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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Liu",slug:"fei-liu"}]},{id:"23621",title:"Application of Low-Temperature Plasma Processes for Biomaterials",slug:"application-of-low-temperature-plasma-processes-for-biomaterials",signatures:"Michael Schlosser Uwe Walschus, Karsten Schröder, Birgit Finke, Barbara Nebe, Jürgen Meichsner, Rainer Hippler, Rainer Bader and Andreas Podbielski",authors:[{id:"48929",title:"Dr.",name:"Birgit",middleName:null,surname:"Finke",fullName:"Birgit Finke",slug:"birgit-finke"},{id:"48930",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Nebe",fullName:"Barbara Nebe",slug:"barbara-nebe"},{id:"48934",title:"Dr.",name:"Karsten",middleName:null,surname:"Schröder",fullName:"Karsten Schröder",slug:"karsten-schroder"},{id:"61229",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schlosser",fullName:"Michael Schlosser",slug:"michael-schlosser"},{id:"61240",title:"Mr.",name:"Uwe",middleName:null,surname:"Walschus",fullName:"Uwe 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Rousseau",authors:[{id:"50051",title:"Dr.",name:"Marthe",middleName:null,surname:"Rousseau",fullName:"Marthe Rousseau",slug:"marthe-rousseau"}]},{id:"23630",title:"Alumina and Zirconia Ceramic for Orthopaedic and Dental Devices",slug:"alumina-and-zirconia-ceramic-for-orthopaedic-and-dental-devices",signatures:"Giulio Maccauro, Pierfrancesco Rossi Iommetti, Luca Raffaelli and Paolo Francesco Manicone",authors:[{id:"38492",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulio",middleName:null,surname:"Maccauro",fullName:"Giulio Maccauro",slug:"giulio-maccauro"},{id:"54410",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Raffaelli",fullName:"Luca Raffaelli",slug:"luca-raffaelli"},{id:"61257",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierfrancesco",middleName:null,surname:"Rossi Iommeytti",fullName:"Pierfrancesco Rossi Iommeytti",slug:"pierfrancesco-rossi-iommeytti"},{id:"61258",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Manicone",fullName:"Paolo Francesco Manicone",slug:"paolo-francesco-manicone"},{id:"61259",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Spinelli",fullName:"Maria Silvia Spinelli",slug:"maria-silvia-spinelli"},{id:"61260",title:"Dr.",name:"Calogero",middleName:null,surname:"Graci",fullName:"Calogero Graci",slug:"calogero-graci"}]},{id:"23631",title:"Natural-Based Polyurethane Biomaterials for Medical Applications",slug:"natural-based-polyurethane-biomaterials-for-medical-applications",signatures:"Doina Macocinschi, Daniela Filip and Stelian Vlad",authors:[{id:"56189",title:"Dr.",name:"Doina",middleName:null,surname:"Macocinschi",fullName:"Doina Macocinschi",slug:"doina-macocinschi"},{id:"59259",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Filip",fullName:"Daniela Filip",slug:"daniela-filip"},{id:"59260",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelian",middleName:null,surname:"Vlad",fullName:"Stelian Vlad",slug:"stelian-vlad"}]},{id:"23632",title:"Collagen-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Tissue Engineering",slug:"collagen-based-drug-delivery-systems-for-tissue-engineering",signatures:"Mădălina Georgiana Albu, Irina Titorencu and Mihaela Violeta Ghica",authors:[{id:"50060",title:"Dr.",name:"Madalina Georgiana",middleName:null,surname:"Albu",fullName:"Madalina Georgiana Albu",slug:"madalina-georgiana-albu"},{id:"56578",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Titorencu",fullName:"Irina Titorencu",slug:"irina-titorencu"},{id:"56579",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Ghica",fullName:"Mihaela Violeta Ghica",slug:"mihaela-violeta-ghica"}]},{id:"23633",title:"The Use of Biomaterials to Treat Abdominal Hernias",slug:"the-use-of-biomaterials-to-treat-abdominal-hernias",signatures:"Luciano Zogbi",authors:[{id:"56634",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Zogbi",fullName:"Luciano Zogbi",slug:"luciano-zogbi"}]},{id:"23634",title:"Biopolymers as Wound Healing Materials: Challenges and New 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Vaccines",slug:"extracellular-matrix-adjuvant-for-vaccines",signatures:"Mark A. Suckow, Rae Ritchie and Amy Overby",authors:[{id:"56475",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Suckow",fullName:"Mark Suckow",slug:"mark-suckow"},{id:"56502",title:"Dr.",name:"Rae",middleName:null,surname:"Ritchie",fullName:"Rae Ritchie",slug:"rae-ritchie"},{id:"56503",title:"Ms",name:"Amy",middleName:null,surname:"Overby",fullName:"Amy Overby",slug:"amy-overby"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"395",title:"Biomaterials",subtitle:"Physics and Chemistry",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"41507bb56706aec99bb59a645585d54e",slug:"biomaterials-physics-and-chemistry",bookSignature:"Rosario Pignatello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/395.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64447",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Pignatello",slug:"rosario-pignatello",fullName:"Rosario Pignatello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1486",title:"Biomaterials Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38aeff8880e6259e624707abda269b0f",slug:"biomaterials-science-and-engineering",bookSignature:"Rosario Pignatello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1486.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64447",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Pignatello",slug:"rosario-pignatello",fullName:"Rosario Pignatello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1487",title:"Biomaterials",subtitle:"Applications for Nanomedicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"696e143e9bcc2385c45795c2d73cdafc",slug:"biomaterials-applications-for-nanomedicine",bookSignature:"Rosario Pignatello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1487.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64447",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Pignatello",slug:"rosario-pignatello",fullName:"Rosario Pignatello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7727",title:"Biotechnology and Bioengineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1e6603fadccf154db3bc2b7a1e473121",slug:"biotechnology-and-bioengineering",bookSignature:"Eduardo Jacob -Lopes and Leila Queiroz Zepka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7727.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171980",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Jacob-Lopes",slug:"eduardo-jacob-lopes",fullName:"Eduardo Jacob-Lopes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6280",title:"Biomaterials",subtitle:"Physics and Chemistry - New Edition",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d45002a20a9496ff80f5c0166d9be33",slug:"biomaterials-physics-and-chemistry-new-edition",bookSignature:"Rosario Pignatello and Teresa Musumeci",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64447",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Pignatello",slug:"rosario-pignatello",fullName:"Rosario Pignatello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"1486",title:"Biomaterials Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38aeff8880e6259e624707abda269b0f",slug:"biomaterials-science-and-engineering",bookSignature:"Rosario Pignatello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1486.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64447",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Pignatello",slug:"rosario-pignatello",fullName:"Rosario Pignatello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65897",title:"The Effect of Preharvest Factors on Fruit and Nutritional Quality in Strawberry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84619",slug:"the-effect-of-preharvest-factors-on-fruit-and-nutritional-quality-in-strawberry",body:'\nSeveral reports confirm significant (35–50%) loss in horticultural produce after harvest. These losses are mainly due to dehydration, decay, and physiological disorders during postharvest handling. Fresh products also undergo rapid changes in nutritional and sensory quality after harvest, some of which contribute to loss of market value [1]. Losses can be mitigated through better management of pre- and postharvest factors. Differences in postharvest loss of fresh produce between developed (5–35%) and developing countries (30–50%) as reported by Kader [2], Salami [3], Kitinoja [4], and Ray and Ravi [5] are due to the higher capacity and better infrastructure in developed economies for managing these factors [1].
\nIn strawberry, preharvest management is a prerequisite for producing good quality fruit. Quality deterioration starts as soon as the produce is harvested, and postharvest factors can only maintain but not improve the quality. The growers’ decisions and management directly affect the final market value of strawberry and its acceptance by the consumers [1]. Many preharvest factors affect fruit quality at harvest. In this review, we will discuss genetic variability, climatic conditions, and cultural practices that affect quality of strawberries.
\nSome review papers exist on the effect of preharvest factors on strawberry fruit quality [6, 7, 8, 9], but the most recent one [9] addresses major temperate berry crops and does not focus solely on strawberry. Also, since then many new research papers have been published. Therefore, this chapter will review recent publications and elaborate on the effect of preharvest factors on strawberry fruit and nutritional quality.
\nStrawberry fruit quality is a composite of sensory characteristics (color, appearance, texture, mechanical properties, diseases, and defects) that give value and enjoyment to consumers [10]. Currently, strawberry producers and handlers are lengthening shelf life through early harvesting of firm fruit with less developed color. This process pays little attention to flavor, taste, and nutritional quality of harvested fruit and yet repeat purchases by consumers have been shown to depend on taste and eating quality of fruits. Therefore, the challenge is to encourage consumers to be willing to pay more for local fruit and varieties with higher quality (because they often require more careful handling and have lower yield), and producers and handlers to pay more attention to maturity, sugar content, taste and flavor of harvested strawberries [2].
\nLike other fresh produce, strawberry fruit quality is a product of the interaction between variety and preharvest factors. Preharvest factors such as climatic conditions and cultural practices determine the inherent quality of strawberries and the interaction of genetic characteristics, and preharvest factors determine the ultimate quality of the fruit [11]. Because strawberry fruit quality cannot be improved after harvest, the role of preharvest factors must be understood in order to improve consumer acceptance and shelf life [12]. This is because the ripening process in strawberries stops at harvest, and fruit should be picked when fully ripe to ensure good flavor and quality [13].
\nMaturity indices are important for deciding when to harvest strawberries. Color, soluble solids content (SSC), and titratable acidity (TA) are used as harvest indices in strawberries with >2/3 of fruit surface showing pink or red color, minimum SSC of 7% and maximum TA of 0.8% accepted as a minimum standard for timing of harvest [14]. Once strawberries ripen, they require quick marketing and careful handling to minimize injury and spoilage [13], and the indices provide some marketing flexibility to ensure that eating quality is attained by the time the fruit reaches the consumer while at the same time limiting postharvest losses. The necessity to ship strawberries to distant markets often results in harvesting at less than ideal maturity meaning less optimum quality for the consumer [13].
\nBerry fruits are extremely perishable and have a short market life. Several studies have shown that strawberry fruits harvested slightly under-ripe are firmer, have less decay and a longer shelf-life, and would ship better than fully ripe strawberries [15]. Because they are nonclimacteric fruit, strawberries produce very small amounts of ethylene and do not respond to ethylene treatment [13]. Therefore, ripened fruit should be kept at 0°C until time for display at retailers [14].
\nSugars and organic acids have an important impact on the sensory quality of strawberry fruit. For example, a strawberry with very low sugar and acid content tastes flat [16]. Strawberry fruit contains reducing sugars such as fructose, glucose, and sucrose, comprising >65% of total fruit SSC [16]. Glucose and fructose are found in almost equal concentrations [17], while sucrose levels are generally much lower [18, 19]. The proportions of fructose, glucose, and sucrose are important in the perception of fruit quality since fructose is 1.8 times sweeter than sucrose, [20] and sucrose is about 1.7 times sweeter than glucose [16, 21].
\nCitric acid forms the major organic acid found in strawberry fruit [22], representing 88% of the total organic acids in ripe fruit [23]. Malic acid is the second most prominent organic acid in the fruit [23], and the organic acid level (malic + citric) was found to be positively correlated with TA [16].
\nThe major phenolic compounds in strawberries include anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins, ellagitannins and ellagic acid conjugates, cinnamic acid conjugates and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, catechin, flavan-3-ols, flavonols, and flavons [24]. These compounds have numerous health benefits [25] such as antioxidation and anti-inflammatory activities [26, 27]. Also present in the strawberry fruit are polyphenols or tannins, which are responsible for astringency [19, 28].
\nNutritive composition of sugar, organic acid, and phenolic compounds in strawberries is very diversely distributed. To obtain the best nutritive values, the interaction between genotype and environment not only needs to be optimized, ideal harvest and post-harvest storage conditions must also be maintained.
\nResults indicate that the effect of genotype on strawberry fruit and nutritional quality is stronger than that of growing conditions [29]. Strawberry cultivars vary greatly in their rate of softening and overall texture [30]. It has been found that genetic factors have a direct influence on strawberry texture with environmental factors acting only to modify the expression of textural traits [30].
\nStudies have shown that that genotype affects total organic acid content [31], while vitamin C content in strawberry varies among cultivars and between tissues. For example, Nelson et al. [32] found a range from 19.3 to 71.5 mg/100 g ascorbic acid in six strawberry cultivars from four locations [33], while Ezell et al. [34] found a higher rate of 38.9–88.9 mg/100 g in 28 named varieties and 16 numbered selections. Nelson et al. [32] and Ezell et al. [34] reported an average of 45 and 60 mg/100 g, respectively with Ezell et al. [34] concluding that the ascorbic acid average of 60 can be increased to 80 or more through breeding. However, malic acid concentration appears to be independent of genotype [31].
\nThe main anthocyanin found in strawberries is pelargonidin 3-glucoside, with cyanidin 3-glucoside and pelargonidin 3-rutinoside present as minor components [35]. Differences have also been reported for other quality attributes. For instance, Anagnostou [36] reported that fruit from the cultivar “Fern” had better color and more anthocyanins than from “Selva.” When evaluated for firmness, “Carlsbad” was the firmest and “Rosalinda” the softest [37], confirming that firmness is mainly cultivar dependent [36]. In the same study, Anagnostou [36] also found that TA was not significantly affected by cultivar. Differences in the incidence of albino fruit production as reported by Sharma [38] can be attributed to genetic variability among cultivars.
\nIt has also been shown that relative distribution of phenolic compounds varies with genotype. Up to a 4-fold difference in flavonol content was observed between cultivars but with only slight variations associated with growing environment [39].
\nThese results suggest that different cultivars can be used for different purposes. Some such as “Toyonoka” are firmer and more suitable for distant markets but may have lower vitamin C, anthocyanins, phenolics and flavonols, others like “Oso Grande” with good nutritional values are suitable for fresh consumption, while some like “Mazi” with high anthocyanin and flavonol content but lower levels of vitamin C, citric acid, and total soluble solids (TSS) may be valued for their functional properties [35].
\nNutritional quality can be considered an inheritable trait that can be improved through breeding [29], and breeding and biotechnology programs are working to produce new varieties with improved fruit and nutritional qualities combined with high plant production efficiency [29]. Wild species like
Environmental conditions seem to have a major influence on flavor compound formation in strawberry. Watson [19] reported that SSC in strawberry was more dependent on environmental conditions during production than on the genetic makeup of the plant. Furthermore, relating growth conditions to flavor data may allow modeling of plant and fruit responses to the environment and provide a powerful tool to growers and retailers to manipulate fruit quality [19].
\nBelow are environmental factors that affect fruit quality in strawberry.
\nPreharvest conditions such as light intensity can affect strawberry fruit quality and phytonutrient content. Light is required for proper leaf and fruit development and can improve the fruit quality, but light above photosynthetic saturation levels, especially intense exposure, can increase the fruit temperature and may result in fruit damage and a loss of quality [30, 40]. On the other hand, insufficient light typically results in smaller strawberry fruits [41]. In strawberry, low light decreases the surface glossiness of the fruit [41] and reduces color development [11, 38].
\nEzell et al. [34] concluded that bright sunny weather favored high ascorbic acid content, while cool, wet weather resulted in low values. This confirms an observation by Wang [12] that strawberries grown at higher light intensity had increased levels of ascorbic acid. Even fruits shaded by foliage or ripened on cloudy days had 10% less ascorbic acid than berries exposed to sun [42], while berries shaded by leaves showed little change between cloudy and sunny days. Ezell et al. [34] also reported that everbearing varieties grown during the long, warm days, and intense light of early June averaged 34% more ascorbic acid than did the same varieties in late September. By shading either or both berries and plants, Hansen and Waldo [43] found that unshaded berries contained 13% more ascorbic acid than did the shaded ones and 68% more than when plants and berries were shaded. Unshaded plants produced higher dry matter in fruits at the expense of leaf growth but not fresh weight implying fruits with lower moisture content [44].
\nLight intensity, affected firmness, TSS, acidity, and anthocyanins [36]. The effect of shading was not significant for phenolics, but the opposite was observed for anthocyanins. Shading of strawberry plants has also been shown to cause significant reduction in the concentration of flavor compounds (hexenal, hexanal, ethyl methyl butyrate, and methyl butyrate) in fruit [19].
\nLight also influences anthocyanin synthesis and therefore color formation in fruit [45]. It appears that lower light intensity favors the development of albinism in strawberry with Sharma et al. [38] reporting that strawberry plants grown under low light intensities (shade) tend to produce a higher proportion of albino fruit.
\nProduction methods will affect the amount of light to which a crop is exposed. Solar radiation experienced by crops grown in a polythene tunnel with new plastic may be 10% less than an outdoor crop, and a glasshouse could reduce light levels by 30% or more compared to that of an outdoor crop [46].
\nThe color of plastic mulches frequently used in raised-bed culture affects fruit quality. The most commonly used plastic mulch color is black [47]. Berries that ripened over red plastic mulch were about 20% larger, had higher sugar to organic acid ratios, and emitted higher concentrations of favorable aroma compounds. It has been said that the ratio of far red (FR) to red (R) light reflected from the red mulch modified gene expression through plant phytochrome and increased fruit size, phytonutrient concentrations, flavor, and aroma compounds [47].
\nStrawberry (cv. Toyonoka) fruit color was greatly affected by light quality under different colored filters (green, neutral, yellow, blue, to red light). Fruit color (chroma), ascorbic acid, yield per plant, and fruit size improved with increasing exposure to reddish orange color. All fruit quality parameters measured (e.g., color, sugar, acid) were negatively affected by green color [48].
\nIn another study using five different mulch colors (red, blue, yellow, green, black, and silver), red mulch gave results similar or better than black mulch. Silver mulch reduced fresh fruit weight, fruit length and leaf area, while red mulch increased it. Silver mulch also reduced pH, ratio of TSS/TA and fruit dry weight, while black much increased the ratio. It is thought that increased light from the red and far-red spectrum reflected from red mulch is absorbed by phytochromes resulting in improved plant growth and fruit quality [49].
\nPlant growth and development is largely affected by temperature. Temperature also affects cellular compounds and their structure, which ultimately affects firmness. Lower temperatures during the growing season increased fruit firmness [36], and growing strawberry under different temperatures (day/night) could also affect antioxidant activity and total flavonoid content. High temperature growing conditions (25/30°C) significantly enhanced antioxidant activity, as well as anthocyanin and total phenolic content [12]. Wang et al. [51] also reported that “Kent” strawberries exposed to warmer nights (18–22°C) and warmer days (25°C) had higher antioxidant activity than berries grown under cool day and night temperatures (18/12°C). In a separate study, Moretti et al. [50] found that high temperature conditions significantly increased flavonoid levels and consequently antioxidant capacity. Ascorbic acid content in strawberries is also highly affected by climate conditions and growing area [12]. Moretti et al. [50] showed that higher day and night temperatures have a direct influence on strawberry fruit color with berries ripened under these conditions being redder and darker.
\nHowever, Wang et al. [51] showed that in strawberry, fruit temperatures can exceed air temperatures by as much as 8°C on sunny days. High fruit temperatures could inhibit enzymes, such as sucrose synthetase, which acts on sucrose production. Increased fruit temperatures may also induce a higher transpirational flux within the fruit [51].
\nFreezing temperatures on the other hand can be detrimental to strawberries. A radiative freeze typically occurs under clear skies with calm or light wind, and a relatively high subfreezing temperature or dew point (similar to the conditions that often cause frost). Radiative freeze damage of strawberry often results in smaller fruit, and depending upon the developmental stage when damage occurs, misshapen fruit are produced [11].
\nAlthough the climate change subject is controversial, its potential impact on agriculture continues to be discussed. However, few studies have considered the potential impact of climate change on fruit and vegetable quality after harvest [52]. Temperature increase and the effects of greenhouse gases are among the most important issues associated with climate change. Beside rising temperatures, climate changes are also a consequence of changes in the composition of gaseous constituents in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere has direct effects on postharvest quality [50].
\nThe highest temperature that strawberry fruit mature normally is 35°C. At high temperatures and elevated CO2 levels, carbohydrates, such as starch and soluble sugars are degraded in the respiration process and the proteins and most minerals decrease. The nutritional quality also decreased due to more phenols and ascorbic acid. However, the effect of temperature is more pronounced than the elevated CO2 levels [52].
\nElevated CO2 levels in storage slightly increased dehydroascorbic acid and firmness, prevented ascorbic acid reduction, and reduced anthocyanin, flavonoids, antioxidant activity and total phenolic compounds [53]. In contrast, increased CO2 concentrations in the growing atmosphere (300 and 600 μmolmol−1 above ambient) resulted in increased anthocyanin and phenolic and ascorbic acid content [54]. Siriphanich [55] also reported increased firmness in strawberry treated with CO2. Cell wall analysis showed lower water-soluble pectin and higher chelating soluble pectin in CO2-treated strawberries. The mechanism of firmness enhancement by CO2 was possibly due to changes in intercellular pH and its solute composition.
\nThe influence of ozone on strawberry depends significantly on cultivar and susceptibility to oxidative stress. The effect of ozone on vitamin C content is variable in the reviewed articles and mostly cultivar dependent. In “Korona” and “Elsanta” tested by Keutgen and Pawelzik [56], ozone caused a decrease in ascorbic acid content, and lowered fruit sweetness. The ozone stress did not influence yield, size, antioxidative capacity, anthocyanins, or phenolic compounds of fruit. In the more sensitive cv. “Elsanta,” ozone induced sepal injuries and fruit impairment, and a decrease in glutathione content. In contrast, fruit quality of the less sensitive cv. “Korona” remained almost constant [56].
\nIn cv. “Camarosa,” ozone enriched storage (0.35 μL/L) for 3 days, increased vitamin C by three times, and reduced volatile esters 40% compared to control [57]. On the other hand, Moretti et al. [50] reported that strawberries stored in atmospheres with ozone ranging from 0.3 to 0.7 μL/L showed no effect on ascorbic acid levels after 7 days of storage under refrigerated conditions.
\nSoil types, fertilization, composts, and mulching influence the water and nutrient supply to the plant and can affect the nutritional composition, ascorbic acid content, and antioxidant activity of harvested fruit [16]. Plants grown in low-organic-matter and low-cation-exchange-capacity sandy soil amended with Ca, magnesium (Mg), and N produced more ascorbic acid in fruit than plants without supplemental fertilizer [12]. Also, Wang and Lin [16] reported that strawberry organic acids, malic acid and citric acid, were increased by the addition of fertilizer [16].
\nComposts have been utilized in agriculture as a significant source of organic matter. As a soil supplement, compost significantly enhances plant growth, fruit quality, and ascorbic acid and flavonoid content in strawberries. Compost causes changes in soil chemical and physical characteristics that increase beneficial microorganisms, and nutrient availability and uptake thus favoring plant growth. Strawberry plants grown with compost yielded fruits with high levels of phenolics, flavonol, and anthocyanin content. The free radical absorbance capacities for peroxyl, superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl, and singlet oxygen in strawberries increased significantly with increasing compost use [12, 16]. Also, compost significantly increased levels of organic acids (malic and citric acid), sugars (fructose, glucose, and total sugars), soluble solids content, and TA content in “Allstar” and “Honeoye” strawberry cultivars [16].
\nStrawberries grown organically showed higher levels of total phenolics compared to those produced by conventional agricultural practices, mostly because they received all required nutrients from organic matter. Also, flavonol content was higher in organically grown than in conventionally grown strawberry fruits. These data provide evidence that an improvement in the antioxidant defense system of the plant occurred as a consequence of the organic cultivation practice [12]. It has been shown that N can become a growth-limiting nutrient in organic production [39].
\nStrawberries need nearly neutral (6–6.5) soil pH and variation from this range affect mineral uptake and plant growth, development, yield, and fruit quality [58]. Increasing soil pH significantly reduces uptake of minerals such as iron and manganese [58, 59]. Iron deficiency has been observed in many crops when grown in high pH calcareous soils. In these soils, iron deficiency is the most important abiotic stress limiting strawberry production [60]. In fact, iron deficiency results in extensive fruit abortion with a consequent reduction of yield and fruit weight [61].
\nHowever, although most studies show a positive correlation between organic production and crop performance in strawberry, Hargreaves [59] found that organic amendments did not increase fruit quality compared to inorganic amendments, and no differences in total phenolic content were observed between conventionally and organically grown strawberries.
\nStrawberry is commonly produced in open fields, glasshouses or plastic tunnels. Pests and diseases gradually build up in soils and limit strawberry culture. Therefore, the use of alternative substrates (soilless culture) is a common cultural method in strawberries, especially in protected environments, and has been shown to improve fruit yield and quality [62].
\nPhysical and chemical properties of substrates exhibit direct and indirect effects on plant yield and fruit quality. Different substrates such as peat moss, coconut coir, perlite, rockwool, and pine bark have been used. However, peat has been the best substrate for hydroponic culture [63].
\nCheaper alternatives to peat are being explored. For example, Zeolites (alumina silicate crystals) that have a negative charge, high cation exchange capacity, and high water holding capacity have been tested. Djedidi et al. [64] reported improved yield and quality in tomato grown in a mixture of zeolite and perlite, while Fotouhi Ghazvini [65] reported improved yield but decreased fruit quality in strawberries in similar substrate.
\nAn important determinant of fruit quality is the availability of essential nutrients during growth and development. Among them, calcium (Ca) slows down the ripening and senescence processes in many fruits including strawberry [66]. Nestby et al. [67] and Prange and De Ell [9] report that research conducted over the past 25 years on the effect of Ca on postharvest quality of strawberry has provided contradictory conclusions. In some studies, foliar applications and soil amendments of Ca did not affect fruit quality, regardless of cultivar, yet other studies have shown increased shelf life due to Ca application [66].
\nFurthermore, Singh et al. [66] reported that preharvest Ca sprays greatly influenced fruit color during storage. In storage, fruit harvested from control plants turned darker whereas from the Ca spray treatment were comparatively brighter. Similarly, higher values of hue (a) and chroma (b) in such fruit indicate that fruit receiving Ca were redder and more vivid. Strawberries soften considerably during storage as a result of degradation of middle lamella, cell wall, and cortical parenchyma cells. By extension, cell wall strength, cell to cell contact and cellular turgor, which are greatly influenced by Ca may affect fruit firmness. Thus, fruits which received Ca were firmer even after 5 days of storage [66].
\nCalcium deficiency represents one of the most common issues for strawberry growers. Calcium plays a role in cell division and the maintenance of cell permeability and cell integrity, all of which directly influence factors such as firmness and shelf life [66]. Strawberry fruits from Ca-deficient plants are small, hard textured, acidic, seedy, or with patches covered densely with achenes, with increased deformity [17]. Calcium sprays increases fruit firmness, vitamin C and shelf life during storage [68].
\nHowever, there are reports that increasing Ca application did not affect sensory quality and decreased TA and TSS of strawberries. Calcium increased firmness and storage life up to 900 ppm. Higher concentration seems to create toxicity and imbalances of other minerals in leaf tissue.
\nThe form of Ca applied also changes the result. Application of gypsum at planting time did not influence fruit Ca content. Therefore, cultivar, form of Ca applied, and environmental factors must be considered during Ca fertilization of strawberries [68].
\nNitrogen is another important nutrient for fruit quality with both positive and negative effects of N on yield and fruit quality reported. The effect of N on fruit chemical components is inconsistent and varies from year to year, depending on time and rate of application and other environmental factors [67]. Recommended optimum concentrations of leaf N for high-yielding strawberry fields in California, North Carolina, northeastern United States, and Ontario, Canada ranges from 2.0 to 4.0%, with samples collected mostly from the leaf blade [69, 70, 71, 72, 73]. Form of N also affects fruit quality. Ammonium up to a ratio of 1 to 6 nitrate increased fruit firmness, but reduced red color compared to nitrate alone. Fruit vitamin C, pH, and TSS decreased with addition of ammonium up to a ratio of 1:6 (ammonium: nitrate) and then returned to the original level at the ratio of 1.5:6. Ammonium reduced TA at all concentrations [74].
\nTabatabaei [40] demonstrated that both high concentrations of NO3 (100%) and NH4 (75%) has an inhibitory effect on growth of strawberry, and it becomes more pronounced in the shaded conditions.
\nWhile low concentration of ammonium improved plant growth, higher concentrations, reduced growth due to the high demand for carbohydrates for ammonium detoxification and low nitrate concentrations.
\nAnother possible explanation is that a high concentration of NH4 reduces the uptake of cations such as Ca+ and K+ and increases the concentration of NH4+, which is toxic for the plant [40].
\nHigher concentration of NH4 significantly reduced postharvest life probably due to Ca deficiency in fruit. Calcium deficiency associated with NH4 nutrition can induce loss of membrane integrity which in turn may lower the concentration of potassium (K) and Mg and influence the function of chloroplasts and mitochondria. In addition, higher rates of organic acid synthesis because of NH4 nutrition may immobilize Ca and Mg within the roots. Ammonium also reduces the uptake of Ca and K by the roots, and is used only sparingly or not at all during the early growth of crops under poor light conditions [40].
\nThe general conclusion is that proper N fertilizer application could be effective in improving fruit quality. Plants with low or moderate vegetative growth tend to have firmer fruits. Higher N doses decreased fruit size and increased pest and disease occurrence and fruit rot and malformation. Petiole sap nitrate testing is a standard method that determines the N requirement at different developmental stages of growth and would help to reduce uncertainty of time and amount of N application [67].
\nImbalances in certain macronutrients can also have a pronounced effect on shape, and size [11]. Magnesium and phosphorous deficiency tend to decrease flower and fruit size and increase the incidence of albinism. Potassium-deficient plants may produce shriveled fruits with brown calyxes, fruits fail to develop full color, and have pulpy texture, and insipid taste [67].
\nAmong microelements, boron (B) has a direct effect on fruit quality. For example, B deficiency causes distorted flowers and fruits, reduces fruit size and number, and increases malformation [11, 67]. The influence of B on phenol metabolism has also been well studied [39]. Fewer malformed fruit in plants receiving B can be correlated with a higher concentration of B both in leaves and fruit [66], which may be due to the significant role of B on pollen germination and pollen tube growth.
\nStudies conducted by Sing [66] indicate that B application does not influence fruit quality in strawberry; however, B deficiency usually results in poor accumulation of TSS, and ascorbic acid. Other microelements also have roles in plant growth and development and are needed at lower concentrations compared to macronutrients. Iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo) are needed at 40, 25, 20, 3, 0.4 ppm per dry matter of leaves, respectively [67]. No major effects of Fe, Cu, and Mn have been reported on fruit quality [67]. In general, balanced fertilization has an important effect on both fruit yield and quality.
\nFruit quality has been observed to increase with saline solute concentration. A solution strength of 1.3 mS cm−1 EC is preferred during the spring season whereas 2.2 mS cm−1 EC proved to be best in the winter in terms of fruit quality. Fruit ripening was accelerated in salt-stressed plants [75], and salinity had no effect on fruit number, but decreased fresh and dry weight [44]. In three different studies on the effect of salinity on two strawberry cultivars differing in their sensitivity to NaCl stress: cv. Elsanta (sensitive) and cv. Korona (less sensitive) [76, 77, 78], salinity decreased total soluble solids and sugar (especially sucrose) content. Fruit quality, characterized as taste, aroma, and texture by a panel decreased significantly in “Elsanta,” but not in “Korona” [76, 78]. The more tolerant cv. Korona was characterized by an increase in reduced glutathione and better fruit taste [78].
\nSalt stress increased the antioxidant capacity, antioxidants pools (ascorbic acid, anthocyanins, superoxide dismutase) and selected minerals such as Na+, Cl−, K+, N, P, and Zn2+, as well as lipid peroxidation in both cultivars [78], and also free and essential amino acid content, especially in cv. Elsanta. The ability of “Korona” to retain Cl− in the root system more effectively than “Elsanta” resulted in 41% less leaf Cl− at the highest salinity level and better growth under NaCl stress leading to relatively higher fruit yield and quality [76].
\nStrawberry plants need frequent irrigation due to a shallow root system, large leaf area, and fruits with high water content [79]. In a field study, it was found that irrigating at 200 hPa resulted in higher yield and better fruit quality when compared with irrigating at 300 hPa. Decreased fruit firmness and increased fruit size was also observed in irrigated plots [80, 81]. Particularly in light soils, irrigation significantly increases fruit yield and quality, and creates an opportunity for intensive strawberry production. Both sprinkler and drip irrigation systems produced the same result, but water use was considerably lower with drip irrigation [82].
\nWhen strawberries are exposed to long-term water stress, leaf, crown, and runner growth are decreased. Fruit number and weight (yield) also decreases even as fruit maturity is accelerated [83]. Therefore, strawberries are generally considered unfit for deficit irrigation. However, mild deficit irrigation has been tested as a method to limit water use, and depending on the cultivar, to increase the concentration of some taste- and health-related compounds. For example, [84] report that deficit irrigation reduced berry size but increased dry matter content, sugars and acids in cvs. Elsanta, Sonata, and Symphony but not in cvs. Florence and Christine.
\nStrawberries are commonly grown on raised-beds using different polyethylene mulches. This system keeps the fruits clean, eases harvesting, saves water, and lowers herbicide use. Moreover, in Europe, strawberries grown on plastic mulches ripen a week earlier than those without mulch because of higher soil and canopy temperature, and reflection caused by the mulch may improve light conditions [39].
\nSignificantly higher phenolic content has been reported in fruit from strawberry plants grown on plasticulture than in those grown in matted row culture. Additionally, higher anthocyanin content has been observed in strawberry fruits grown on plastic mulch compared to those grown on straw mulch. The elevated temperature inside the plastic may explain the higher phenolic content. White mulch increased the contents of the total phenolics and ellagic acid and the antioxidant activity in strawberry fruits more than brown mulch, whereas the total anthocyanin content was highest in fruits grown on brown mulch. Strawberries grown on red plastic mulch have been found to contain significantly higher amounts of aroma compounds than those grown on black mulch, which may be due to different light conditions caused by the mulch color [39].
\nCultural systems affect plant metabolites such as total phenolic compounds, anthocyanin, and antioxidants. Hill plasticulture systems significantly increase total phenolic compounds, anthocyanin, antioxidants, and flavonoids compared to matted row systems. Cultural systems affect the quantity and quality of light reaching the plant and therefore, plant and soil temperatures, and soil moisture content. These conditions will affect plant growth and development and subsequently plant metabolites such as those mentioned previously [12, 51].
\nPlanting date in glasshouse production affected phenolic content, and a statistically significant interaction was found between planting date and fruit order [39]. The crop from the latest planting date seems to have the highest total phenolic content and antioxidant activity, whereas anthocyanin content was lowest. In a related study, it was found that harvest date affected the ellagic acid content, with prevailing temperature and rainfall during harvest assumed to cause the differences [39].
\nFruit quality did not change with the cultural cycle (summer-spring versus fall-spring), but the berries harvested in the spring had higher vitamin C and sucrose content and lower nitrate content compared with berries harvested in the winter [79]. Several works have demonstrated flavor differences between crops grown during different seasons [19]. Planting date affects plant mineral content due to changes in nutrient solution strength and light intensity. At lower light intensity during winter, growers increase nutrient solution strength, which can lead to higher fruit nitrate content compared to the spring. This can be considered undesirable, since nitrates may pose a potential threat to human health [19].
\nChemical composition in strawberry fruit varies by genotype and maturity. Following the pink stage, many phytonutrients are synthesized in parallel with the overall development and maturation of the fruit.
\nHarvesting at optimal maturity is essential for ensuring good fruit quality since important changes in individual sugar and acid content occurs in the final stages of ripening.
\nAntioxidant capacity also varies considerably with maturity. Many phytonutrients are synthesized in parallel with the overall development and maturation and strawberry fruit harvested at ripe stage consistently yielded higher antioxidant values than those harvested at the pink stage [12, 16]. Strawberries have the highest oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values during the green stages [15, 16], while fruit harvested at pink stage (50% maturity) had the lowest ORAC and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity.
\nThe concentration of total phenolic compounds is highest at the green stage and reduces during prolonged storage and processing. Ellagic acid concentration is highest in the early stages of fruit maturation (green strawberries) and gradually declines with ripening [85].
\nAscorbic acid content increased from green to the pink stage by about 95% and then did not change until berries were overripe, when it then decreased. Ascorbic acid is lower in the inner than in the outer part of the fruit.
\nOverall quality and firmness of fruit harvested at the red ripe stage declined more rapidly than the white tip stage. Also, fruits were lighter and less red, reflecting less anthocyanin accumulation. Therefore, fruits harvested at three quarters red ripening stage can be stored for longer periods with better color and firmness than the fruit harvested when fully red. Strawberries harvested at early stages of color development (white stage) can become red during storage similar to commercially ripe fruit [15, 86]. This indicates that strawberries harvested at certain stages of maturity can synthesize pigment during storage under favorable conditions that are temperature dependent [45, 86] and can occur in darkness, but light can slightly increase the rate of pigment formation [45].
\nThere are large variations in flavor quality between fruits per harvest and also from harvest to harvest. In strawberry, primary fruits are larger and ripen first and have less competition for resources. Therefore, there is a variation between primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary fruit in flavor and nutrient content. At each harvest, fruits from different stage of maturity and ripeness will increase the variability.
\nDifferent harvests during the season may even have more variability than fruit ripening stage, because, environmental conditions such as light may alter flavor compounds as well. Previous data from tomatoes Anagnostou [36] suggested a strong correlation between juice sugar and solar radiation across one season. The results show the difficulty in interpreting data where there is a variable light integral as well as differences [36].
\nSoluble solids and sugars decreased as the harvest season progressed, while TA, ascorbic acid content and anthocyanins increased [36]. A steady decrease in SSC and sugars as the harvest season progressed was noticed, most probably because plants were exhausted. Low levels coincided with peak production, while the highest values were noticed during low and early production (January) periods characterized by very low light intensity and short days. Titratable acidity increased from January to June, in parallel with increases in day length and light intensity [36].
\nSeasonal factor and environmental conditions affect fruit content and quality very strongly.
\nOrganic acids that affect flavor (citrate and malate) and ascorbic acid were significantly higher in the spring than winter. This could be due to the higher carbohydrates as the precursors for ascorbic synthesis. Carotenoids are also available in strawberries, although less abundant than ascorbic acid. Unlike ascorbic acid, the amount of carotenoids is higher during winter than spring. This suggests that carotenoid synthesis is dependent on the interaction between temperature and light intensity [79].
\nThe method of harvest and handling operations can determine the extent of physical injury and maturity variation, which both affect the nutritional quality of strawberries. Physical injury during harvest such as abrasions, cuts, and bruising can reduce the amount of ascorbic acid and increase fruit decay. Best harvest and handling practices should be implemented to reduce physical injury and maintain fruit quality [33].
\nInadequate pollination creates distorted strawberry fruit at maturity due to inadequate fertilized ovules, which secrete hormones necessary for fruit cell division and enlargement [11]. Insect pollination results in uniform strawberry fruit and bee (
Temperatures above 25°C can significantly affect pollen viability and germination and consequently yield and quality. However, certain strawberry cultivars produce heat-tolerant pollen, which in turn could result in higher fruit set [90, 91].
\nFruit order significantly affected the phenolic content in fruits. In two separate experiments, the levels of the total phenolics, ellagic acid, and antioxidant activity were found to increase from primary to tertiary fruits. Fruit order caused at highest a 1.5–2.0-fold difference in phenolic acid content [39]. However, the highest anthocyanin content was found in secondary fruits.
\nPrimary fruits are the largest and have more resources available for growth and protein synthesis and less available for the phenylalanine ammonium lyase enzyme to convert it to phenolic compounds. Another explanation is the dilution effect of larger cells with higher biomass in primary fruits [39].
\nIn strawberry, the effect of crop load on fruit quality depends on the genotype. Low crop load is associated with higher total soluble solids in “Ventana” and “Candonga,” but not in “Camarosa” [92]. Crop load also increases over time meaning that even at similar light levels, the amount of assimilates available to individual fruits will change throughout the harvest period. The greatest demand for assimilates will occur during the development of secondary and tertiary fruits [19]. Crop load also affects firmness, TSS, acidity, and anthocyanin [36].
\nEvaporation of surface water from overhead irrigation or chemical, fertilizer, and pesticide sprays create an unpleasant strawberry fruit appearance [11]. However, strawberries cannot be exposed to free water after harvest meaning residual chemicals on fruit surfaces cannot be washed away. Furthermore, pest control products may indirectly change fruit flavor and composition. For example, mite control improved sweetness and flavor intensity of “Sweet Charlie” strawberries but had no effect on fruit color or firmness [93]. There are many commercial products that affect plant growth and development, which may or may not be plant growth regulators. These products seem to enhance fruit set and growth, resulting in bigger fruit size and higher yields, or protect the plants and fruits from biotic and abiotic stresses [94].
\nPlant growth stimulators (seaweed extract, mixture of an auxin plus gibberellic acid, and nitrophenolates) increased fruit yield, size, and total anthocyanin concentration of strawberry cv. Camarosa, but did not change other characteristics (i.e., fruit juice pH, TA and TSS concentration, organic acid and carbohydrate concentration and fruit color). In a taste panel, the mixture of auxin and gibberellic acid received the best score [94].
\nIn another experiment, strawberry plants were sprayed during fruit ripening and after 10 days with 2, 4 and 6 g l−1 chitosan with no phytotoxic effect [95]. Chitosan increased firmness and reduced fruit decay, ripening rate, TA, and anthocyanin content during 4 weeks of storage. Formation of a chitosan film on fruit acts as a barrier for oxygen uptake thereby slowing the ripening process and modifying the atmosphere and ethylene levels without causing anaerobic respiration. In addition, chitosan coating can reduce desiccation by providing a moisture barrier as was reported earlier [95]. The reduced decay by chitosan is mostly related to delayed fruit senescence.
\nPlants receiving salicylic acid (SA) during vegetative stage through their nutrient solution produced firmer fruits with less weight loss, decay, and better quality [96]. Weight loss is due to metabolic activity, respiration and transpiration, and it is possible that SA decreased respiration rate and fruit weight loss by closing stomata. Salicylic acid as an electron donor produces free radicals, which prevents normal respiration. Pre- and postharvest application of salicylic acid significantly increased strawberry ascorbic acid content, TSS, TA and total antioxidant potential, and prevented fungal growth [97]. Increased ascorbic acid is mostly due to the increased activity of ascorbate peroxidase, [12]. Also, increased antioxidant ability and antistress power of plants and fruits induced by SA prevents vitamin C destruction. Salicylic acid decreased fungal development, although not fungicidal. However, activity of defensive enzymes (peroxidase, chitinase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase) increased in pear after SA spray. Conversely, rapid decrease in endogenous SA of fruits during ripening is simultaneous with rapid softening of fruits. It has been shown that SA affects cell swelling, which leads to higher firmness of fruits and prevents fruit softening (Wang [12]).
\nRecent studies show that silicon (Si) is a beneficial element for plant growth that plays an important role in plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Silicon improved strawberry plant fresh and dry weight, leaf area and relative water content, and yield under salinity stress. Both Si and salinity treatments increased acidity of fruit, but did not affect other fruit quality characteristics [98]. Silicon fertilization also reduced powdery mildew severity under high tunnel on all strawberry cultivars tested, and significantly increased yield of marketable fruits reaching as much as 300% with cv. Monterey [99]. A silicon-based wetter (Omex SW7) significantly increased the number and length of leaf hairs on both the upper and lower surfaces of strawberry leaves and reduced the number of germinating powdery mildew (
Several reports confirm significant (35–50%) loss of horticultural produce after harvest. In strawberry, preharvest management is a prerequisite for producing good quality fruit. Fruit quality and nutrient content of strawberries varies widely depending on the variety and environmental factors. Berry fruits are extremely perishable and have a short market life. Because strawberry quality cannot be improved after harvest, the role of preharvest factors must be understood in order to improve the shelf life.
\nResults indicate that the effect of genotype on strawberry fruit and nutritional quality is stronger than that of growing conditions and cultivars could be selected for maximum adaptability to the environmental conditions and market demand.
\nEnvironmental conditions seem to have a major influence on nutritional and flavor compounds in strawberries. Preharvest conditions such as light intensity can affect strawberry fruit quality and phytonutrient content. The color of plastic mulches frequently used on raised beds also affects fruit quality. Plant growth and development is largely affected by temperature, which affects cellular compounds and their structure and fruit firmness. Changes in the composition of atmospheric CO2 and ozone constituents due to climate change may also affect fruit quality. Soil types, fertilization, composts, and mulching influence the water and nutrient supply to the plant and can affect the nutritional composition, ascorbic acid content, and antioxidant activity of harvested fruit. The use of alternative substrates (soilless culture) is a common cultural method in strawberries, especially in protected environments that has been shown to improve fruit yield and quality. Nitrogen and Ca are among the most critical elements for improving strawberry yield and quality. Strawberry plants need frequent irrigation due to a shallow root system, large leaf area, and fruits with high water content.
\nCultural practices affect strawberry metabolites significantly. Higher phenolic content has been reported in fruit from strawberry plants grown on plasticulture than in those grown in matted row culture. Also, there is a large variation in flavor quality between fruits per harvest and from harvest to harvest.
\nSome of these environmental factors can be optimized in open fields according to the light and temperature conditions, such as planting date, mulch color and fertilization, although, their interactions may be hard to control. Other environmental factors can only be manipulated under protected cultivation. In general, to obtain reliable data on fruit and nutritional quality, when there is such a larger variation in growing conditions, other factors should be closely monitored.
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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"42566",doi:"10.5772/53706",title:"Challenges and Opportunities for Spark Plasma Sintering: A Key Technology for a New Generation of Materials",slug:"challenges-and-opportunities-for-spark-plasma-sintering-a-key-technology-for-a-new-generation-of-mat",totalDownloads:9109,totalCrossrefCites:97,totalDimensionsCites:207,abstract:null,book:{id:"3478",slug:"sintering-applications",title:"Sintering Applications",fullTitle:"Sintering Applications"},signatures:"M. Suárez, A. Fernández, J.L. Menéndez, R. 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Kessel",authors:[{id:"102383",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Suárez",slug:"marta-suarez",fullName:"Marta Suárez"},{id:"103822",title:"Dr.",name:"J.L",middleName:null,surname:"Menendez",slug:"j.l-menendez",fullName:"J.L Menendez"},{id:"103833",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Torrecillas",slug:"ramon-torrecillas",fullName:"Ramón Torrecillas"},{id:"162633",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",fullName:"Adolfo Fernández"}]},{id:"23617",doi:"10.5772/24118",title:"Collagen- vs. Gelatine-Based Biomaterials and Their Biocompatibility: Review and Perspectives",slug:"collagen-vs-gelatine-based-biomaterials-and-their-biocompatibility-review-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:9373,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:196,abstract:null,book:{id:"1487",slug:"biomaterials-applications-for-nanomedicine",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials Applications for Nanomedicine"},signatures:"Selestina Gorgieva and Vanja Kokol",authors:[{id:"55577",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanja",middleName:null,surname:"Kokol",slug:"vanja-kokol",fullName:"Vanja Kokol"},{id:"61285",title:"BSc",name:"Selestina",middleName:null,surname:"Gorgieva",slug:"selestina-gorgieva",fullName:"Selestina Gorgieva"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13621,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:156,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"76780",title:"Basics of Clay Minerals and Their Characteristic Properties",slug:"basics-of-clay-minerals-and-their-characteristic-properties",totalDownloads:1553,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Clay minerals such as kaolinite, smectite, chlorite, micas are main components of raw materials of clay and formed in presence of water. A large number of clays used to form the different structure which completely depends on their mining source. They are known as hydrous phyllosilicate having silica, alumina and water with variable amount of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ which are found either in interlayer space or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are described by presence of two-dimensional sheets, tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3). There are different clay minerals which are categorized based on presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layer in their structure like kaolinite (1:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers), smectite group of clay minerals (2:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers) and chlorite (2:1:1 of tetrahedral, octahedral and octahedral layers). The particle size of clay minerals is <2microns which can be present in form of plastic in presence of water and solidified when dried. The small size and their distinctive crystal structure make clay minerals very special with their unique properties including high cation exchange capacity, swelling behavior, specific surface area, adsorption capacity, etc. which are described in this chapter. Due to all these unique properties, clay minerals are gaining interest in different fields.",book:{id:"10949",slug:"clay-and-clay-minerals",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clay and Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Neeraj Kumari and Chandra Mohan",authors:[{id:"258132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Mohan",slug:"chandra-mohan",fullName:"Chandra Mohan"},{id:"352399",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"neeraj-kumari",fullName:"Neeraj Kumari"}]},{id:"51535",title:"An Introduction to Hydrogels and Some Recent Applications",slug:"an-introduction-to-hydrogels-and-some-recent-applications",totalDownloads:11460,totalCrossrefCites:61,totalDimensionsCites:125,abstract:"Hydrogels have existed for more than half a century, and today they have many applications in various processes ranging from industrial to biological. 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Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. 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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"14",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81461",title:"Fiber Inclusions-Based Epoxy Composites and Their Applications",slug:"fiber-inclusions-based-epoxy-composites-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104118",abstract:"Because of their low cost, lightweight, easy production methods, and design flexibility, polymer-based composites are widely employed in a wide range of applications. Because of its high specific strength, superior mechanical characteristics, super adhesiveness, heat and solvent resistance, and so on, epoxy polymer or polyepoxide represent a significant majority of matrix composites. As a result, fiber fillers-reinforced epoxy resin composites have been investigated for a variety of applications, including high-tech in the ballistic, aircraft, automobile, construction, and sports sectors. In this chapter, the manufacturing procedures of fiber-reinforced epoxy composites have been described. Different categories of fiber are used as fillers in an epoxy matrix and their morphology is discussed as a function of the obtained properties.",book:{id:"11123",title:"Epoxy-Based Composites",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11123.jpg"},signatures:"Nassima Radouane and Abdelkrim Maaroufi"},{id:"81727",title:"Nanoparticle Based Collagen Biomaterials for Wound Healing",slug:"nanoparticle-based-collagen-biomaterials-for-wound-healing",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104851",abstract:"Wounds and infections are extremely common cases that are dealt with in the medical field. Their effective and timely treatment ensures the overall well-being of patients in general. Current treatments include the use of collagen scaffolds and other biomaterials for tissue regeneration. Although the use of collagenous biomaterials has been tested, the incorporation of nanoparticles into these collagenous biomaterials is a fairly new field, whose possibilities are yet to be explored and discovered. The current chapter explores the applications of the amalgamation of collagenous biomaterials with nanoparticles, which themselves are known to be effective in the treatment and prevention of infections.",book:{id:"10945",title:"Collagen Biomaterial",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10945.jpg"},signatures:"Kausalya Neelavara Makkithaya, Sharmila Nadumane, Guan-Yu Zhuo, Sanjiban Chakrabarty and Nirmal Mazumder"},{id:"81726",title:"Design and Fabrication of Microencapsulated Phase Change Materials for Energy/Thermal Energy Storage and Other Versatile Applications",slug:"design-and-fabrication-of-microencapsulated-phase-change-materials-for-energy-thermal-energy-storage",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102806",abstract:"Microencapsulated phase change materials have been considered as potential candidates to overcome the global energy shortage, as these materials can provide a viable method for storing thermal energy and offering consistent energy management by controllable heat release in desirable environments. Microencapsulation technology offers a method for overcoming the trouble associated with the handling of solid–liquid phase change materials (PCMs) via encapsulating PCMs with thin or tiny shells which are known as ‘microcapsules’. Microcapsule shells not only keep PCMs isolated from the surrounding materials but also provide a stable structure and sufficient surface for PCMs to enhance heat transfer. Thus microencapsulation technology received remarkable attention from fundamental studies to industrial growth in recent years. In order to provide a reliable source of information on recent progress and development in microencapsulated PCMs, this chapter emphases on methods and techniques for the encapsulation of PCMs with a diversity of shell materials from traditional organic polymers to novel inorganic materials to pursue high encapsulation efficiency, excellent thermal energy-storage performance and long-term operation durability. The chapter also highlights the design of bi- and multi-functional PCM-based microcapsules by fabricating various functional shells in a multilayered structure to meet the growing demand for versatile applications.",book:{id:"11077",title:"Microencapsulation - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications of Smart Microcapsules",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11077.jpg"},signatures:"Tahira Mahmood, Rahmat Ali and Abdul Naeem"},{id:"81709",title:"New-Age Al-Cu-Mn-Zr (ACMZ) Alloy for High Temperature-High Strength Applications: A Review",slug:"new-age-al-cu-mn-zr-acmz-alloy-for-high-temperature-high-strength-applications-a-review",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104533",abstract:"One of the prime challenges with age hardened Al-Cu alloys is the strength degradation at high temperatures (above ∼250°C) due to the coarsening of strengthening θ′ precipitates and associated metastable θ′ → stable θ phase transformation. A recent discovery suggests that micro-alloying with Manganese (Mn) and Zirconium (Zr) can synergistically restrict θ′ precipitate coarsening, thereby rendering an excellent high temperature stability for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr (ACMZ) alloys. The θ′ precipitates are stabilized primarily from the reduction of interfacial energy by preferential solute segregation (Mn & Zr) at θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces. The Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys thereby exhibit excellent high temperature hardness and tensile properties (yield and ultimate tensile strength) in addition to superior fatigue life and creep resistance. This newly developed Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys also showed excellent hot tearing resistance compared to the conventional cast Al-Cu alloys so much so that it meets the industrial standards as well. These alloys also have promising manufacturing possibility by additive route. Overall, Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys offer great potential for the automotive industry because of their unprecedented high temperature performance which should enable engineers to build light weight passenger vehicles leading to a safer and greener environment.",book:{id:"10847",title:"Aluminium Alloys - Design and Development of Innovative Alloys, Manufacturing Processes and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10847.jpg"},signatures:"Samarendra Roy and Shibayan Roy"},{id:"81716",title:"Groove Shape Optimization on Dry Gas Seals",slug:"groove-shape-optimization-on-dry-gas-seals",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103088",abstract:"In this paper, a topological optimum design for the shape of a groove in a dry gas seal is described. Dry gas seals are widely used in high speed and high pressure rotating machinery such as gas turbines, compressors, and so on because of their high reliability compared to other types of seals. However, recent requirements for reducing emission with further control of leakage are in order. With this background, we propose applying topological optimization to the groove shape in a dry gas seal to reduce its leakage while keeping its stiffness for safe operation. First, the method of topological optimum design as applied to the groove of a dry gas seal is explained via numerical analysis. Next, results of the topological optimization are shown via categorizing an optimum shape map. Finally, the mechanism of reducing the gas leakage with an optimized seal is discussed based on the prediction of the flow field using a CFD analysis.",book:{id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements – Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg"},signatures:"Masayuki Ochiai and Yuki Sato"},{id:"81618",title:"To Study the Implantable and Non-Implantable Application in Medical Textile",slug:"to-study-the-implantable-and-non-implantable-application-in-medical-textile",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103122",abstract:"Nowadays medical textiles are one of the more continuous growing parts in technical textile market. The generally medical textile should have strength, biodegraded, nontoxic, biologically compatible, dimensional stability, resistant to allergens and cancer, more comfort human body, antifungal and antimicrobial performance. Development with inside the discipline of textiles, either natural or manmade textiles, typically aimed toward how they beautify the consolation to the users. Development of medical textiles may be taken into consideration as one such development, that’s virtually supposed for changing the painful days of sufferers into the snug days. The basically are used the implantable materials to repair the affected parts of the person body. The generally are used in wound sutures and used surgery time replacement and other segment to replacement like artificial ligaments, vascular grafts. This includes type of the sutures, soft tissue implants, orthopedic implants, cardiovascular implants etc. Non-implantable materials are used for external applications for role of bandages, wound care and wound care products, plasters etc. This paper are discusses the main role of implantable and non-implantable medical textile products.",book:{id:"11124",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg"},signatures:"Ramratan Guru, Anupam Kumar, Deepika Grewal and Rohit Kumar"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:86},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. 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At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/349382",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"349382"},fullPath:"/profiles/349382",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()