benefit of HPTLC method is the use of minimum amount (only 1 μl) for sample spotting, instead of 10-20 μl used for the conventional TLC method. With the use of HPTLC minimum concentrations of aflatoxins (5 pg) can be possibly detected [59].
However, the costly equipment, extensive sample treatment procedure and the requirement for skilled researcher, limit the HPTLC technique to the laboratory and thus it is inapplicable in field situations.
The most commonly used chromatographic technique for separation and determination of organic compounds is High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Worldwide, approximately 80% of all organic compounds are estimated using HPLC [62].
The HPLC technique for estimation of aflatoxins has high automation, high sensitivity and high precision. There are two types of phase systems comprising normal phase (wherein mobile phase: non-polar & stationary phase: polar) and reverse phase (wherein mobile phase: polar & stationary phase: non-polar)) in combination with UV/VIS absorption and fluorescence detection. Reverse phase HPLC is broadly used for estimation of aflatoxins [59].
In HPLC, the stationary phase is confined to either a plastic or glass tube and the mobile phase containing the organic/aqueous solvents that pass through the solid adsorbent. The sample to be examined is introduced on top of the column which passes through and distributes between both the stationary and mobile and phases.
The components present in the sample move through the column with the mobile phase at different speeds because of their different relative affinities and interactions. Separate fractions containing individual components in the sample elute from the HPLC column at different rates. The HPLC technique involves the use of a stationary phase (polar or non-polar columns), a pump that moves the mobile phase(s) through the column or other parts of HPLC at constant flow rate, a degasser to remove the trapped gases or air bubbles in the mobile phase, a detector to quantify the analytes and read out device to display the retention times of individual components.
Reversed phase chromatographic mode is most commonly used in HPLC for the identification and quantification of aflatoxins. Chemical derivatization of aflatoxins B1 and G1 typically required to improve the sensitivity because the natural fluorescence of aflatoxins B1 and G1 may be inadequate to meet the necessary detection limit [63]. Figure 1 depicts derivatization reactions of aflatoxin B1 with the acid and halogens. In the first reaction, Trifluoro Acetic Acid (TFA) hydrolyzes the second furan ring of aflatoxin B1 to produce highly fluorescent aflatoxin B2a, while bromine and iodine are used as chemical reagents in the second and third derivatization reactions, respectively. When these halogens react with aflatoxin B1, they produced highly fluorescent aflatoxin B1 derivatives.
Derivatization of aflatoxin B1 with trifluoroacetic acid, bromine (Br2) and iodine (I2) [
HPLC provides quick, accurate and reliable aflatoxins results within a short time. FLD has been presented an excellent sensitivity of 0.1 ng/kg [65]. However, the shortcoming of using HPLC to analyze the aflatoxins is the requirement of laborious purification columns to clean-up the sample. Furthermore, HPLC involves the tedious pre-column or post-column derivatization processes to improve the sensitivity of aflatoxins [62]. To overcome the challenges of derivatization processes in aflatoxins testing, a modification of the HPLC protocol in which the HPLC is coupled to mass spectrometry has been developed and is currently used in aflatoxin determination [66].
Since the mass spectrometry does not requires the use of UV/VIS fluorescence or absorbance of analyte, thus chemical derivatization of compounds is no longer required. HPLC–MS/MS produces structural information using small amount of sample and has low detection limits developed up to now [21]. On the other hand, HPLC–MS/MS is costly equipment that can only be handled by trained, qualified and professional person. Furthermore, this also restricts its use to only well-equipped laboratory environment and not field conditions.
Although different HPLC methods are available for quantitative determination of aflatoxins with selective sample clean-up techniques, still the methods are required to confirm the identity of the substances. A method other than the commonly used UV/VIS and fluorescent methods, for the confirmation is mass spectrometry method that coupled with HPLC.
LC–MS technique has become the fastest growing technique available for analysis of mycotoxins. The potential benefits of LC–MS technique for mycotoxin analysis have long been recognized and exploited. Simultaneous determination of multi-mycotoxins can be possible with LC–MS according to the mass to charge ratio (m/z) of analytes, an intrinsic property that provides more specific identification based on molecular weight of the target analyte. The impact of modern LC–MS technique has been signified by the unmatchable sensitivity in quantitation, specificity in identification and number of mycotoxins that could be analyzed in one analysis [67].
A modern LC–MS instrument, particularly LC–MS-triple quadrupole (LC–MS-QQQ), has been developed and introduced with increasing sensitivity for quantitative analysis of mycotoxins. Despite high capital costs of LC–MS instruments, many efforts have been exerted to quantitate aflatoxins using this technique [68].
In gas chromatography, an inert gas is used as the mobile phase instead of liquid and the stationary phase may be a liquid coated onto inert solid particles or solid. GC analysis, like other chromatographic approaches, is based on the differential partitioning of analytes between the two phases. The stationary process is made up of inert particles covered with a liquid layer that confined in a long stainless steel or glass tube known as a column fixed in oven to maintain the specific temperature. The sample to be tested is vaporized into a gaseous form and transported by a carrier gas into the stationary phase.
The different chemical components within the sample will distribute themselves between the stationary phase and mobile phase. Components of the sample mixture with a higher affinity for the stationary phase travel through the column more slowly, while those with a lower affinity move through the column faster. Each portion of the analyte should, in reality, have its own partition coefficient, which will dictate how quickly it passes through the column [69]. After the separation of volatile compounds, these are detected using a universal GC detector known as Flame Ionization Detector (FID) or an Electron Capture Detector (ECD) and the most recent and advanced mass spectrometer (MS) detector [70].
Since aflatoxins are non-volatile, thus derivatization will be required to be detected [71]. However, GC is not commonly used in commercial analysis of aflatoxins because some other cheaper and simple chromatographic techniques are existed [72]. Furthermore, gas chromatography is limited to the analysis of a few mycotoxins, such as A-trichothecenes and B-trichothecenes, due to the requirement of preliminary cleanup step prior to analysis. GC technique has some other disadvantages including drifting responses, non-linearity of calibration curves, memory effects from previous samples, and high variation in repeatability and reproducibility [73].
Earlier, gas chromatography mass spectrometry with negative ion chemical ionization has been used for confirmation of aflatoxin B1 [74], injection was applied using an on-column injector, which is necessary because of the thermos-lability of the aflatoxins. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry have also been used with electron impact for aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 [75].
Several qualitative as well as quantitative methods have been explored for analysis of aflatoxins in food commodities, crops and feeds. Among all the different developed methods, chromatographic techniques are considered the most appropriate methods in aflatoxins analysis. Analytical methods based on immunochemistry and spectroscopy have also been added to the chromatographic methods, some of which emerged as better alternatives for routine and on-site estimation of aflatoxins. Although a large number of analytical techniques are constantly being optimized, the LC/MS/MS technique is considered the most valuable confirmation technique for analyzing multiple mycotoxins as it is high specific, sensitive, accurate and reliable.
I would like to thanks the Director, Quality Operations Laboratory (QOL), Institute of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (UVAS) and all colleagues for helpful suggestions and support for the preparation of manuscript.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication.
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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",signatures:"Hamdy A. 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