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‘Their strengths and deficits do not deny them humanity but, rather, shape their humanity’
Grinker 2010: 173 [in [1]]
1. Introduction
1.1. Minds from a stone age past
Our modern societies have been said to house ‘stone age minds’ (see [2]). That is to say that despite all the influences of modern culture our hard wired neurological make-up, instinctive responses and emotional capacities evolved in the vast depths of time which make up our evolutionary past. Much of what makes us ‘human’ thus rests on the nature of societies in the depths of prehistory thousands or even millions of years ago.
Looking back on the archaeological record of the early stone age there is much to be proud of in our ancestry. Not only our remarkable intelligence but also our deep capacities to care about others and work together for a common good come from evolutionary selection on early humans throughout millions of years of the stone age. As far back as 1.6 million years ago we have archaeological evidence from survival of illnesses and trauma that those who were ill were looked after by others, and by the time of Neanderthals extensive care of the ill, infirm and elderly was common, see [3,4]. From at least one million years ago we see evidence for widespread collaboration in hunting, in sharing food and in looking after increasingly vulnerable young. Stone age societies, much as recent hunter-gatherers such as the Selk’nam of Tierra del Fuego (figure 1), lived in small groups who cared deeply about each other, and worked together to survive.
Nonetheless our evolved minds also have a darker side. For most of our early existence, at least until only around 100,000 years ago, human groups were relatively isolated, and much of our common drive to identify ‘us’ and ‘them’ probably has its roots in a suspicion of ‘others’ which dates to this time. Studies of the remains of a group of Homo antecessor dating to around 900,000 years ago at Atapuerca in northern Spain for example have revealed that these people probably hunted and ate neighbouring groups to defend their territories (see [5]). Small wonder that as a result we find ourselves far too often being afraid of those who we feel are different from ourselves. Our neurological response to the pain of others for example can be tempered by whether we see them as belonging to the same group as ourselves or not (see [6]) and if we see people as different to ourselves we can even feel a sense of pleasure at their pain (see [7]).
Thanks to our capacities for self-awareness and moral judgement we can make balanced decisions about how we treat others. Undoubtedly we must also influenced by our more recent evolutionary history of a remarkably widespread collaboration. Indeed from 100,000 years ago onwards we begin to see evidence for widespread links across different stone age groups in many different parts of the world. In ice age Europe for example around 35-10,000 years ago marine shells travel over 2000km through exchange networks which helped provide a social buffer to withstand shortfalls in resources (see [8]). Somehow these groups overcame their tendencies to distrust outsiders and worked out ways of working together.
Figure 1.
Selk’nam hunter-gatherers from Tierra de Fuego on the move. Hunter-gatherer societies such as the Selk’nam depend on high levels of collaboration for their survival. But do all minds need to be the same for collaboration to work, or are different minds a better recipe for success?
Our remarkable abilities to extend ourselves to care about others’ wellbeing can sometimes be rather fragile. As the same time as being able to care about global issues or the wellbeing of those we have never met, we can work hard to set up divisions which set us above others. One can’t help but wonder if future societies may well look in disbelief at the plethora of ways in which the twentieth and twenty-first centuries have found more detailed and elaborate ways to define a mentally ‘normal’ mind in contrast with a mentally different (and by implication ‘wrong’) other. Whilst our abilities to deal with mental health issues have become ever more sophisticated, our ‘labelling’ of many conditions as disorders can fly in the face of the more obvious reality that the human condition involves a great deal of suffering, and not all of that suffering can be seen as ‘unnatural’.
Many so-called ‘disorders’ may be a natural part of humanity. Conditions such as anxiety or depression are unwelcome but far from unnatural for example. Equally, genetically linked conditions such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder appear to have a long history, with good evidence to suggest a role for those less grounded in reality in hunter-gatherer societies as shaman (see [9]). Though a shaman’s apparent difference, and connection to another world, may give them power, the trances experienced by shaman, and seen as providing a link to the spirit world are more commonly painful than pleasurable. Their experience and behaviour may have at times given them a certain social role in the past, but the same experience is more typically seen as a disorder today.
It is within the context of a fashionable drive to label and classify ‘disorder’ that the label of autism has emerged. Yet are autistic minds really ‘abnormal’ or ‘wrong’? We would be well advised to be cautious of media warnings of an autism ‘epidemic’, wording which easily conjures up a picture of a growing disease threatening society. There is every reason to suggest in contrast that what makes ‘us’ human is not a single ‘normal’ mind but a complex interdependency between different minds in which autism plays a key role (see [10, 11, 12]). As Grinker (see [1]) illustrates autism should not deprive someone of humanity, but rather shape their (and our) humanity. Whilst the ‘story’ of autism is nearly always told as beginning with its labelling in diagnosis by Kanner and Asperger in the early 19th century (see [13]) autism may have much older roots, and a more significant role to play in the emergence of our species. This much earlier ‘story’ of the role of autism is an important one which accords a key role to autism in the emergence of humanity.
This chapter explores the potential stone age origins of autism, considering the contribution which those with autism may have made to small scale prehistoric societies and the archaeological evidence for a long time depth to the influence of autism.
2. Autism and society
Is autism part of what makes us ‘human’ today? Autism has traditionally been seen as a condition of people somehow outside society. However recent research has challenged this view, suggesting in contrast that autism is part of the processes that allow societies work together.
Various authors have questioned whether autism, particularly high functioning autism or aspergers syndrome, should always be seen as a disability (see [14, 15, 11, 12]). That is not to say that life with aspergers syndrome is not often difficult or challenging or that coping with having such a condition in a social world is not often distressing but that at least at times it can sometimes be an advantage to have an ‘exact mind’ (see [16]). Aspergers syndrome often brings with it particular talents in a focus on detail, understanding of systems or abilities to concentrate on a particular problem (see [11]) and is associated with heightened awareness of details, including musical pitch as well as sensory sensitivity (see [17]). High rates of those with aspergers syndrome characterise occupations such as engineering and mathematics (see [18]) as well in universities and the legal system (see [19]). There may be many situations in which having aspergers syndrome makes life difficult, but many of those with aspergers syndrome have a place in society, making a valuable contribution.
Are people with autism motivated to be part of a greater social good? One of the key misconceptions of autism is that a ‘lack of empathy’ carries with it a tendency to care far less about others wellbeing than the ‘neurotypical’ might. However empathy comprises a cognitive and an affective component (understanding others feelings and caring about others feelings). The affective component, how much someone will care about others, has been shown to be intact in autism (see [20]). People with autistic spectrum conditions ‘care’ about others wellbeing as much as anyone else might (even if their abilities to intuitively sense others feelings are impaired), often channelling such concerns into wider social endeavours such as a drive for fairness and justice (see [11]) or scientific progress. Autism implies that people care about others in a different way.
Are people with autism really part of human social life? A further misconception is that those with asperger’s syndrome are unsocial. Anthropological studies of autism have made a significant impact on our understanding of what it is to be autistic and social and shown that whilst ‘autistic sociality’ is notably different those with autism are not less social. Autistic sociality may often be focused on exchanging knowledge rather than sharing feelings or extended narratives, and is often mediated through the material world (today made up of books or computers). Autism means that people are social in a different way (see [13]).
Even those with severe autism can share a sociality which binds them to others. Solomon (in [21]) for example describes Sacks account of two severely autistic twins, John and Michael, who were institutionalised from childhood. In their early twenties and delighted in sharing mathematical concepts and ‘conversing’ in prime numbers.
Sacks writes:
They were seated in a corner together, with a mysterious secret smile on their faces, [...] enjoying the strange pleasure and peace they now seemed to have.[...] They seemed to be locked in a singular, purely numerical, converse. John would say a number—a six-figure number. Michael would catch the number, nod, smile and seem to savour it. Then he, in turn, would say another six-figure number and now it was John who received and appreciated it richly. They looked, at first, like two connoisseurs wine-tasting, sharing rare tastes, rare appreciations. (Sacks 1970: 202, in [22])
The twins happily welcome Sacks to their conversation when he joins in with his own prime numbers. They provide an example of how apparently extremely autistic individuals can connect socially to others, and derive pleasure from their social contribution and connection, albeit in a non-typical manner. Sadly the different nature of their communication lead them to be separated to prevent them communicating in this ‘non-normal’ manner.
Whilst it is clear that for the twins pleasurable social life may be distinctive from the norm, in many ways this type of connection is not uncomparable to motivations and pleasures of scientific endeavour as described by Nikola Tesla (see [23]).
I do not think that there is any thrill that can go through the human heart like that felt by the inventor as he sees some creation of the brain unfolding to success … Such emotions make a man forget food, sleep, friends, love, everything … I do not think you can name many great inventions made by married men. (see [24]).\n\t\t\t
Not only rare geniuses like Darwin or Einstein may have been autistic (see [25, 26, 27, 28]) but many more common and far less obviously distinctive members of society may have minds that are distinctively different from what we see as ‘typical’, and add something critical to what makes us ‘human’.
2.1. Inherited gifts of insight and action?
‘I feel sure that my way of being is only a disability of context, that what have been labelled symptoms of autism in the context of my culture are inherited gifts of insight and action’ Dawn Prince (in [29])
As Dawn Prince comments, autism can be seen as a disability of context. How we view expressions of autism, whether as laudable and productive (such as an extreme focus on scientific discovery to the exclusion of other concerns for example) or as unproductive and threatening (in the case of the mathematical communication of the twins studies above) is greatly dependant on our culture. Whereas all cultures will have some limits to the nature of unusual behaviours that could be readily supported by others (and severe autism may never be an advantage), some may have been more accommodating of autistic difference than others, and in turn benefitted from what autism may have brought to society (figure 2).
Figure 2.
Social means of accommodating autism (or other differences in mind) and the resulting nature of cognitive differences.
Dawn Prince’s observation that autism brings with it inherited gifts of unique insight and action itself gives us a unique insight into the potential contribution which in certain contexts autism may have made societies in the far distant past as well as the present.
2.1.1. Unique insight
Baron-Cohen (in [30]) describes the main areas of talents in autism. These talents derive from a drive to understand systems, and illustrate the domains in which unique insights often lie.
The major kinds of system focused on by those with autism include:
collectible systems (e.g. distinguishing between types of stones or wood);
mechanical systems (e.g. a video recorder or a window lock);
numerical systems (e.g. a train timetable or a calendar);
abstract systems (e.g. the syntax of a language or musical notation);
natural systems (e.g. the weather patterns or tidal wave patterns);
social systems (e.g. a management hierarchy or a dance routine with a dance partner);
motoric systems (e.g. throwing a Frisbee or bouncing on a trampoline).
Restricted or circumscribed interests shown by children with autism (figure 3), and which tend to fall into these domains may be difficult for parents to manage, but are often also seen as related to unique strengths or talents (see [31, 32]). An obsession with weather patterns as a child for example may in some lead to a particular strength and an academic focus on meteorology as an adult. Many famous scientists appear to show autistic traits. Isaac Newton’s unique insights into astronomy for example derive from a particularly focused motivation to understand the systems behind the movements of astronomical features (figure 4).
Figure 3.
An eight month old boy with autism obsessively stacking cans (source: Wikimedia commons)
Figure 4.
Sir Isaac Newton\'s depiction of the orbit of the Comet of 1680, fit to a parabola. The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. London: Benjamin Motte, 1729: 358. (Wikimedia Commons)
In a stone age context a focus on fine scale technological prowess or understanding and prediction of nature has an obvious contribution, particularly in harsh and risky high latitude environments such as the Arctic where survival depends on technology occupation depends on highly technological systems. The Inuit for example use complex multi-component harpoons to fish for seal, finely engineered dog sleds and highly efficient hunting equipment.
2.2. Autism and material culture
Though subtle, certain differences in the material culture selected and created by those with autism reflect their different minds. Thus we can argue that it ought to be possible to discriminate the material record of a society which includes or even encourages autistic traits from those where autism is unsupported.
Children and adults with autism use and create the world around them in subtly different ways, though it is children who have been studied most intensively. Children diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorder tend to engage differently with toys, for example focusing on spinning objects or lining up toys, and seem to derive comfort from precise ordering or regular patterning (see [33]) as seen above. Adults in turn, even if high functioning and not usually detectable as ‘different’, relate differently to the material world around them, tending to find comfort in ordered patterns. A focus on understanding systems leads to detailed record keeping and scientific insights. Baron-Cohen (in [30]) for example notes the precise recordings of weather patterns in the notebooks of Kevin Phelps and equivalent focus often drives scientific genius. A drive to understand and experiment is related to the creation of inventions or technological innovation (with aspergers syndrome being associated with families of engineers, see [18]).
Differences in perception also influence the creation and use of objects. Children with autism notice the numbers on telegraph poles, and differences in perception lead to adults noticing and dealing with finer details than others might. Autistic art is thus notably distinct. The art of Nadia, an autistic ‘savant’ for example is typical in being extraordinarily detailed, in common terms a representation of ‘the parts’ rather than ‘the whole’ (or the trees rather than the wood), figure 5, and in contrast to figure 6 (in [34]). The same pattern is seen in the art of Peter Myers (see [16]), who also shows remarkable talent in embedding illusions within his work. Kellman (in [35]) argues that differences in visual perception creates the distinctive features of autistic art, alongside the unique focus that a lack of perception of some other areas of external environment can bring.
Figure 5.
Horse and rider completed at approximately 5 years 6 months by Nadia. Selfe 2011: figure 2.7: p32 (with kind permission Lorna Selfe).
Figure 6.
Two riders drawn by non-autistic children aged 6 years. Selfe: 2011 (figure 2.10, p35). With kind permission Lorna Selfe.
2.2.1. Action
As well as driving detailed recording, fine scale understanding and new innovations of the natural world, autism may also be related to particular types of action in other more social ways. Whilst empathising leads to tendencies to follow allegiances (see [36]) autism leads to a focus on strict fairness in social relationships regardless of any particular allies (see [11]). An autistic creation of rigidly clear rules and obsessively fair social behaviour may thus play a key role in defining the ‘rules’ or legal systems which allow cooperation between unfamiliar people and constrain exploitation, explaining an association in the present between asperger’s syndrome and the legal profession (see [19]). Those with autism appear to play a key role in the creation and enforcement of rigid social rules.
Clues to the significance of defined rules of social behaviour for stone age societies can be found in modern hunter-gatherers. Amongst the Inuit for example, as with most hunter-gatherers, connections to external groups and collaborations at times of crisis work through rigid systems of defined behaviour, rather than being driven by a far messier suite of complex allegiances or personal favours.
In the northern Canada the Netsilik Inuit for example had a highly rule based system called niqaiturasuaktut which is used to ensure ‘fair’ sharing during collaborative winter seal hunts (see [37]). After a hunter kills a seal sharing partners are defined by a combination of inheritance and naming and decided by the males of the family. A particular woman divides the carcass and actually shares it with the other partners. The division must follow specific rules. The seal meat and blubber is divided amongst 14 partners, with the first 7 being the most important. The hunter himself only keeps the flippers, so relying on a repeat of the system in future hunts to provide him with meat for himself. These elaborate and rigidly defined rules prevent emotionally driven personal allegiances from influencing the sharing of resources and provide a system by which those who might not usually work together can collaborate for a common good.
The incorporation of an autistic obsession with fairness and rules may have been key to providing highly systemised conventions to circumvent any tendencies to follow allegiances, or react emotionally to the unfamiliar and so may have been critical in promoting collaboration between different groups. It is not unreasonable to suggest that the widespread connections, exchange of materials and collaboration at times of need which we see after around 100,000 years ago may have been driven by the inclusion of autistic minds into societies. These types of systems may have been the key for example to allowing upper Palaeolithic groups to collaborate across large regions to survive local famines during the severe environments of ice age Heinrich events (see [38]).
Autism may often be a disadvantage where intuitive understanding of others is important, and can be unhelpful to the emotional wellbeing of others. Nonetheless where they could be integrated and supported, at a certain level a few individuals at the extreme of the spectrum of mind may have made an important contribution to past societies both in technological and social domains.
3. Autism and the archaeological record of the Palaeolithic
In the light of the potential value of autistic insight and action in certain contexts it is possible to view the archaeological record rather differently. Rather than a progressive sophistication of a single human ‘mind’, a more plausible explanation for much of the patterning in the archaeological record is as the marked emergence of autistic traits within a modern ‘humanity’ made up of complex interrelationship between different minds.
The earliest evidence for any autistic characteristics emerges well after the split between our own species and our nearest relatives the Neanderthals (occurring around 500,000 years ago), perhaps unsurprisingly as some of the key genes for autism have been found to be lacking in the Neanderthal genome (see [39]) and that of the other closely related species to modern humans, the Denisovans (see [40]).
However after 100,000 years ago various elements of the archaeological record document certain new traits which appear to be linked to autism – such as a unique focus on detail, technological innovation, and understanding of complex systems (see [10]) as well as evidence for large scale collaborations in the exchange of materials between groups (see [41]). Many of these new elements can be associated with what has been termed the appearance of ‘modern human behaviour’.
After around 100,000 years ago we begin to relatively suddenly see the emergence of ‘inventions’ such as the spear thrower, multi-component harpoon and tiny microlithic stone tools (figure 7 & 8) which appear to have been essential for the colonisation of previously unoccupied regions such as the far north (see [42]).
Figure 7.
A ‘microlith’, these tiny tools formed part of barbs in arrow shafts, as well as other uses, and were highly efficient ways of making effective hunting weapons as well as maximising the use of stone tools materials and the efficiency and maintainability of tools with individual microliths being replaceable. With kind permission José-Manuel Benito Álvarez.
Figure 8.
Microliths, forming part of highly engineering technologies, only appear after about 100,000 years ago. These microliths are from Red Ratcher Late Mesolithic site in the Pennines (courtesy of Paul Preston).
For example changes in ‘modern human’ technology include the appearance of tiny microlithic points such as at Howieson’s Poort and Rose Cottage in South Africa at around 75,000 years ago. Other innovations in Africa at his time including finely made bifacial points made on raw materials which may have been derived from structured exchange networks, bone tools, new symbolic art such as engraved patterns on ochre and ostrich eggshell and the formal ordering of space on sites (see [44]). Microliths and other elements of ‘modern’ behaviour are also later found at Patne in India, following the presumed colonisation of the southern corridor by fully modern humans (see [45]).
Somewhat later in Ice Age Europe, around 35-10,000 years ago, we see potential further evidence for a stone age context in which autism may have played an important social role.
Firstly, a number of artefacts found at European Upper Palaeolithic sites illustrate a unique focus on recording and understanding natural systems, particularly astronomical systems, which parallels with that seen in those with aspergers syndrome today. The Taï plaque for example, a 9cm long engraved bone from the Grotte de Taï, dated to around 10,000 years ago (see [43, 46]) is covered with many notches interpreted as a calendrical notation spanning over a year (figure 9).
Figure 9.
The Taï plaque (Marshack 1991: figure 1, p26.[43])
The Abri Blanchard plaquette, dated from around 32,000 years ago is perhaps even more remarkable. The patterns on this bone record the phases of the moon and its position in the sky related to a notched co-ordinate system at the edge of the plaque (figure 10, see [47, 46, 48]).
As well as other artefacts which also appear to carry calendrical, astronomical or other notation there are also other hints of autistic influence. The Raymonden plaquette from around 12,000 bp for example illustrates an autistic like approach to social relationships. This bone features an extended bison skeleton, with figures sitting on either side of the spine, illustrating both a detailed anatomical knowledge of anatomy (showing individual vertebrae) and with a focus on equal or systematically defined sharing (figure 11).
The most famous example of a link between autism and the contemporary archaeological record of this period however comes from the famous art. Upper Palaeolithic art in south-western europe is dominated by often extraordinarily realistic and naturalistic depictions of animals, both on cave walls (see front figure and figure 12) and in portable art (see figure 13). A number of elements of this art, such as highly realistic detailed figurative representation, a focus on parts (with drawings often overlapping) and a remarkable visual memory from what can only have been limited opportunities to note details of dynamic animals are found in common with autism (see [49, 35, 50, 10]). Whilst we might not necessarily suggest that the ice age artists were autistic themselves, it would not be unreasonable to conclude that autistic perception and the influence of those with autism on society had a significant influence on the style of art.
Figure 10.
The Abri Blanchard plaquette (De Smedt and Cruz 2011: figure 1, with kind permission).
Figure 11.
Raymonden plaque, c10,000 years old, Raymonden, Dordogne, southern France (image: museo de Altamira).
Figure 12.
B. & G. Delluc viewing frieze of swimming reindeer in Lascaux cave, Dorgdogne c 20,000 years old.
Figure 13.
Line of animal heads engraved on a rib from the cave of Courbet, Penne-Tarn, France, Late Magdalenian, about 12,500 years ago (source: Wikimedia Commons)
The patchy nature of the expression of autistic traits in post 100,000 bp archaeological evidence suggests that it may have been most particularly in certain times and places that the advantages of autism were particularly emphasised. The clearest context may be that of highly risky, cold climate environments such as Ice Age Europe. Here both the dependence on technology for survival is greatest, and technological efficiency and innovation much valued, and unstable climates place an emphasis on large scale collaborations to provide a social buffer against shortfalls in resources. The archaeological record of southernmost Africa provides another particularly interesting case where autistic traits appear to be have adopted early at Blombos and Rose Cottage, later declined around 65,000 years ago and then re-adopted many thousands of years later continuing into elements of modern San technology (see [51]). If those with autism were integrated into societies at different times and places it is not surprising the there are multiple genes coding for autistic traits, and representing a geographically complex process of selection.
3.1. The cloud behind the silver lining?
Individuals with autism can create challenges for societies, whether small scale hunter-gatherers or large scale modern societies. Pronounced counter-dominance tactics in hunter-gathers (see [52]) for example may have developed in part to prevent the dominance of those with autistic traits such as rigid rules and a lack of sensitivity to potential emotional consequences of their actions. Thus no matter how much someone is respected in small scale egalitarian groups, their rights to dictate the behaviour of others is heavily constrained by shared action to maintain equality. Indeed Boehm documents a progressive series of sanctions for dominating behaviour from ridicule to ostracism or assassination (see [53]). Such dynamics have also been recognised in Palaeolithic and Mesolithic contexts (see [52]). Whilst counter-dominance tactics work in a small scale setting, in modern societies a lack of such intuitively based social sanctions on behaviour may create problems where highly dominant individuals with autism are in positions of power. In this case such individuals may make decisions with emotionally damaging consequences for others which remain unchallenged.
Most individuals with autism are highly moral. However where autism is associated with disorders of motivation, as in the case of autistic psychopathology, a lack of intuitive feeling of others’ suffering allied with a desire to harm can be a literally lethal combination (see [54]).
Whilst we tend to envisage a single typical Upper Palaeolithic society, such societies, like the human minds within them, were likely to have been highly variable. In a modern context small scale societies today tend to vary greatly in their level of social tolerance and tendencies towards or against violence, and a certain amount of self sorting takes place amongst hunter-gatherers with more collaborative or more competitive individuals tending to group together (see [55]). It is not difficult to envisage situations in prehistory where it was not the highly collaborative and moral personalities which were the most successful but in contrast where highly dominant, aggressive and even violent attitudes towards others might occasionally ‘pay off’ sufficiently to allow the genetic determinants of such traits to be selected for (see [54]).
3.2. The timing of incorporation of autism
Why might the incorporation of autism apparently occur relatively late in human evolution (at least after 100,000 years ago)? A capacity to integrate those who think differently, not only at the autistic end of the spectrum but also by implication other differences in mind, may depend on particular evolutionary changes taking place. Perhaps the most likely is that a particular cognitive threshold might need to be passed. A capacity to care about and support members of society is in evidence at much earlier dates. However we might speculate that only when early humans had the cognitive sophistication to appreciate that behind different behaviour lies positive motivations towards others as well as the moral consciousness to promote inclusivity could autism bring the unique elements to make up ‘humanity’. These unique elements may nonetheless have been a critical part of the remarkable global colonisation and modern human success which follows their appearance.
4. Conclusions
There is every reason to believe that autism, far from being outside society, is very much part of the story of the origins of ‘humanity’. Those with autism may have played a unique role in technological spheres and understanding of natural systems, contributing calendrical knowledge, refined efficient technological practices and a unique perspective to art. They may also have been key to allowing larger scale societies to form with clear rules to define how sharing takes places.
Autism is sometimes portrayed as the ‘other’. Not only is this a dangerous perspective to take on a difference of mind, but there is every reason to conclude that autism is a central part of what makes us ‘human’. However difficult dealing with autism may be there may be much which we owe to the role of autism in our success. Moreover the solutions to allowing ‘us’ to work with ‘others’ in the Palaeolithic, and allowing a large scale society to be created might have depended on the inclusion of autism.
Acknowledgements
I much appreciate lively discussions and advice not only from my undergraduate and postgraduate students but also from colleaugues, most particularly Barry Wright, Andy Needham, Isabelle Winder, Geoff Bailey, Mark Edmonds, Andy Shuttleworth, Adam Feinstein, Paul Trehin and Nicolas Humphrey. All errors are my own.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.1. Minds from a stone age past",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Autism and society",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1. Inherited gifts of insight and action?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.1. Unique insight",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2. Autism and material culture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.1. Action",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Autism and the archaeological record of the Palaeolithic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1. The cloud behind the silver lining?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. The timing of incorporation of autism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgements",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Grinker R R. Commentary: On being autistic and social, Ethos 2010; 38 (1) 172-8.'},{id:"B2",body:'Barkow J, Cosmides L, Tooby J. The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Climate change occurs because of both natural and human causes. A geographic area that has a particular prevailing weather condition is said to have a particular climate [1, 2]. Over the course of time, earth has gone through several global climate changes, including the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs [3], the ice ages, and the warm period that we are in now [4]. Specific regions of the earth have also gone through local climate changes due to large storms, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions that mostly only affect the target locations [5, 6]. Since human civilizations started intelligently designing ecosystems by channeling water, doing agriculture, building cities, and so on—we have been intentionally, and sometimes unintentionally, changing climates as well.
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Civilization arguably did not start contributing to climate change at a global scale until after the industrial revolution with the proliferation of coal-powered steam engines and the burning of fossil fuels into the air [7]. The portable energy transformation device was revolutionary; the abundance with which humans lived and moved increased dramatically. Then, in 1896, Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius estimated that the long-term effects of coal burning would enhance the natural greenhouse effect, and that a doubling of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would warm the earth a few degrees Celsius. Modern-day climate models have maintained Arrhenius’s conclusion, and only added more specifics to the predictions, with details such as less average freezing at the earth’s poles, higher sea level, more forceful storms, and various different weather patterns in particular geographies [8, 9]. Oil spills, trash barges, mass pavement, deforestation, various air-borne pollutants, and so on have also affected earth’s ecosystems and climates [10].
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Climate change is now affecting infrastructure systems by changing the weather conditions in which they must operate. The United States Department of Homeland Security has defined 16 critical infrastructure sectors that are considered vital to the “security, national economic security, and national public health or safety” of the country [11]. These critical infrastructure sectors are: chemicals, commercial facilities, communications, critical manufacturing, dams, defense, emergency services, energy, financial services, food and agriculture, government facilities, healthcare and public health, information technology, nuclear, transportation, and water and wastewater systems [11]. Across these infrastructure sectors, climate change will impact physical assets, operations, and use [12, 13]. As public awareness of the risks of climate change has risen, vulnerability assessments and adaption planning studies have been rapidly emerging in recent years too [13, 14, 15, 16].
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Climate is typically considered in infrastructure system designs by using several years’ recent weather conditions to specify tolerances. This can be problematic for two reasons. First, because weather is not exactly the same every year, and more robust hardware is typically costlier, investors are often faced with tough risk management problems for low-probability high-impact events. Second, climates are changing. Thanks to advancements in global climate modeling, researchers are now able to forecast changes in future climate conditions and plan for extreme weather conditions with higher confidence. Climate change assessments generally rely on scenarios standardized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [17]; however other considerations are made as well for factors such as the anthropogenic change in urban environments [18, 19]. The IPCC standard scenarios are referred to as Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs), and are numbered corresponding to the amount of radiation forcing increase from the sun associated with the greenhouse gas effect relative to pre-industrial times, for example, RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 (4.5 and 8.5 W/m2) [20, 21].
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The newest technological advancements in climate change modeling and long-term weather forecasting include high-resolution spatial projections based on “downscaling” techniques. These downscaling techniques aim to improve the geographic and temporal resolution of specific weather projections, including air temperature, wind speed, solar radiation, precipitation, snowpack, and hydrology for specific geographic regions [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. However, challenges still exist in incorporating climate change data into practice [28, 29, 30]. These challenges range from a lack of understanding of what parameters to use in complex models, to the methods used in the models, to what to do about the results. Significant literature is emerging to disentangle the contribution of different mechanisms to the response patterns, yielding more transparent models and results [31]. Further solutions to these challenges are expected to be met through ongoing collaboration between climate scientists and engineers, which we have included examples for in this chapter for electricity infrastructure and heat waves.
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2. Electricity infrastructure vulnerabilities to climate change
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Electric power infrastructure broadly consists of three systems: generation, delivery, and demand. In terms of the physical processes, electrical power is created by generators to meet demand via delivery hardware. In terms of functionality however, it is the demand for electric power that drives the development of the other two systems. Reliable electric power is central to urban development, and is a critical service in modern cities as almost all other major infrastructure and services rely on it: commerce, communication, manufacturing, defense, emergency, finance, agriculture, healthcare, information technology, transportation, and water [32]. Climate change can affect energy trade over time in ways that are significant to economics and natural resource consumption. For example, more extreme summer and winter temperatures necessarily result in more demand for cooling and heating, respectively. Climate change can also affect electric service reliability. A shortage of electric power generation, or sequence of faults in the delivery network, can result in an interruption in service at any second. This is why generation and delivery systems are built with multiple redundancies, such that individual component outages can occur safely. Unless there are multiple simultaneous outages, the infrastructure system can still deliver power to buildings and other loads without an interruption in service. Table 1 provides a summary of major climate variables and their associated impacts on the power sector, adapted from [33].
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Climate hazard
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Key impacts
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Impacted segment
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Adaptation strategies
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Increased air temperatures
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Lower generation efficiency
Decreased coal-to-gas conversion efficiency
Decreased combined cycle gas turbine efficiency
Decreased solar PV efficiency
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Generation
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Implement air chillers or more efficient chillers
Site new generation in cooler locations
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Reduced carrying capacity of lines and transformers
Increased losses in lines and transformers
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Delivery-Transmission & Distribution
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Underground hardware
Use more heat-resistant materials
Implement more effective cooling for transformers
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Increased peak demand and total energy demand for cooling
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Demand-End Use
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AC energy efficiency
Building thermal efficiency
Peak load shifting
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Increase in precipitation
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Reduced combustion efficiency due to increased moisture content of coal
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Generation
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Protect coal stockpiles
Switch to fuel that is more moisture resistant (e.g., natural gas)
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Damaged power lines from snow and ice
Flooding of underground infrastructure
Damaged towers due to erosion
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Delivery-Transmission & Distribution
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Improved flood protection for equipment at ground level
Use covered and/or insulated conductors
Include lightning protection (e.g., earth wires, spark gaps) in the distribution network
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Decrease in precipitation
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Decreased availability of freshwater for thermal cooling
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Generation
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Switch to recirculating or dry cooling
Switch to more “water-efficient” fuels (e.g., natural gas, wind, solar)
Increase volume of water treatment system
Restore/reforest land
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Sea level rise/increased storm surge during hurricanes and tropical storms/increased nuisance flooding during high tides
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Flooding/damage to coastal/low-lying infrastructure
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Generation/delivery-Transmission and Distribution Demand-End use
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Implement flood control (dams, dikes, reservoirs, polders, etc.)
Build in and/or relocate to less exposed locations
Raise structure levels
Improved drainage systems
Protect fuel storage
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More frequent/severe extreme events (floods, typhoons, drought, high winds, etc.)
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Damaged infrastructure
Disrupted supply chains and offshore activity
Damage to facilities related to soil erosion
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Generation Delivery-Transmission and Distribution
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Same as above
Concrete-sided buildings instead of metal
Implement more rigorous structural standards
Implement porous materials for better wind flow
Increased decentralized energy generation
Cite infrastructure away from heavily wooded areas/rigorously prune trees
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Table 1.
Summary of key climate drivers and possible impacts to power systems.
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Generation is vulnerable to flooding, reduced streamflow, warmer water, and warmer air temperatures, which can all cause a shortage of power supply in the system [34]. There are many ways to physically generate electric power, but to evaluate the effects of climate change we have chosen to broadly categorize them as those that use water, and those that do not as follows. Conventional hydroelectric and water-cooled turbine generators (e.g., nuclear, coal-fired, and some natural gas) use water, and so are vulnerable to changes in three ways. First, flooding can damage physical hardware of above and below ground equipment if that hardware is not sufficiently shielded [35]. For example, sea level is projected to rise by 1–1.4 m by the end of the century, and if that is the case, then 25 coastal plants in California will be at risk of flooding during 1-in-100 year high-tide events [36]. Second, if the water levels in natural sources are too low (e.g., low river flow during droughts), then production capacity can be dependent upon priority level in access rights or reduced to zero if the water level physically goes below the intake pipe [37]. Third, some once-through generators are vulnerable to increases in water temperature in coastal plants, as a certain amount of temperature rise is necessary to cool the generators. Environmental regulations prevent expelling of water that is too hot to be safe for the ecosystem [38]. In August of 2015, the Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station in Massachusetts cut its power because the temperature of sea water used as influent was too high [39]. Power generators that do not use water include dry combustion natural gas and solar photovoltaics. These types of “dry” power generators are generally inland and could be at risk of flooding if they are located in a basin-like landscape that would collect water from a storm. Dry power generators also operate less efficiently under higher ambient air temperatures, which mean they also have lower production capacity to meet peak demand [40]. Dry generators are also vulnerable to changes in humidity that can affect their air circulation systems, as well as flooding and storm-gusty winds in general [33].
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Delivery systems can be affected by climate change due to higher temperatures causing higher demand, reduced capacity, and congestion; wildfires that can render power lines inoperable due to ionized air; and large storms that can cause physical damage via flooding and high winds that make trees fall on lines [41]. Delivery systems physically consist of various types of power lines that transport energy, transformers which convert the power to different voltage levels, quality devices for efficiency and reliability, and protection devices that interrupt power flows during hazardous conditions. Climate change can cause failures via physical hardware damage or create operational conditions that exceed hardware tolerances. Higher temperatures can cause individual components to become inoperable because protection devices will cut them off if power flow is too high for the weather conditions [42]. Additionally, higher temperatures can result in reduced capacity for above ground power lines to safely carry electricity. If too many components are offline or the capacity of the system is significantly reduced, then power may not be available when it is needed causing cascading failures and blackouts as happened in the US in 2003 and 2011 [43, 44]. Alternatively, if protection devices are not properly calibrated, then components can overheat. This has happened to hundreds of distribution-level transformers during recent record breaking heat waves in the US southwest [45]. Moreover, lines can sag to the point that they permanently deform. Not coincidentally, during these record-breaking heat waves, the air is very dry, and the risk of wildfires is high. If wildfires burn under power lines, then those components can fail as well due to air ionization. Like generators, substations are vulnerable to rising sea levels and storm floods near the coast and in basin-like land areas [36]. Flooding can erode or short the hardware in substations and underground power lines [33]. Lastly, severe storms can blow trees, and other things, into power lines and cause outages.
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Electric power demand is primarily susceptible to higher air temperatures, which can increase both total energy consumption and the peak demand in regions with significant electric air conditioning [40, 46, 47]. Demand is typically planned for at city- and state-level geographies based on seasonal weather usage patterns, daily weather usage patterns, and local use patterns. In warm to hot climates, the peak electricity demand is usually in the late afternoon during the summer when businesses are still operating and people are coming home and turning on air conditioners [48]. Historically, preparing for higher peak demand means building additional generation and delivery capacity, but policies aimed at natural resource conservation have targeted building and appliance energy efficiency standards which also offset increases in peak demand [40]. In terms of climate change, higher average temperatures and higher maximum temperatures mean more demand for AC usage, which could mean more energy usage over time, higher power demand for ACs to operate at hotter temperatures, and more installations of ACs total in moderately warm climates. The combined effects could be a significant increase in per capita demand [40]. This may be more than local delivery infrastructure are capable of supporting without systemic or network-wide investments [49].
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3. How heat waves can result in service interruptions
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The fault tree in Figure 1 shows the terminal event of a service interruption on the right, and the power- and material/hardware-based-failures that can lead to a service interruption logically proceeding from the left [50]. Hardware failures feedback into the event triggers as their loss of functionality results in a loss of power-flow that could cause an interruption. System operators generally maintain an n − 1 redundancy standard in design at the high-voltage transmission level meaning that the single largest generator, transmission line branch, or substation can fail at any time without any interruption in service [51]. These n − 1 redundancies are represented by octagon boxes and logical AND gates in the figure. Service interruptions due to major component failures only occur when more than one individual component fails at the same time. Such events can lead to cascading failures including blackouts as in the 2011 Arizona-California blackout [52]. The pathway for high demand is colored red because it is a critical condition for a service interruption in a system protected with multiple redundancies.
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Figure 1.
Fault tree from heat wave to service interruption.
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The two ways that a service interruption can occur as a function of purely rising air temperatures are that there is either not enough total generation to meet total demand, or particular power lines and substations do not have sufficient capacity to deliver power to loads. The following list explains how increases in ambient air temperatures can trigger failures leading to service interruptions consistent with the lettering in Figure 1.
High air temperatures can result in loss of generation capacity and loss of efficiency in the transmission and distribution (T&D) network [36, 53]. If the system is also in high demand, (B), then load can exceed generation. If there are insufficient generation reserves, then there will be a service interruption.
High air temperatures can result in higher demand, especially during the already hot summer months due to increased burden on building air conditioning systems [53].
High air temperatures result in less capacity in T&D lines and transformers [36, 53]. If a circuit is in high demand, then power flow can result in components’ temperatures exceeding safe operating temperatures [52].
If protection devices function correctly, then they will trip (open) the circuit under excessive loading and power flow will be instantaneously redistributed to parallel T&D components [52]. If there is insufficient capacity in parallel branches to deliver power to the load, then there will be a service interruption [52].
If a protection device fails to trip and a circuit is over loaded, then excess heat accelerates the chemical degradation rate of sensitive materials and can result in mechanical failure (E) [54, 55]. Protection devices can fail because they are not accurately designed or calibrated for local climate conditions or other reasons [56]. Depending on the type and location of overload failure, a generator, transmission line, substation, quality device, or other protection device can fail. If a generator fails, then the system state goes to (A) as the system now has less generation. If a line or transformer fails, then the system goes to (C) as the T&D network operates at lower efficiency and or has less power flow capacity. If a power quality device fails, then it goes to (A) or (C) again or directly to excessive loading depending on the circumstances. If another redundant protection device fails, then the cycle of potential failures repeats for additional components on connected circuits.
High air temperatures can result in a protection device failing to trip [56]. The device could be calibrated to a certain power rating that should be lower for the actual air temperature. If that occurs during high loading, then a component can become overloaded and fail as in (ii).
High air temperatures can result in an accelerated physical material degradation rate, which can result in accelerated failures for any electrical devices [57]. The same failure scenarios can occur as described above, with the addition of an undesired trip of a protection device. If a protection device fails with an undesired trip, and there is no redundant power flow, then a service interruption occurs.
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4. Case study 1: quick estimate of peak demand for record-breaking heat waves
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How can we know how much electricity demand there will be if weather conditions are more severe than they have ever been in the past? With no past records, how can we know what the future will be? How do we know if there will be sufficient generation resources to meet the demand? These are not straightforward questions to answer as demand and generation are, at the city scale, rather complicated with millions of moving parts. In this case study, adapted from Burillo et al. [40], we show how analysts can produce a reasonable city-scale predictive model using basic computational tools, and simple publicly available data for buildings, electricity demand, and air temperature.
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We will consider Phoenix, Arizona and Los Angeles, California as regions because they have summertime peak demands with significant air conditioner (AC) penetration, and are expected to have higher air temperatures in the future with climate change [58, 59, 60]. A simple approach to predicting peak demand for future temperatures would be to plot daily peak electricity demand against daily maximum air temperatures, Tmax, and draw a straight line, but doing so would be an oversimplification as it results in an overestimate of demand. Overestimating peak demand would be very costly from a planning perspective because it would inflate delivery capacity and resource adequacy requirements. Instead, we are going use regression techniques to fit the structural equation model (SEM) developed in [40] using the number of residential and commercial utility customers, daily peak demand data for those customers, the air conditioning penetration percent from the county assessor’s office, and daily Tmax.
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A full explanation of the theory and equations are in [40], but the concept in brief has two main parts as follows. First, at a micro-scale, as outdoor thermal forces (sunlight and air temperature) increase, the work that individual ACs do increases and so does their electrical load. In our prior study, we found that the most common AC units (split indoor-outdoor dry air-cooled) have an increase in active load of 1.33% kW per 1°C ± 0.35%. Second, at a macro scale, AC duty cycles increase proportional to the ratio of incoming and outgoing building thermal energy at the thermostat set point. At higher Tmax, the number of ACs simultaneously active in a region during the peak period increases as well up to a theoretical limit of 100%. This behavior can be effectively modeled in the form of an s-curve.
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The results for the peak demand SEM are shown in Figure 2 compared to a straight-line approach. Peak demand in Phoenix is more sensitive to average historical seasonal changes in air temperatures than Los Angeles, but results show that marginal changes in peak demand are more significant in Los Angeles than in Phoenix at summertime highs. Peak demand for Phoenix increased more in its historical range because its 90th percentile, T90, was relatively higher, and Phoenix has higher AC penetration. From historical T90 to the highest projected Tmax however, peak demand increased more in Los Angeles than Phoenix, another 3.9 GW vs. 1.2 GW or 34 vs. 16%. In this case, the larger increase in peak demand in Los Angeles was due to the larger relative difference between historical T90 and future Tmax. As shown in Figure 2b, Phoenix’s ACs expect to already be running at nearly 100% duty cycle at its T90, whereas Los Angeles’s ACs expect to only run at about 60% duty cycle at its T90. Thus, the potential for a record-breaking heat wave to affect peak demand is higher in Los Angeles than Phoenix.
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Figure 2.
(a) Peak demand. (b) Peak demand SEM factors. (a) Shows SEM approach results in solids. Straight-line approach shown in dotted lines. (b) Shows the two s-curved lines are expected values. T90 ranges represent the range of 90th percentile values for the locations sampled.
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5. Case study 2: using downscaled climate data to inform long-term demand forecasts and capital infrastructure planning
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While city-scale blackouts often make for bigger headlines in the news, neighborhood-scale outages are much more common. In the last case study, we saw how forecasting peak electricity demand was critical for planning generation resource capacity, and how those efforts could be enhanced with better quantitative understanding of climate change. In this case study, based on [61], we incorporate climate change projections at the next level in electricity infrastructure planning and consider the highly complex problem of siting and sizing delivery component capacities.
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It is not enough to simply have generation resources in the same city as loads. There must also be lines, substations, and transformers to get the power from the generators to the users, and each of those have their own capacities which are a function of how hot the devices can safely operate at. Where and how should we build immovable field assets with 30–70-year useable life spans? How do we know what the urban landscape, the buildings, the appliance technology, the population, and so on will look like that far into the future? Doing this well is a highly coordinated effort with many steps and iterations across multiple planning departments, as we shall get a taste for below.
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If we are going to attempt to model a map of the future infrastructure requirements with any accuracy, then first we need a model that produces an accurate map of current conditions. The full details of our approach are described in Ref. [61], and the concept at brief is as follows. We used high-resolution (2 km2) data for daily maximum ambient air temperatures (Tmax), residential and commercial building models calibrated for the region, a geographic map of the buildings’ locations, and a geographic map of lines and substations. With these tools and data we are able to validate a map of the base period (2010) electric power demand and infrastructure loading in Los Angeles County, California as shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 3.
Map of Los Angeles County, California. (a) Peak demand and (b) substation loading in base period.
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With a reasonably accurate and verified model of base period electricity demand, and initial loading on delivery hardware, we can use historical climate data to estimate overloading risks in the base period. We do this by re-running our models with the composite image of the highest temperature values that historically occurred in any location at any historical period in time. We also use that temperature image to estimate the reduced capacity on infrastructure hardware. Combining the two together, we can compute the thermally de-rated load factors on hardware as shown in Figure 4 for substations with corresponding definitions in Table 2.
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Figure 4.
Map of Los Angeles County, California substation risks in base period.
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Load factor
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Risk level
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Reference
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Description
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n/a
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Unknown
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n/a
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Substation(s) exists in this space according to national database [1], but not shown in SCE DERiM [2], so load factor data were unavailable
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0.01–0.5
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Very safe
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Assumption
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Negligible thermal wear, probably n − 2 reliable if in parallel/redundant configuration
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0.51–0.85
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Safe
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15% rule
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Very low thermal wear, probably n − 1 reliable if in parallel/redundant configuration
Moderate thermal wear, component overloaded, automatic switching may occur within 24 h to 30 days if loading continues at this level depending upon switch gear settings
Extreme thermal wear, switchgear will automatically trip to prevent combustion and permanent hardware damage
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Table 2.
Substation derated load factor risk metrics.
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We can now forecast into the future for a variety of factors. In this case, we considered rising air temperatures, population growth, building stock turnover, housing densification, air conditioning penetration, and air conditioning efficiency. All of these factors were technically specified in either the building energy models or at the census block group in making spatial allocations to the maps. The results are shown for two population growth scenarios, and two energy efficiency scenarios for substation loading in Figure 5. This is what the peak hour could look like during a heat wave in 2060 with the same infrastructure as in the base period. Specific cities and neighborhoods are identified as being at risk of overloading and outages as shown in Figure 5.
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Figure 5.
Map of Substation Risks by 2060.
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6. Climate change risk mitigation and adaptation options in the electric power sector
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There are many ways to maintain stability in electric power systems in light of climate change. Several mitigation and adaptation options are listed in Figure 6 for our case studies of insufficient supply-side resources during rising air temperatures, with effects on stability and other factors important for consideration as well. We categorically consider several options in the form of technology implementations, market incentives, and building stock. We consider load variance as an effect explicitly because less variance means more consistent load, more capacity for contingencies, and lower operations and maintenance costs [49]. We also identified effects of those options on several other complex interdependent factors that are priorities for stakeholders too. This discussion should not be considered exhaustive nor advocate any particular option, but simply present several options as we have identified so far in a structured manner.
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Figure 6.
Climate change risk mitigation and adaptation options and effects.
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6.1. Electrical systems: resources
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The major tradeoffs between generation technologies—distributed solar PV (with storage and power quality controls) and centralized systems—in meeting demand are: land space requirements, delivery congestion relief, water usage, air emissions, and marginal capital costs. Solar PV can be installed on building roofs, whereas centralized systems require their own dedicated land footprint and delivery infrastructure [62, 63, 64, 65]. When implemented at the distribution level, solar PV can power load directly without going through delivery components that are necessary for central systems. The net effect is a relative decrease in load from the perspective of the grid relative to demand. Yet these distributed systems beg the question of storage given peak demand occurs once the PV systems decline in production of power. At the same time, this will be an important metric to monitor for reliability purposes going forward—if storage is included—as those two values have historically been one and the same. The most prominent fast-ramping central generation technology is combined cycle natural gas plants, which both consume water and emit various gasses into the atmosphere. Combustion-only natural gas plants could be implemented, which would not use water, but would be more sensitive to rising air temperatures, as well as less fuel-efficient, and therefore more costly and emissions intensive per kWh. While levelized costs of solar PV are now at or below parity with bulk generation plants on a per kWh basis, the combined costs of solar PV with storage to provide 24/7 dispatchable energy and regulation services are still higher than traditional central generation plants [66]. Thus, the best options for new resource procurement across competing objectives, will be those that consider the current and future state of the delivery infrastructure.
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Implementing DER with new buildings may be the most cost-effective way to meet demand associated with growth in areas where delivery infrastructure are already over capacity during extreme heat waves. In such areas, some substations may be able to be adapted with improved heat sinks, forced air, or water cooling systems to increase capacity. But some may not, and overhead power line capacity will still be limited to convective cooling. The cost of increasing delivery infrastructure capacity necessary to meet demand through central generation, or long-distance imported power could be quite significant at $10–130 million USD per substation and $1–3 million USD per mile of line length leading all the way out of the urban center [67, 68].
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Future work for vulnerable neighborhoods should consider implementation of adaptation options by considering 24-h load profiles on distribution-level circuits, the total Watt-hours of necessary storage capacity to complement solar PV capacity, and opportunity for network aggregation in supplying ancillary grid services. Circuits with higher portion of commercial and industrial loads may be preferable for the installation of DERs, as their load profiles may more closely match the PV generation profile (peaking at mid-day) allowing for more storage efficiency. Effective implementation of energy storage would reduce load variance by charging during off-peak hours and discharging during peak hours, resulting in a more consistent load, which is more readily manageable by system operators, and therefore has lower operations and maintenance costs [49]. This could occur through some kind of automated and networked market incentives that are available for wholesale markets as of February 2018 [69].
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Implementation of new bulk generation systems and delivery infrastructure may be more valuable in the northern areas of San Fernando and Antelope Valley. The areas are relatively less developed there and so land should be more readily available for construction. Future studies should consider the reliability and security benefits of redundant central and distributed energy systems, and determine what amount of each, including storage, is optimal for different outage risk tolerances.
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6.2. Electrical systems: loads
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More energy efficient appliances can reduce use-phase load, load variance, and thus provide benefits to power systems’ stability. To mitigate risks from heat waves however, focus should be directed towards air conditioner units. Differences in lighting and other appliance efficiencies only affected peak demand in the models by 2% in California, but that state already has aggressive energy efficiency policies, so other areas around the world could benefit more. AC units generally accounted for 60–70% of summertime peak demand within residential buildings, and higher air temperatures resulted in a 3–7% increase in demand per 1°C (1.8°F). Los Angeles County currently has only 45% AC penetration in its residential buildings, meaning that peak demand in just over half of the current building stock does not increase with air temperature. By 2060 almost all buildings could have AC.
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Policies that would guide new or replacement ACs based on different performance constraints or different technologies would aid in reducing the risk of excessive peak demand during extreme heat events. It is possible to design AC units that are more efficient under the hottest conditions or that utilize thermal storage to achieve ‘flat’ efficiency curves that do not degrade at the hottest temperatures [70, 71]. For example, developing a new ‘peak performance rating’ for ACs at 50°C (122°F) could be useful to mitigate peak load during extreme heat waves. Doing so could provide incentive for ACs to be optimally engineered for more efficient performance at or near such extreme temperatures. Current standards, SEER and EER [72], are primarily for temperatures at or below 35°C (95°F). The current SEER standard, SEER 13, is already optimized to the point that improvements in SEER ratings in the model up to SEER 21 only affected peak demand by a few percent and were slightly counter-effective in some instances where temperatures exceeded 45°C (113°F) due to tradeoffs in engineering design optimization. Water-based evaporative cooling systems are another option that uses much less electric power, but requires water to operate, and are often not accepted by users as the sole-source of air conditioning due to insufficient comfort levels when the weather is both hot and humid [73, 74]. Further study may be useful to identify the practicality of hybrid designs.
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6.3. Market incentives: supply side and utilities
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Some studies suggest that the traditional utility business model, that couples energy sales to profits, is not compatible with certain energy efficiency goals or large amounts of DER [85]. The former issue is because utility revenues are primarily dependent on total energy sales, but the costs of providing reliable infrastructure are primarily dependent on capital expenditures, operations, and maintenance [75]. Profits increase with volumetric energy sales, and costs are relatively flat. Therefore, financial incentives must exist to be relatively inefficient in some processes. Hence, public regulatory commissions exist to oversee the prices set for ratepayers. The alternative business model is referred to as a “decoupled” market, where “excess” profits are carried forward and accounted for in adjusting the following years’ prices [76, 77]. When utility profits are decoupled from energy sales, load serving entities can implement effective conservation programs without violating fiduciary responsibility to shareholders [78]. This structure has been implemented in several states with positive effects on energy efficiency. For example, California’s per-capita annual energy consumption has remained relatively flat since decoupling was implemented in the 1980s, whereas many other states’ has steadily risen [79]. Market design determines rules by which participants must play [80]. If utilities’ profits were a function of key reliability precursors, such as smaller load variance, then utilities would have a direct incentive to reduce peak load (including shifting it to off-peak hours), resulting in less congestion, higher utilization of lower-cost base-load bulk generation resources, and more contingency capacity for non-stationary extreme heat events.
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6.4. Market incentives: demand side and ratepayers
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One philosophy for evaluating public policy is to consider whether the rules are equitable, efficient, transparent, administratively simple, and support achieving greater policy goals [81]. Current retail electricity rate schedules in Los Angeles and Phoenix generally meet these criteria via monthly energy billing with tiered and time of use rates [82, 83, 84, 85]. Charging residential ratepayers monthly based on total energy use is simple, transparent, equitable, and promotes energy efficiency. Higher electricity prices during peak hours helps to reduce peak load by incentivizing ratepayers to take action to shift flexible or non-critical usage to off-peak hours when electricity can be generated at lower cost [86]. Incentivizing ratepayers to turn off loads in the form of demand response relieves congestion on the grid; however, the majority of that relief comes from industrial customers who often switch to onsite diesel power or natural gas combined heat and power units [87]. Rebates are available in some localities for ratepayers to obtain solar PV, storage, or demand management technologies [88]. One-time rebates for building energy efficiency enhancements have also been found to reduce demand and peak load [89]. Overall, these incentives generally reflect the philosophy that electricity is both a critical infrastructure necessity and a non-critical commodity. Electricity is critical for powering infrastructure systems such as water, transportation, food, fuel, communications, and finance [32]. It is also critical in residential buildings for lighting, cooking, cleaning, and climate control.
\n
\n
\n
6.5. Building stock
\n
Population growth will increase peak demand, but where and by how much will be significantly influenced by decisions relating to the management of urban systems. Housing demand in less developed areas can be met through either single family or multi-family dwelling units. To meet population growth through densification however, most housing demand would need to be met through new multi-family dwelling. In addition to conserving land space, the benefits of building new multi-family unit residential housing can be as much as a 50% lower peak demand per capita than single-family detached units. Those benefits are due to reduced volume and shared walls, which significantly reduce exposure to extreme heat. In addition, street albedo and widths should be considered for urban heat island impacts.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusions
\n
Climate change is a broad term used to describe ecosystem disruptions that result in long-term changes in weather patterns. Industrial processes have had various impacts on ecosystems over time, and for the most part business peace treaties have been effective in the form of government regulations to limit climate-altering emissions that are harmful to human health. While electric power generation is not the only contributor to climate change, it has historically been a major one with various emissions regulations developed for the solid, liquid, and air-borne wastes of different processes. Carbon-dioxide emissions, once thought relatively harmless, are now understood to be the primary contributor to higher solar energy retention by the earth’s atmosphere, and thus lower average annual ice formation, higher sea-levels, warmer air temperatures, and various related effects around the globe. As public understanding of the risks of climate change have increased in recent years, several advancements in technology, analytics, and regulations have been piloted to reduce carbon emissions as well. Through advancements in weather forecasting tools, analysts are better able to characterize extreme weather conditions, and support electric power systems planning to forecast peak demand, resource adequacy requirements, delivery infrastructure capacity, and avoid outages during heat waves. While public understanding of the risks of climate change has increased, little knowledge exists of the value of low-cost energy available to the public nor the public risk of unstable power systems. As power systems around the world undergo transformation to lower-emissions technology standards, analysts can use the techniques demonstrated in this chapter to clearly define other risky climate conditions and support development of tools, regulations, and implementations that manage risks of other power stability issues in conjunction with climate change.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The content in this chapter was adapted from the published PhD dissertation of its author [90], which was supported by the California Energy Commission under grant number CEC EPC-15-007, Climate Change in Los Angeles County: Grid Vulnerability to Extreme Events, and the National Science Foundation under grant number 1360509, 2014-2017, Advancing Infrastructure and Institutional Resilience to Climate Change for Coupled Water-Energy Systems. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or the California Energy Commission.
\n
Conflict of interest
None.
\n',keywords:"climate change, risk management, demand forecast, load volatility, vulnerability, failure prediction, outage prediction, long-term planning",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64723.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64723.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64723",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64723",totalDownloads:2056,totalViews:616,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"June 18th 2018",dateReviewed:"October 20th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 10th 2018",datePublished:"April 10th 2019",dateFinished:"December 10th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Climate change mitigation and adaptation has been a major driving force to modernize electric power infrastructure and include more renewable energy systems. This chapter explains several ways in which electric power infrastructure has contributed to climate change, how climate change affects electric power infrastructure, mitigation options, and adaptation options. Electricity infrastructure categories include power generation technologies, transmission lines, substations, and building loads. Climate change categories include atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration levels, rising sea levels, changes in precipitation patterns and river flows, as well as more extreme air temperatures. Specific quantitative case studies are provided to estimate vulnerabilities from heat waves in the US desert southwest, including long-term forecasting of infrastructure performance, as well as, various supply-side and demand-side strategic options to maintain reliable operations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64723",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64723",signatures:"Daniel Burillo",book:{id:"8358",type:"book",title:"Power System Stability",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Power System Stability",slug:"power-system-stability",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Kenneth Eloghene Okedu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8358.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-798-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-797-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-114-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"172580",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth Eloghene",middleName:null,surname:"Okedu",slug:"kenneth-eloghene-okedu",fullName:"Kenneth Eloghene Okedu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"263758",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Tomas",surname:"Burillo",fullName:"Daniel Burillo",slug:"daniel-burillo",email:"danieltb@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/263758/images/7986_n.jpg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Electricity infrastructure vulnerabilities to climate change",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. How heat waves can result in service interruptions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Case study 1: quick estimate of peak demand for record-breaking heat waves",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Case study 2: using downscaled climate data to inform long-term demand forecasts and capital infrastructure planning",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Climate change risk mitigation and adaptation options in the electric power sector",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1. Electrical systems: resources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2. Electrical systems: loads",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3. Market incentives: supply side and utilities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.4. Market incentives: demand side and ratepayers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.5. Building stock",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. 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Electric Power Infrastructure Vulnerabilities to Heat Waves from Climate Change. In: Arizona State University. 2018\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Daniel Burillo",address:"danieltb@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Independent Scholar, Glendale, Arizona, USA
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Carlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
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Open Access background
\\n\\n
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
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At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
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OAI-PMH
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As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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License
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Peer Review Policies
\\n\\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
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OA Publishing Fees
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The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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Digital Archiving Policy
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IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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Open Science
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Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
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Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
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Reproducible research data and re-analysis
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Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
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Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
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Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
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We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
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OAI-PMH
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As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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License
\n\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\n
Peer Review Policies
\n\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\n
OA Publishing Fees
\n\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\n
Open Science
\n\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
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Reproducible research data and re-analysis
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Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\n\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\n\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\n\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
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We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Open Access
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Open Data
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Open Metrics and Impact
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Open Source
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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. 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He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). 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Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11967,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. 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He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/346907",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"346907"},fullPath:"/profiles/346907",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()