Action unit databases.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-78984-671-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-670-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-657-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d5feb836870aef4d30893f10898e7791",bookSignature:"Dr. Gokul Sridharan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10791.jpg",keywords:"HPV, Inflammation and Immunity, Cancer Stem Cells, Genomics and Epigenomics, Transcriptomics, Proteomics, Targeted Therapy, Immunotherapy, Surgery, Next-Gen Sequencing, Bioinformatics, Pharmacogenomics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 10th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 10th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 9th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 26th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher and academician with an interest in oral pre-cancer and oral cancer with special emphasis on salivary diagnostics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/82453/images/system/82453.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Gokul Sridharan is currently an associate professor in the Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology at Y.M.T. Dental College and Hospital, Navi Mumbai. He obtained his Ph.D. for the work titled “Salivary and serum metabolomics in oral leukoplakia and oral squamous cell carcinoma.” His fields of interest include oral pre-cancer, oral cancer, salivary diagnostics, oral and maxillofacial diseases, and advanced diagnostic aids with an emphasis on bioinformatics and metabolomics. He has several scientific publications to his credit and actively contributes as a peer reviewer to numerous journals. He is an active member of the editorial boards of several journals of repute. Dr. Sridharan has undergone training and is a qualified diploma holder in medical law and ethics and is certified in tobacco cessation and control as well.",institutionString:"YMT Dental College and Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9387",title:"Oral Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76591a3bd6bedaa1c8d1f72870268e23",slug:"oral-diseases",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan, Anil Sukumaran and Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9387.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7905",title:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae7cd7860043968aa88daae89795a591",slug:"saliva-and-salivary-diagnostics",bookSignature:"Sridharan Gokul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58386",title:"Review on Emotion Recognition Databases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72748",slug:"review-on-emotion-recognition-databases",body:'With facial recognition and human-computer interaction becoming more prominent with each passing year, the amount of databases associated with both face detection and facial expressions has grown immensely [1, 2]. A key part in creating, training and even evaluating supervised emotion recognition models is a well-labelled database of visual and/or audio information fit for the desired application. For example, emotion recognition has many different applications ranging from simple human-robot computer interaction [3, 4, 5] to automated depression detection [6].
There are several papers, blogs and books [7, 8, 9, 10] fully dedicated to just describing some of the more prominent databases for face recognition. However, the collection of emotion databases is disparate, as they are often tailored to a specific purpose, so there is no complete and thorough overview of the ones that currently exist.
Even though there already are a lot of collected databases out there that fit many specific criteria [11, 12], it is important to recognize that there are several different aspects that affect the content of the database. The selection of the participants, the method used to collect the data and what was in fact collected all have a great impact on the performance of the final model [13]. The cultural and social background of participants as well as their mood during recordings can sway the results of the database to be specific to a particular group of people. This can even happen with larger sample pools, like the case with the Bosphorus database [14], which suffers from a lack of ethnic diversity compared to databases with a similar or even smaller size [15, 16, 17].
Since most algorithms take an aligned and cropped face as an input, the most basic form of datasets is a collection of portrait images or already cropped faces, with uniform lighting and backgrounds. Among those is the NIST mugshot database [18], which has clear gray-scale mugshots and portraits of 1573 individuals on a uniform background. However, real-life scenarios are more complicated, requiring the authors to experiment with different lighting, head pose and occlusions [19]. For example in the M2VTS database [20], which contains the faces of 37 subjects in different rotated positions and lighting angles.
Some databases have focused on gathering samples from even less controlled environments with obstructed facial data like the SCface database [21], which contains surveillance data gathered from real world scenarios. Emotion recognition is not solely based on a person’s facial expression, but can also be assisted by body language [22] or vocal context. Unfortunately, not many databases include body language, preferring to completely focus on the face, but there are some multi-modal video and audio databases that incorporate vocal context [11, 23].
An important choice to make in gathering data for emotion recognition databases is how to bring out different emotions in the participants. This is the reason why facial emotion databases are divided into three main categories [24]:
posed
induced
spontaneous
Eliciting expressions can be done in several different ways and unfortunately, they yield wildly different results.
Emotions acted out based on conjecture or with the guidance from actors or professionals are called posed expressions [25]. Most facial emotion databases, especially the early ones i.e. Banse-Scherer [26], CK [27] and Chen-Huang [28], consist purely of posed facial expressions, as it is the easiest to gather. However, they also are the least representative of real world authentic emotions as forced emotions are often over-exaggerated or missing subtle details, like in Figure 1. Due to this, human expression analysis models created through the use of posed databases often have very poor results with real world data [13, 30]. To overcome the problems related to authenticity, professional theatre actors have been employed, e.g. for the GEMEP [31] database.
Posed expressions over different age groups from the FACES database [29].
This method of elicitation displays more genuine emotions as the participants usually interact with other individuals or are subject to audiovisual media in order to invoke real emotions. Induced emotion databases have become more common in recent years due to the limitations of posed expressions. The performance of the models in real life is greatly improved, since they are not hindered by overemphasised and fake expressions, making them more natural, as seen in Figure 2. There are several databases that deal with audiovisual emotion elicitation like the SD [32], UT DALLAS [33] and SMIC [34], and some that deal with human to human interaction like the ISL meeting corpus [35], AAI [36] and CSC corpus [37].
Induced facial expressions from the SD database [32].
Databases produced by observing human-computer interaction on the other hand are a lot less common. The best representatives are the AIBO database [23], where children are trying to give commands to a Sony AIBO robot, and SAL [11], in which adults interact with an artificial chat-bot.
Even though induced databases are much better than the posed ones, they still have some problems with truthfulness. Since the emotions are often invoked in a lab setting with the supervision of authoritative figures, the subjects might subconsciously keep their expressions in check [25, 30].
Spontaneous emotion datasets are considered to be the closest to actual real-life scenarios. However, since true emotion can only be observed, when the person is not aware of being recorded [30], they are difficult to collect and label. The acquisition of data is usually in conflict with privacy or ethics, whereas the labelling has to be done manually and the true emotion has to be guessed by the analyser [25]. This arduous task is both time-consuming and erroneous [13, 38], having a sharp contrast with posed and induced datasets, where labels are either predefined or can be derived from the elicitation content.
With that being said, there still exist a few databases out there that consist of data extracted from movies [39, 40], YouTube videos [41], or even television series [42], but these databases have inherently fewer samples in them than their posed and induced counterparts. Example images from these databases are in Figures 3–5 respectively.
Images of movie clips taken from the AFEW database [39, 40].
Spanish YouTube video clips taken from the Spanish Multimodal Opinion database [41].
TV show stills taken from the VAM database [43].
The purpose of a database is defined by the emotions represented in it. Several databases like CK [27, 44], MMI [45], eNTERFACE [46], NVIE [47] all opt to capture the six basic emotion types: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise as proposed by Ekman [48, 49, 50]. In the tables, they are denoted as primary 6. Often authors tend to add contempt to these, forming seven primary emotions and often neutral is included. However, they cover a very small subcategory of all possible emotions, so there have been attempts to combine them [51, 52].
Several databases try to just categorise the general positive and negative emotions or incorporate them along with others, e.g. the SMO [41], AAI [36], and ISL meeting corpus [35] databases. Some even try to rank deception and honesty like the CSC corpus database [37].
Apart from anger and disgust within the six primary emotions, scientists have tried to capture other negative expressions, such as boredom, disinterest, pain, embarrassment and depression. Unfortunately, these categories are harder to elicit than other types of emotions.
TUM AVIC [53] and AVDLC [12] databases are amongst those that try to label levels of interest and depression while GEMEP [31] and VAM [43] attempt to divide emotions into four quadrants and three dimensions, respectively. The main reason why most databases have a very small number of categories (mainly, neutral and smile/no-smile) is that the more emotions added, the more difficult they are to label and also more data is required to properly train a model.
Relatively newer databases have begun recording more subtle emotions hidden behind other forced or dominant emotions. Among these are the MAHNOB [51] database, which focuses on emotional laughter and different types of laughter, and others that try to record emotions hidden behind a neutral or straight face like SMIC [34], RML [54], Polikovsky’s [55] databases.
One of the more recent databases, the iCV-MEFED [52, 56] database, takes on a different approach by posing varying combinations of emotions simultaneously, where one emotion takes the dominant role and the other is complimentary. Sample images can be seen in Figure 6.
Combinations of emotions from the iCV-MEFED [52].
The Facial Affect Sorting Technique (FAST) was developed to measure facial movement relative to emotion. They describe the six basic emotions through facial behaviour: happiness, surprise and disgust have three intensities and anger is reported as controlled and uncontrolled [57]. Darwin [58], Duchenne [59] and Hjortsjo [60], Ekman and Friesen [61] developed the Facial Action Coding System (FACS), a comprehensive system, which catalogues all possible visually distinguishable facial movements.
FACS describes facial expressions in terms of 44 anatomically based Action Units (AU). They are meant for facial punctuators in conversation, facial deficits indicative of brain lesions, emotion detection, etc. FACS only deals with visible changes, which are often induced by a combination of muscle contractions. Because of that, they are called action units [61]. A small sample of such expressions can be seen in Figure 7. A selection of databases based on AUs instead of regular facial expressions is listed in Table 1.
Induced facial action units from the DISFA database [62].
Database | Participants | Elicitation | Format | Action units | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CMU-Pittsburgh AU-Coded Face Expression Database [27] 2000 | 210 | Posed | Videos | 44 | Varying ethnic backgrounds, FACS coding |
MMI Facial Expression Database [63, 64] 2002 | 19 | Posed and audiovisual media | Videos, images | 79 | Continuously updated, contains different parts |
Face Video Database of the MPI [65, 66] 2003 | 1 | Posed | Six viewpoint videos | 55 | Created using the MPI VideoLab |
D3DFACS [67] 2011 | 10 | posed | 3D videos | 19–97 | Supervised by FACS specialists |
DISFA [62] 2013 | 27 | audiovisual media | Videos | 12 |
Action unit databases.
In 2002, the FACS system was revised and the number of facial contraction AUs was reduced to 33 and 25 head pose AUs were added [68, 69, 70]. In addition, there is a separate FACS version intended for children [71].
Emotion recognition databases may come in many different forms, depending on how the data was collected. We review existing databases for different types of emotion recognition. In order to better compare similar types of databases, we decided to split them into three broad categories based on format. The first two categories separated still images from video sequences, while the last category is comprised of databases with more unique capturing methods.
Most early facial expression databases, like the CK [27], only consist of frontal portrait images taken with simple RGB cameras. Newer databases try to design collection methods that incorporate data, which is closer to real life scenarios by using different angles and occlusion (hats, glasses, etc.). Great examples are the MMI [45] and Multi-PIE [72] databases, which were some of the first well-known ones using multiple view angles. In order to increase the accuracy of the human expression analysis models, databases like the FABO [22] have expanded the frame from a portrait to the entire upper body.
Static databases are the oldest and most common type. Therefore, it’s understandable that they were created with the most diverse of goals, varying from expression perception [29] to neuropsychological research [73], and have a wide range of data gathering styles, including self-photography through a semi-reflective mirror [74] and occlusion and light angle variation [75]. Static databases usually have the largest number of participants and a bigger sample size. While it is relatively easy to find a database suited for the task at hand, categories of emotions are quite limited, as static databases only focus on six primary emotions or smile/neutral detection. In the future, it would be convenient if there were databases with more emotions, especially spontaneous or induced, because, as you can see in Table 2, almost all static databases to date are posed.
Database | Participants | Primary 6 | Neutral | Contempt | Embarrassment | Pain | Smile | Positive | Negative | Other | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
JACFEE [76] 1988 | 4 | X | X | Eight images of each emotion | |||||||
POFA (or PFA) [73] 1993 | 14 | X | Cross-cultural studies and neuropsychological research | ||||||||
AT-T Database for Faces (formerly ORL) [77, 78] 1994 | 40 | X | X | Dark homogeneous background, frontal face | |||||||
Yale [75] 1997 | 15 | X | Frontal face, different light angles, occlusions | ||||||||
FERET [79] 1998 | 1199 | X | X | Standard for face recognition algorithms | |||||||
KDEF [80] 1998 | 70 | X | X | Psychological and medical research (perception, attention, emotion, memory and backward masking) | |||||||
The AR Face Database [81] 1998 | 126 | ✓1 | X | X | X | Frontal face, different light angles, occlusions | |||||
The Japanese Female Facial Expression Database [74] 1998 | 10 | X | X | Subjects photographed themselves through a semi-reflective mirror | |||||||
MSFDE [82] 2000 | 12 | X | X | FACS coding, ethnical diversity | |||||||
CAFE Database [83] 2001 | 24 | X | X | FACS coding, ethnical diversity | |||||||
CMU PIE [84] 2002 | 68 | X | X | X | Illumination variation, varying poses | ||||||
Indian Face Database [85] 2002 | 40 | ✓ | X | Indian participants from seven view angles | |||||||
NimStim Face Stimulus Set [86] 2002 | 70 | X | X | X | Facial expressions were supervised | ||||||
KFDB [87] 2003 | 1920 | X | X | Includes ground truth for facial landmarks | |||||||
PAL Face Database [88] 2004 | 576 | ✓ | X | Wide age range | |||||||
UT DALLAS [33] 2005 | 284 | ✓ | X | Head and face detection, emotions induced using audiovisual media | |||||||
TFEID [89] 2007 | 40 | X | X | Taiwanese actors, two simultaneous angles | |||||||
CAS-PEAL [90] 2008 Multi-PIE [72] 2008 | 1040 337 | X | X X | X X | Chinese face detection Multiple view angles, illumination variation | ||||||
PUT [91] 2008 | 100 | X | X | High-resolution head-pose database | |||||||
Radboud Faces Database [92] 2008 | 67 | X | X | X | Supervised by FACS specialists | ||||||
FACES database [29] 2010 | 154 | X | Expression perception, wide age range, evaluated by participants | ||||||||
iCV-MEFED [52] 2017 | 115 | X | X | Psychologists picked best from 5 |
Posed static databases.
A selection of six primary emotions has been used in databases with this symbol.
The most convenient format for capturing induced and spontaneous emotions is video. This is due to a lack of clear start and end points for non-posed emotions [93]. In the case of RGB Video, the subtle emotional changes known as microexpressions have also been recorded with the hope of detecting concealed emotions as in USF-HD [94], YorkDDT [95], SMIC [34], CASME [96] and Polikovsky’s [55] databases, the newest and most extensive among those being CASME.
Posed video databases in Table 3 suggest that they tend to be quite small in the number of participants, usually around 10, and often professional actors have been used. Unlike with still images, scientists have tried to benefit from voice, speech or any other type of utterances for emotion recognition. Many databases have also tried to gather micro-expressions, as they do not show up on still images or are harder to catch. The posed video databases have mainly focused on six primary emotions and a neutral expression.
Database | Participants | Primary 6 | Neutral | Contempt | Embarrassment | Pain | Smile | Positive | Negative | Other | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
University of Maryland DB [97] 1997 | 40 | X | 1–3 expressions per clip | ||||||||
CK [27] 2000 | 97 | X | One of the first FE databases made public | ||||||||
Chen-Huang [28] 2000 | 100 | X | Facial expressions and speech | ||||||||
DaFEx [98] 2004 | 8 | X | X | Italian actors mimicked emotions while uttering different sentences | |||||||
Mind Reading [99] 2004 | 6 | X | X | Teaching tool for children with behavioural disabilities | |||||||
GEMEP [31] 2006 | 10 | ✓ | X | Professional actors, supervised | |||||||
AONE [100] 2007 | 75 | Asian adults | |||||||||
FABO [22] 2007 | 4 | ✓ | X | Face and upper-body | |||||||
IEMOCAP [101] 2008 | 10 | ✓ | X | X | Markers on face, head, hands | ||||||
RML [54] 2008 | 8 | X | Suppressed emotions | ||||||||
Polikovsky’s database [55] 2009 | 10 | X | X | Low intensity micro-expressions | |||||||
SAVEE [102] 2009 | 4 | X | X | Blue markers, three images per emotion | |||||||
STOIC [103] 2009 | 10 | X | X | X | Face recognition, discerning gender, contains still images | ||||||
YorkDDT [95] 2009 | 9 | X | X | Micro-expressions | |||||||
ADFES [104] 2011 | 22 | X | X | X | X | Frontal and turned facial expressions | |||||
USF-HD [94] 2011 | 16 | ✓ | X | Micro-expressions, mimicked shown expressions | |||||||
CASME [96] 2013 | 35 | ✓ | X | X | Micro expressions, suppressed emotions |
Posed video databases.
Media induced databases, as in Table 4, have a larger number of participants and the emotions are usually induced by audiovisual media, like Superbowl ads [107]. Because the emotions in these databases are induced via external means, this format is great for gathering fake [108] or hidden [34] emotions.
Database | Participants | Elicitation | Primary 6 | Neutral | Contempt | Embarrassment | Pain | Smile | Positive | Negative | Other | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IAPS [105] 1997 | 497–1483 | Visual media | X | Pleasure and arousal reaction images, subset for children | ||||||||
SD [32] 2004 | 28 | AVM1 | ✓ | X | X | One of the first international induced emotion data-sets | ||||||
eNTERFACE’05 [46] 2006 | 42 | Auditory media | X | Standard for face recognition algorithms | ||||||||
CK+ [44] 2010 | 220 | Posed and AVM | X | Updated version of CK | ||||||||
SMIC [34] 2011 | 6 | AVM | ✓ | Supressed emotions | ||||||||
Face Place [106] 2012 | 235 | AVM | X | X | X | Different ethnicities | ||||||
AM-FED [107] 2013 | 81–240 | AVM | X | X | Reactions to Superbowl ads | |||||||
MAHNOB [51] 2013 | 22 | Posed and AVM | ✓ | X | Laughter recognition research | |||||||
SASE-FE [108] 2017 | 54 | AVM | ✓ | X | Fake emotions |
Media induced video databases.
Audiovisual media.
Interaction induced video databases have more unique ways of gathering data, like child-robot interaction [23] or reviewing past memories [36]. This can be seen in Table 5. This type of databases takes significantly longer time to create [113], but this does not seem to affect the sample size. Almost all of the spontaneous databases are in video format from other media sources, purely because of how difficult they are to collect. Spontaneous databases are also some of the rarest, compared to other elicitation methods. This is reflected in Table 6, which has the lowest number of databases among the different elicitation methods.
Database | Participants | Elicitation | Primary 6 | Neutral | Contempt | Embarrassment | Pain | Smile | Positive | Negative | Other | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ISL meeting corpus [35] 2002 | 90 | Human-human interaction | X | X | X | Collected in a meeting fashion | ||||||
AAI [36] 2004 | 60 | Human-human interaction | X | X | X | X | Induced via past memories | |||||
AIBO database [23] 2004 | 30 | Child-robot interaction | ✓ | X | X | Robot instructed by children | ||||||
CSC corpus [37] 2005 | 32 | Human-human interaction | X | Honesty research | ||||||||
RU-FACS [109] 2005 SAL [11] 2005 | 90 24 | Human-human interaction human-computer interaction | X ✓ | X X | Subjects were all university students conversations held with a simulated “chat-bot” system | |||||||
MMI [45] 2006 | 61/29 | Posed/child-comedian interaction, adult-audiovisual media | X | Profile views along with portrait images | ||||||||
TUM AVIC [53] 2007 | 21 | Human-human interaction | X | Commercial presentation | ||||||||
SEMAINE [110, 111] 2010/2012 AVDLC [12] 2013 | 150 292 | Human-human interaction Human-computer interaction | X | X | X X | Operator was thoroughly familiar with SAL script Mood disorder and unipolar depression research | ||||||
RECOLA [112] 2013 | 46 | Human-human interaction | X | Collaborative tasks. Audio-video, ECG and EDA were recorded |
Interaction induced video databases.
Database | Participants | Primary 6 | Neutral | Contempt | Embarrassment | Pain | Smile | Positive | Negative | Other | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Belfast natural database [42] 2003 | 125 | X | X | X | X | Video clips from television and interviews | |||||
Belfast Naturalistic Emotional Database [114] 2003 | 125 | X | X | Studio recordings and television program clips | |||||||
VAM [43] 2008 | 47 | X | Video clips from a talk-show | ||||||||
AFEW [39, 40] 2011/2012 | 330 | X | X | Video clips from movies | |||||||
Spanish Multimodal Opinion [41] 2013 | 105 | X | X | Spanish video clips from YouTube |
Spontaneous video databases.
Apart from the formats mentioned above, 3D scanned and even thermal databases of different emotions have also been constructed. The most well-known 3D datasets are the BU-3DFE [15], BU-4DFE [16], Bosphorus [14] and BP4D [17]. BU-3DFE and BU-4DFE both contain posed datasets with six expressions, the latter having higher resolution. Bosphorus tries to address the issue of having a wider selection of facial expressions and BP4D is the only one among the four using induced expressions instead of posed ones. A sample of models from a 3D database can be seen in Figure 8.
3D facial expression samples from the BU-3DFE database [15].
With RGB-D databases, however, it is important to note that the data is unique to each sensor with outputs having varying density and error, so algorithms trained on databases like the IIIT-D RGB-D [115], VAP RGB-D [116] and KinectFaceDB [117] would be very susceptible to hardware changes. For comparison with the 3D databases, an RGB-D sample has been provided in Figure 9. One of the newer databases, the iCV SASE [118] database, is RGB-D dataset solely dedicated to headpose with free facial expressions.
RGB-D facial expression samples from the KinectFaceDB database [117].
Even though depth based databases, like the ones in Table 7, are relatively new compared to other types and there are very few of them, they still manage to cover a wide range of different emotions. With the release of commercial use depth cameras like the Microsoft Kinect [120], they will only continue to get more popular in the future.
As their applications are more specific, thermal facial expression datasets are very scarce. Some of the first and more known ones are IRIS [123] and Equinox [121, 122], which consist of RGB and thermal image pairs that are labelled with three emotions [124], as can be seen in Figure 10. Thermal databases are usually posed or induced by audiovisual media. The ones in Table 8 mostly focus on positive, negative, neutral and six primary emotions. The average number of participants is quite high relative to other types of databases.
Thermal images taken from the Equinox database [121, 122].
There are mainly two types of emotion databases that contain audio content: stand-alone audio databases and video databases that include spoken words or utterances. The information extracted from audio is called context and can be generally categorized into a multitude, wherein the three important context subdivisions for emotion recognition databases are the semantic, structural, and temporal ones.
Semantic context is where the emotion can be isolated through specific emotionally marked words, while structural context is dependent on the stress patterns and syntactic structure of longer phrases. Temporal context is the longer lasting variant of the structural context as it involves the change of emotion in speech over time, like emotional build-up [42].
In case of multimodal data, the audio component can provide a semantic context, which can have a larger bearing on the emotion than the facial expressions themselves [11, 23]. However, in case of solely audio data, like the Bank and Stock Service [126] and ACC [127] databases, the context of the speech plays a quintessential role in emotion recognition [128, 129].
The audio databases in Table 9 are very scarce and tailored to specific needs, like the Banse-Schrerer [26], which has only four participants and was gathered to see whether judges can deduce emotions from vocal cues. The easiest way to gather a larger amount of audio data is from call-centres, where the emotions are elicited either by another person or a computer program.
Database | Participants | Format | Primary 6 | Neutral | Contempt | Embarrassment | Pain | Smile | Positive | Negative | Other | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BU-3DFE [15] 2006 | 100 | 3D images | X | Ethnically diverse, two angled views | ||||||||
Bosphorus [14] 2008 | 105 | 3D images | X | Occlusions, less ethnic diversity than BU-3DF | ||||||||
BU-4DFE [16] 2008 | 101 | 3D videos | Newer version of BU-3DFE, has 3D videos | |||||||||
VAP RGB-D [116] 2012 | 31 | RGB-D videos | X | X | 17 different recorded states repeated 3 times for each person | |||||||
PICS [119] 2013 | — | Images, videos, 3D images | Includes several different datasets and is still ongoing | |||||||||
BP4D [17] 2014 | 41 | 3D videos | X | X | X | Human-human interaction | ||||||
IIIT-D RGB-D [115] 2014 | 106 | RGB-D images | X | X | Captured with Kinect | |||||||
KinectFaceDB [117] 2014 | 52 | RGB-D images, videos | X | X | Captured with Kinect, varying occlusions |
3D and RGB-D databases.
Database | Participants | Elicitation | Primary 6 | Neutral | Contempt | Embarrassment | Pain | Smile | Positive | Negative | Other | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Equinox [121, 122] 2002 | 340 | Posed | X | X | X | Captured in SWIR, MWIR and LWIR | ||||||
IRIS [123] 2007 | 4228 | Posed | X | X | X | Some of the first thermal FE data-sets | ||||||
NVIE [47] 2010 | 215 | Posed and AVM1 | X | Spontaneous expressions are not present for every subject | ||||||||
KTFE [125] 2014 | 26 | Posed and AVM | X | X |
Thermal databases.
Audiovisual media.
Database | Participants | Elicitation | Primary 6 | Neutral | Contempt | Embarrassment | Pain | Smile | Positive | Negative | Other | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Banse-Scherer [26] 1996 | 4 | Posed | X | X | X | X | Vocally expressed emotions | |||||
Bank and Stock Service [126] 2004 | 350 | Human-human interaction | ✓ | X | X | Collected from a call center and Capital Bank Service Center | ||||||
ACC [127] 2005 | 1187 | Human-computer interaction | X | X | Collected from automated call center applications |
Audio databases.
Even with all of the readily available databases out there, there is still a need for creating self-collected databases for emotion recognition, as the existing ones don’t always fulfil all of the criteria [130, 131, 132, 133].
With the rapid increase of computing power and size of data, it has become more and more feasible to distinguish emotions, identify people, and verify honesty based on video, audio or image input, taking a large step forward not only in human-computer interaction, but also in mental illness detection, medical research, security and so forth. In this paper an overview of existing face databases in varying categories has been given. They have been organised into tables to give the reader an easy way to find necessary data. This paper should be a good starting point for anyone who considers training a model for emotion recognition.
This work has been partially supported by Estonian Research Council Grant PUT638, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey 1001 Project (116E097), The Spanish project TIN2016-74946-P (MINECO/FEDER, UE), CERCA Programme/Generalitat de Catalunya, the COST Action IC1307 iV&L Net (European Network on Integrating Vision and Language) supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology), and the Estonian Centre of Excellence in IT (EXCITE) funded by the European Regional Development Fund. We also gratefully acknowledge the support of the NVIDIA Corporation with the donation of the Titan X Pascal GPU.
Disruptive technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) have been rapidly being incorporated into different scientific fields and industry, becoming a support for technologies such as: big data, data science, the internet of things (IoT), computational linguistics, intelligent computing, assisted technologies, advanced robotics, among others. Also, AI has been incorporated in fields such as medicine, an example of this are systems for the early detection of COVID-19 through the use of techniques such as deep learning and machine Learning [1, 2] for the analysis of cellular and protein images, as well as the study of molecular and cellular dynamics among other aspects.
\nOther fields in which AI can be found are: manufacturing and logistics, industrial processes of various kinds, finance, adaptive education, diagnostic systems, micro and nanoelectronics, precision agriculture, transport, telecommunications, defense system, etc. even in the video game and toy industry.
\nA peculiarity of AI is that with the current computational potential it can be applied practically in whatever is desired. For example, in the development of advanced robotic systems, both software (chatbots) [3] and hardware, which allow emulating certain traits and interaction with the human being. Similarly, AI is incorporated into information and communication technologies, in the control and monitoring devices of homes, buildings and cities (Smart Cities), which converge to the so-called Internet of Things (IoT), which involve sensory, cloud computing, data science and cybersecurity among other disciplines.
\nIn terms of security, standard and AI-mediated IoT present a debatable level of security. This is due to the fact that the base code of the firmware or operating system of these devices [4], does not have an acceptable level of security and, as they are permanently connected to a communication network, their exposure to computer attacks is high. This type of failure is attributed in part to device design and manufacturing failures, where the safety factor was underestimated, without taking into account that the devices and sensors under the IoT scheme are supported under Internet protocols and standards, and although they do not use them in their entirety, it does not imply that they are exonerated from being exploited by some type of malware.
\nIn this sense, hacking this type of system allows us to steal data not only from homes, but from hospitals and research centers, industries, vehicles, weapons and drones, even causing accidents or taking lives selectively. In the case of robots and cobots, cameras, toys (including sex toys), printers and household appliances, among other devices connected to the internet or through a mobile device, can be maliciously intervened if they are not configured correctly regarding their access. Cyberattacks on these devices are often attributed to botnets; since they allow attacks by distribution of denial of service (DDoS), oversaturating Internet access traffic in order to disable or take control of the network to which the devices are connected. When this is achieved, access to the privacy of the victim or target is taken for granted without their being aware of it until it is too late.
\nUnder this type of attack, what is sought is to collect information from the victim that allows obtaining bank access codes, personal and/or corporate email codes in order to continue climbing to steal sensitive information, images or intimate videos that lead to extortion, among others. For example, in 2016 an attack on Europe and North America was used under the DDoS modality [5], using the IoT [6] to disable the DynDNS systems (Dynamic Network Services, Inc.), operated by domain name providers (DNS), this caused the denial of access to internet platforms and services. Also, this type of attack seeks to steal sensitive corporate information to be sold to the competition, destroy it if necessary when there is a contract involved, extort money from the target or destroy critical facilities for terrorist or military purposes.
\nThe problem with botnets is that they will continue to grow as the number of vulnerabilities increases in devices connected to the Internet in the coming years, in addition to other types of vulnerabilities to which a communication network of any industry or public service is exposed or private. This statement is based on the fact that the number of IoT devices connected with other disruptive technologies are growing exponentially, where household appliances and all types of electronic devices are being permanently managed and administered via wired or wireless, making them much more vulnerable to various types of cyberattack.
\nThe internet of things is defined as the set of electronic devices connected to the internet, whose function is aimed at collecting various information that can be directed to the control of actuators that activate other systems (lights, blinds, thermostat, air conditioning, etc.). Also, it allows the collection of data based on the monitoring or census of physical–chemical or biological variables, communication between devices and human-devices, identification, location and monitoring, among others. The IoT is in various scenarios; from the home (Smart home), through industry and services, to the health sector (eHealth), transport systems (navigability and predictive maintenance) and infrastructures of a city (bridges, viaducts, buildings, etc.) that converge to the concept of Smart Cities (Smart energy and Smart retail). Likewise, the sensors can be controlled and/or monitored from a central or mobile device, there are even other more advanced approaches focused on the energy industry, in order to optimize communication processes and broadband efficiency, known as Internet of Things-Grid (IoT-G) [7].
\nA notable characteristic of the IoT is that it has diversified to such an order that there are billions of devices permanently connected to the web, and with the rise of 5G technology, even greater growth is expected in the coming years, which He envisions drastic changes in Industry 4.0, where AI is going to play a key role in this context. Under this dynamic, researchers, scientists and engineers face emerging challenges in designing IoT-based systems that can be efficiently integrated with 5G wireless communications. [8] This technology is immersed in society, which in many cases goes unnoticed. The truth is that the volume of information that is permanently recorded is colossal, where technologies such as data science, big data, advanced analytics and Artificial Intelligence, among other disciplines, contribute their own for the treatment of this information.
\nIt is worth mentioning that in technical terms the IoT works under the TCP/IP model, in which various protocols related to data transfer operate. For example, the Internet Protocol (IP) is the one that allows interoperability between devices, where the IPv4 version is definitively replaced by IPv6 in 2020, in which the organization of the IP addresses of computers and devices is expanded and improved in various types of communication networks.
\nThere are protocols dedicated to the IoT apart from HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) such as: OCF (Open Connectivity Foundation), MFi (Made For iPhone/iPod/iPad), AllJoyn, DDS (Data Distribution Service), Thread, HomePlug and HomeGrid, AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol), CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol), MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport), XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol) and OPC UA (Unified Architecture), considered as a new generation standard. The operability of these protocols is based on the TCP or UDP protocols. In the case of the UDP protocol, it presents certain limitations in terms of connectivity and functionality, specific to its architecture.
\nRegarding the TCP/IP model, it exhibits vulnerabilities in each of its layers (Application, Transport, Internet and Network) that can be exploited [9]. For example, at the network layer, common problems are confidentiality and access control, which can be compromised through network hardware, that is, through IoT devices. At the network layer, the attacks are carried out at the level of modifying or canceling a datagram associated with the IP of a device, using techniques such as sniffing and spoofing in the ARP protocol or disabling the MAC filter, among others.
\nAt the network infrastructure level, the transport layer fulfills the function of transmitting data via TCP or UDP protocols over IP datagrams. At this point, security problems are presented at the level of authentication, integrity and confidentiality of the information. Consequently, denial of service attacks can be performed by obstructing the flow of data by disabling communication between client and server. Other attacks that may occur are: pseudo-random subdomain attack (PRSD), IP Flooding, distributed attack, snork, ping of death, smurf, Spoofing for SYN flood DoS attacks TCP/SYN, flooding and teardrop, NTP amplification, attacks ICMP (ping), UDP Flood, HTTP Flood, SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)/TLS (Transport Layer Security) renegotiation, among others, where each one takes advantage of the design vulnerabilities of the layer itself. In the case of the internet layer, the attacks are conceived at the level of the fragmentation of IP datagrams, masking them by others that compromise the data that circulates through different points of a network.
\nAs can be seen, the TCP/IP model since its creation has inherent weaknesses in its own design that can be exploited to carry out various types of attacks [10, 11]. In the particular case of IoT devices, they become perfect targets for cybercrime and industrial, military and government espionage, which, as can be seen, the attack vectors come from various sources, which are not necessarily organized crime.
\nThere are other security factors to take into account about the IoT, which is related to the use of different technologies such as Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), Near Field Communication (NFC) and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) that are implemented in standard mobile devices, where each of them presents its own vulnerabilities [12]. Each technology requires specific protocols [13], to which is added 5G technology, whose emerging applications open up a myriad of applications, such as new attacks on advanced networks, for example, HealthTech and BioTech-type applications.
\nRegarding the standard communication protocols such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, others related to the application layer are presented specifically designed for a company’s own products, so they are not considered as standardized, for example: Nest, MFI, Open Interconnect Consortium (OIC) and The AllSeen Alliance. Under this scenario, each industry that works with IoT develops its own protocols without universal unification, which guarantees connectivity compatible with devices from other manufacturers; This creates a security breach that can be exploited by cybercrime. An example in this regard was an attack that occurred in 2020 in the United States, using the Drovorub malware [14], the objective of which was to massively hack IoT devices in order to access wider communication networks.
\nThe Internet of Things is found in various devices as indicated by [13], in household appliances, smartphones, smart clothes, wearables (bracelets, virtual reality glasses, etc.), smart TVs, game consoles, transportation systems, buildings (security cameras, air conditioning, access controls, etc.), public infrastructures (bridges, highways, parks, etc.), public services, industrial components (e.g. SCADA systems) [15], systems transportation, etc.
\nA particularity of the IoT as mentioned above, is the connection between devices and the exchange of information between them under the TCP/IP model and their own custom-designed protocols. This poses great challenges in terms of information security, which as [16] state, there are attacks on devices connected to the Internet, in which there is fear of surveillance and concern for privacy. The reason for this, underlies as [17] points out, is that the IoT is presented as a source of data collection that grows exponentially and, consequently, every object becomes a source of information.
\nA critical point of the IoT in terms of information security is distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks, whose objective is focused on disabling the continuity of communication of devices connected to a network, affecting the switched flow tables, data on a network, bandwidth and latency, taking advantage of the weaknesses of the OSI (Open System Interconnection) model (see \nFigure 1\n), in which attacks can be carried out at the transport, network and application layers, as well as DNS, SMURF and ACK amplification type attacks, among others.
\nLayers or levels of the OSI model, elements that it manages and functions.
Some effects of these attacks consist of making multiple requests to one or more servers (web, proxy, email, database, etc.), with the aim of saturating the network until it collapses. Also, brute force attacks can be carried out through specialized malware that is in charge of scanning the target network in search of IoT devices in order to obtain passwords, hijack them and link them to a botnet [18], which is basically a malware that takes advantage of browser vulnerabilities by installing itself on computers and/or servers.
\nThe main characteristic of a botnet is that it infects the greatest number of systems forming the so-called “zombie” networks; which are controlled by Command & control type servers, which increase the capacity for DDoS and Spam attacks, among others, to specific objectives, which are normally companies and/or corporations, critical infrastructures such as transport, essential public services, health sector, food, etc., although attacks directed at a particular individual are not ruled out.
\nRegarding the defense mechanisms available to counter a DDoS attack, these present certain limitations such as the lack of resources at the software or hardware level in a network, or due to the technical and technological flexibility that a network has to deal with this. Type of attack. In this sense, the manifestation of potential risks attributed to technologies such as IoT with respect to DDoS, are expressed through security flaws that grow day by day, not only due to the number of devices, but also due to their diversification of these in multiple fields of industry, transportation, health and entertainment among others, becoming a global security problem.
\nThe motivations for carrying out this type of attack are diverse and varied, ranging from personal or corporate resentments, through espionage, blackmail and extortion, to unfair competition or political and military ideologies. The growing reason for these attacks lies in the various vulnerabilities that can be exploited in IoT devices, whose manufacture questionable puts their security among them, as well as the poor configuration of the devices or portals by the personnel in charge.
\nAnother aspect to be mentioned as a reference to the vulnerability of the IoT is related to the pandemic caused by COVID-19, whose attacks in the first half of 2020 increased alarmingly worldwide [19], in particular on websites of medical organizations, educational and administrative platforms, online gaming platforms and delivery services of various kinds. With this type of attack, it was shown that cybercriminals were not very interested in the social and humanitarian factor.
\nIt is worth mentioning that DDoS attacks require poorly configured computer networks and servers, which once hijacked are connected to a Zombie network (\nFigure 2\n). This strategy applied to IoT devices acts as a connection bridge to be used as digital weapons of attack and espionage, expanding the coverage of the zombie network, boosting thousands or millions of times the level of request to the servers targeted by the attack. The problem with an attack on this scale is that the IoT is in continuous growth, that as [20] affirms only by 2020 there will be more than 50 billion connected devices (omnipresent) in cities, that is more than the estimated world population for this date (7.5 billion). Now, with the problem of the pandemic, there are hundreds of projects that promote the IoT for the permanent monitoring of cities, homes, hospitals and transportation systems among other critical systems of cities in the coming years, all aimed at minimizing future pandemics, for causing the number of devices to skyrocket to significantly larger numbers.
\nGraphical representation of a distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack on an IoT system. As can be seen, a set of botnet is used to attack the victim, which in this case is a server that manages information from devices related to the IoT. The result of this attack is to have access to the database hosted on the server, to the control of the network connected to it and to the IoT devices.
Another issue to take into account is related to metropolitan security, in which technologies such as cameras, sensors and drones are increasingly being incorporated, connected via IoT devices and mobile telephony. In the worst case scenario, when hacking this type of infrastructure, a city would be at the mercy of an attacker having access to infinite data. Now, this type of attack would not only be orchestrated by organized crime and terrorists, but by the governments themselves and the military, as noted above, with the exclusive purpose of monitoring each individual and society permanently and with impunity, violating human rights. For example, China under his regime [21], is one of the countries that has the most information on its population using various technologies such as biometric registration and facial recognition systems, integrated with databases (includes DNA databases) managed and administered through artificial intelligence. Another example is the National Security Agency (NSA) and the CIA of the United States, which repeatedly violate human rights spying not only on their own community but on the entire world [22], as well as other agencies from other countries [23].
\nReturning to the topic of DDoS, there are various mitigation techniques for an attack of this type, whose large-scale feasibility is debatable. This is due in part to the efficiency and complexity of being able to implement these techniques. For example, a recent proposal is based on the use of blockchain technologies and Smart Contracts [24, 25] that have the necessary infrastructure to preserve the design and stability in terms of the development of a protocol that supports DDoS-type attacks. The proposal takes as support cloud computing, whose degree of security is high, due to the way data packets are filtered, where the system consists of a set of devices or programs (Firewalls and Proxy) configured in such a way that limits the passage or access of information in a network under certain rules and protocols.
\nIn terms of security, the IoT presents various weaknesses depending on the type of technology and application it is given, where DDoS takes advantage of, as do other variants such as low-speed DDoS (LDDoS) [26], which hides its traffic equivalent to normal traffic. Its origin is based on LDoS attack methods, which include variants such as reduction of quality (RoQ) and application servers (LoRDAS attacks). Another type of weakness attributed to the protection of information is focused on the service provider (DPS), which apart from implying additional costs, can lead to a decrease in the performance of the service and security problems, so you must be careful with whom you contract x and y services.
\nThere are security proposals for the IoT, such as: collaborative defense using VNF (Virtual Network Functions), the use of DOTS protocols (DDoS Open Threat Signaling) [27], the exchange of events based on FLow (FLEX) and obfuscation techniques [28], among others. Although they are very good proposals, the problem is still open in establishing ideal protocols that allow confronting large-scale DDoS attacks, in which a greater degree of sophistication, duration and frequency is increasingly observed. In this sense, the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) initially allows detection using techniques such as advanced neural networks [29] and machine learning [30], among others [31, 32].
\nOne aspect that relates the IoT to AI and cybersecurity, are the failures at the hardware level. For example, design errors in Intel, AMD and ARM processors detected in the kernels, which were exploited by the Meltdown and Specter malware [33]. These errors allowed these malwares to access key parts of the processors by stealing security keys. [34] These failures have opened controversy, whether they were really design problems or were left on purpose for industrial or government espionage, hence policies have been implemented where countries such as the United States, China and Russia, among others, develop their own processor technology to minimize the risk of spying or hijacking in the event of a cyberattack. The implications of this type of attack show the fragility that exists in technology, where the common user has no idea what may be happening with their personal information stored on any electronic device. Seen in this way, society’s ever-increasing dependence on technology poses new challenges in terms of security, which must be carefully reviewed, since one would be at the mercy of government cybercrime without even knowing it.
\nIn the case of IoT, it is that as the collection and analysis of information from various devices increases, not only the industrial and services sector (Industry 4.0) is compromised, but the entire technological infrastructure on which society is based, increasing the security risks, where data grows at ever increasing rates exceeding the Exabyte order. Just imagine the unauthorized access by organized crime or governments to predictive systems, not only in the industrial field, but also in the military, financial, health and critical infrastructures, among others, kidnapping and/or modifying information with impunity, the damage would be practically irreparable adding to a high cost of lives.
\nThe IoT is increasingly being incorporated into the health sector from different fronts, even under other disruptive disciplines such as E-health (or e-health) composed of technologies such as: electronic medical record, E-learning, B-Learning, telehealth that includes telemedicine, Mobile-Health, among others. Also, the Wearables are found along this same line; considered as electronic devices for permanent monitoring of vital signs, detection of arrhythmias, measurement of glucose levels and biometric marker systems, among other functions. These devices are usually found in a person through accessories such as: watches, bracelets, glasses, rings, underwear and outerwear, among other elements, so in this context the IoT changes to the term Internet of Wearables Things (IoWT) [35, 36]. In the case of disease monitoring through the biosignal registry, the term Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) has been coined [37], which uses devices with RFID (Radio Frequency identification) and NFC (Near Field Communication), being useful for monitoring biosignals in clinical and epidemiology trials and research, facilitating obtaining real-time data and conducting traceability studies and identification of variables, communication between devices and patient location; this makes it easier for medical personnel to offer personalized attention and follow-up on a certain treatment.
\nIt goes without saying that spending on IoT solutions for health care will exceed one trillion dollars in the coming years, this in part because of COVID-19 and other variables such as the increase in the number of people who pass into the elderly and the increase in chronic diseases that demand special care, where technology contributes its own in this regard.
\nAll these technologies collect a large amount of medical data permanently from human activities, which as [38] points out, with the use of IoT allows access to massive data on population health and although its individual use is of enormous benefit for clinical medicine, on a large scale it represents a revolution for global health. This leads us to think about the responsibility that falls on those who have access to this information and the risk that it falls into the wrong hands. Therefore, the concern about the security of this data is justified, since its interception and manipulation imply a risk and violation of the patient’s privacy rights, added to the irreparable damage that this entails to their family and health institutions, so it requires a detailed study on these aspects, as stated [39, 40, 41, 42].
\nThe truth of all this is that the volume of data grows continuously, demanding new technologies for both storage and processing, such as data science, big data, artificial intelligence and cloud computing among others, all of them managed through communication networks. In terms of security, the institutions establish policies aimed at minimizing the risk and vulnerabilities of these systems. However, the probability of a computer attack is latent, and as has been pointed out, it can come from various sources, which are not only external but internal. For example, active or inactive dissatisfied personnel who provide information about the infrastructure of the hospital’s communication systems to third parties, bribes and corporate infiltration, among other factors, make guaranteeing the security of clinical information a real challenge not only for the personnel in charge, but for each person who works in the institution. It goes without saying that it only requires a device failure to facilitate unauthorized access to a network and, therefore, to the information that circulates through it.
\nWell managed IoT and its variants like IoWT and IoMT reduce security flaws, but they are not eliminated. Seeing this problem on a large scale, a country’s health system can be compromised, let us remember that in 2020 there were attempts to hack hospitals and research centers that were working on the vaccine and control of COVID-19. Therefore, no institution is safe from a cyberattack and even less if they have profit, political or terrorist purposes. Let us just imagine the scenario of a politician, activist or social leader, who is hacked into clinical information by intervening, deliberately and selectively altering procedures and/or medication in order to threaten his life. Although it sounds cinematic, the possibility is real, in the same way, various IoT devices can be intervened to monitor and intercept information.
\nIn reality, without going into conspiratorial arguments, there are no limits to what can be done when you have free access to sensitive information from an organization, particularly clinical data. The task of exploiting the vulnerabilities of an IoT system is not easy, but neither is it impossible, since there are various techniques, software resources and online services such as the Deep Web and Darknet that allow this task to be carried out systematically in a relatively short time. In the government field, their agencies have unlimited resources to carry out DDoS attacks, so they are more difficult to detect and track, so they are literally ghosting that move on the network, even from the deep web itself.
\nCloud computing is understood as a model of information technology service on demand, which makes available to users a vast network of servers on which various types of applications run, storage and processing of large volumes of information and internet services on demand, business solutions, among others. For this, it uses three models of Cloud services: IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service), PaaS (Platform as a Service) and SaaS (Software as a Service), where each one differs in terms of storage capacity, services and security, among others.
\nDue to its scalable characteristics of cloud computing, the management of information for the management of IoT technologies and related projects such as big data, advanced analytics and artificial intelligence, among others, is unlimited, so large and small companies hire this type of service, since they do not require their own technological infrastructure minimizing costs, just as the information is available at any time and place. As an additional fact, there are currently three major cloud computing service providers: Amazon with its Amazon Web Services solution, Microsoft with its Azure solution and Google through its Google Cloud solution.
\nAs for big data, it refers to the treatment of large amounts of data, in which storage and processing models are used by which it seeks to find repetitive patterns that allow generating knowledge. In this sense, sensitive aspects of the use of Big Data are presented in the framework of public policies, in which security, data ownership, privacy and ethical framework of use are established as the main factor. From this perspective, the immunity of cloud computing against attacks from all types of malware was affirmed a few years ago, however, this changed, demonstrating that no system is infallible and even less against DDoS. In fact, there is evidence of DDoS-type attacks and their taxonomy on cloud computing, as indicated by [43], in which they expose the types and various counter-attack measures (detection, prevention and tolerance techniques) for mitigate DDoS attacks.
\nBased on the foregoing, it is worth noting that when a cloud computing system is perpetrated, it is because the attacker has managed to gain access as administrator to one of the system nodes, so he can do whatever he pleases with the data by putting in serious trouble to its objective, in which it literally has in its hands the most important asset of an organization, which is information. These types of failures are usually attributed to human failures, either due to ignorance, negligence or complicity of the administrator or a worker.
\nThe synergy of disruptive technologies such as IoT + Big Data + Cloub computing + IA allows the creation of an unparalleled technological infrastructure for the recording, analysis, processing and storage of massive data, where the intervention of the human being will be increasingly scarce. Taking into account that, in the following years the number of IoT devices will grow exponentially, the noted synergy will be increasingly robust and autonomous with a level of security that guarantees that the information is well protected. However, it is clear that DDoS attack techniques are also evolving, giving way to what can be called intelligent distributed denial of service (IDDoS), in which advanced algorithmic techniques of artificial intelligence are integrated to attack AI-based infrastructures.
\nThis type of attack is constantly growing, employing malware that has the ability to hijack cloud computing systems. It is aimed at large corporations and cryptocurrency exchange houses, using the computational power of mobile devices as an attack center, mining it with cryptocurrencies, making the user believe that they are rewarded under the assumption that they are carrying out large transactions under the blockchain model. In this context, crypto hacking resembles a DDoS attack with the difference that it not only hijacks computers, servers and web pages, but also smart mobile devices, which by mining them with cryptocurrencies can make fraudulent transactions at the cost of the victim, winning money secretly, since it is not possible to make a traceability with respect to the transactions that have been carried out. An example of malware with these characteristics is coinhive and cryptoMiner [44], discovered in multinational companies such as Tesla and Avira.
\nOne problem that continues to grow is communication with anonymous networks and the Darknet (which involves the Deep web and the Dark web). This type of network, in principle, is intended to facilitate the access and flow of information in countries whose restriction of free expression does not allow open communication. However, this network is also used for criminal purposes which, as [45] points out, is used to commit computer crimes, share compromised files (personal, pornographic, confidential, illegal software, etc.) or for the sale of goods and services prohibited. The anonymity provided by the Darknet guarantees user navigation without any restriction compared to the conventional internet, so special browsers and protocols are required [46]. For this, it is common to use “.onion” extension that guarantees an anonymous IP to access the TOR network, or networks such as ZeroNet, FreeNet or I2P.
\nA peculiarity of the Darknet is that, although attacks are carried out from within, it shows itself to be highly flexible, dynamic and robust enough to adapt, thus minimizing collateral damage, which is a notable differential characteristic with respect to the standard Internet. Based on this fact, when the Darknet is used for the purpose of hacking with cryptocurrencies, the probability of success is high because it operates under the blockchain model and distributed ledger [47]. This type of attack is in continuous growth parallel to ransomware, due to the ease of anonymously hijacking a device connected to the internet, added to the incessant increase in legal and illegal operations using the Blockchain as a cryptocurrency monetary system. For example, due to the particular technical and technological characteristics of the Darknet, it facilitates the exchange of sensitive information [48] between organized crime and terrorist groups, making it impossible for the authorities to intercept such as laundering. of money, planning and coordination of attacks, drug trafficking, tax evasion, hit men, kidnapping, extortion, child pornography, sale of weapons, etc.
\nTherefore, the combination of the blockchain with the Deep Web creates the ideal environment for the flow of legal or illegal information, in which it literally becomes almost impossible to trace [49], considering this cyberspace as a no man’s land, where DDoS-type operations, among others, are carried out without any legal or police problem. Now, it should be noted that not only crime makes use of this type of network, but also government and military entities [50], institutions of higher education and research, among others, in which it seeks to guarantee anonymity and minimize risk of theft of critical information.
\nRansomware is a type of cyberattack that is characterized by encrypting the files stored on a computer or web page by encoding them, where the victim must pay with cryptocurrencies for their ransom, which is why it is difficult to trace their origin or destination. This type of attack is constantly evolving in the way of encrypting information, using more sophisticated and robust algorithms that seek to hide the trail of the attacker, the form of payment and attacks on systems such as the cloud. As things are going, this type of attack will be more destructive and lethal, since it is combined with DDoS to enhance its level of hijacking, where the targets have been shifting from small companies to financial systems and industry, government and military structures and Critical infrastructures, which compromise their information and the operation of all their systems, paralyzing them, with the possibility of deleting or subtracting records and modifying them according to what the attacker or his contractor wants.
\nThe ransomware only requires to hijack a few computers that are not updated in terms of security or to install itself by tricking its victims. Also, this malware (for example, Ekans) can be installed in SCADA-type systems [51] that are connected to the internet or to a local network whose security measures are deficient. What is critical about this type of attack is that it can be scalable, as long as the communication network infrastructure allows it, that is, when there is vulnerable software and hardware such as routers and other network devices. Also, other types of malware can be used to make way for ransomware, letting them carry out the tasks for which they were created and programmed, and then having the information as best suited. In this sense, the IoT with its various variants is not exempt from a ransomware-type attack, especially if the devices are being managed and/or administered by servers or mobile devices with an ephemeral degree of security.
\nThe use of ransomware for targeted attacks (individuals or companies) is a great resource for organized crime, although at present it has diversified as it is a multi-platform malware, which allows it to affect Linux, Windows and MacOS operating systems alike. For example, the Tycoon ransomware. That said, the attack can vary, encrypting personal or corporate files (web server, for example WastedLocker), locking the PC screen (lock screen), locking the hard drive and backups, blocking access to a mobile device, etc. The problem does not end here, since, at the time of the seizure of information, the attacker has unlimited access to the information, which allows the tracking of other potential victims, their computers and networks. An example that occurred in mid-2020 was through the Netwaklker malware, in which critical information was seized from the migration computer systems in the United States, which contained data from the Federal Intelligence Agency, some embassies and consulates, in which was asked for a ransom in the amount of 4 million dollars. It was not paid for it, but it exposed the vulnerabilities to which any system considered safe is found.
\nThe ransomware attack feature consists of hiding it within files, which when executed by the victim installs a Trojan in the operating system, which internally begins to make changes to some registries, such as the keyboard, disables the antivirus and any other program security, among other critical protection functions. The next step is to connect to the victim’s network that is supposed to be vulnerable and enter via remote connection from the computer’s desktop, which uses various protocols such as RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol) - Also, previously through social engineering, having guessed the password, but rather employ a brute force attack to find it. In general, there are a large number of tools to violate the system. Then, the process of encrypting files on the computer begins, including critical databases such as backups that correspond to servers -physical or in the cloud-, although more recently ransomware has been found that also encrypts data stored on network drives. Once the encryption is completed, the victim receives a message indicating immediate payment for the information seized through cryptocurrencies, otherwise it will be destroyed. Being able to decrypt ransomware is complex, especially since some of them already use symmetric encryption algorithms such as Galois/Counter (GCM) mode3 with a length of 16 bytes.
\nAlthough publications about cyberattacks using software based on artificial intelligence (AI) are scarce, it does not imply that they do not exist, since what is least wanted is publicity about it. AI can be used to find vulnerabilities in software such as hardware connected to a network, where appropriate equipment and resources are required for this purpose. For example, data can be searched on the darknet on activities related to clients or organizations that may be compromised and involve a security threat that is exploited by cybercriminals; this includes documentation and private information that has been infiltrated (personal and financial information, intellectual property, access credentials, etc.).
\nAI has already started to play a critical role when it comes to cybersecurity. Currently security companies use predictive models based on machine learning combined with neural networks and other disruptive technologies, in order to anticipate attacks on computer systems and critical infrastructures, as well as detect what is happening in a particular network. From this perspective, reverse engineering it to carry out attacks based on found vulnerabilities is viable, where robust datasets used as libraries can be used for brute force attacks. In fact, the creation of AI algorithms with programming that attacks certain systems already exists, the control of which is carried out by “intelligent” malware.
\nAlthough it is based on an assumption, with AI applied to carry out cyberattacks it compromises all the security of a system, including the lives of people and society in general. An attack of this type would be planned to be executed on several fronts, using various resources such as advanced persistent threats (APT), DDoS, ransomware and other intelligent malware, hijacking certain critical systems, temporarily disabling them or destroying them, in such a way that any functionality or functionality collapsed. Operation of these in cyberspace, in this particular case of the different governmental and industrial organizations of a nation.
\nAI can not only threaten the security of an organization but that of any country, which can be orchestrated by organized criminal groups or by groups funded by governments and militia. An example of this are APTs, which are a highly specialized type of malware that is custom designed to infect and disable systems at the software and hardware level. The objective of this type of malware is the theft, modification, destruction, espionage and sabotage of industrial and corporate information. APTs possess stealth type attack traits, combining advanced encryption techniques with close polymorphic algorithms with AI. [52] points out that APTs can persist inside a computer system for a long time without being detected, taking advantage of the vulnerabilities of the infrastructure or the architecture of the communication protocols in the packaging of data in a network.
\nBased on the above, an APT is a cyber weapon designed for specific attacks on targets, particularly critical infrastructure. From this perspective, the IoT is no exception to an attack of this type, since communication between devices can be intercepted and disabled or modified. This is because APTs can leak through software or hardware that is not properly protected and from there scale the systems, so blocking or hijacking using a DDoS-type attack is feasible.
\nAPTs are exclusive, so they are not abundant on the internet, this is because their managers are not just any organized criminal group, but governments, rival corporations and large criminal syndicates that have unlimited financial, technical and technological resources, which allows them undertake this type of development and carry out targeted cyberattacks. Under this model [53] point out that a variant of the APT called S-APT is used, whose action is focused on creating attack vectors based on disinformation strategies within the framework of the military.
\nThe IoT within the framework of industry 4.0 increasingly incorporates AI in its developments, where connectivity to the internet and mobile devices is constantly increasing. Under this scenario, the introduction of an APT or malware similar to these technologies taking advantage of their vulnerabilities is feasible, either when they are already on the market or from their own manufacture, as demonstrated by [54]. Consequently, countless plausible scenarios are opening up to carry out cyberattacks, to and from drones, autonomous vehicles, advanced robots (military, industrial, leisure, etc.), smart electrical grids, even the IoT infrastructure that a smart city has. Consequently, the concern arises of programming errors in AI-based systems, which are exploited and taken advantage of to violate other systems, as demonstrated by the DeepXplore intelligent system [55].
\nIn the IoT industry, the term Edge Computing has recently been coined, which is the next step in Cloud Computing technology, in which all the information from intelligent IoT devices connected to a network is collected, to be stored and processed in large database repositories arranged for this purpose. The implications of this new proposal are broad and complex, because the data collected from sensors and various devices, combined with advanced AI algorithms, make inferences that lead to decision-making both human and automated devices. The density of data and its variety under this scheme will increase exponentially for the next few years, exceeding zettabytes (1021 bytes), so technologies such as 5G, next-generation communication networks including the quantum internet, will accelerate and optimizing information traffic without saturating networks by reducing latency, incorporating other tools such as Edge/Fog Computing. It is worth mentioning that these technologies are characterized by the fact that the data is managed in the form of a chain of blocks or blockchain to guarantee a high level of security, which may possibly be migrated to specific applications such as the health field, minimizing the risk of compromising clinical information from the patients.
\nIn the case of edge computing, it does not work alone apart from IoT, but is linked to other technologies such as Mobile Cloud Computing [56] and Collaborative Mobile Edge Computing [57], an example in this regard, are the Google Cloud IoT technologies, which are active in today’s market. As they are considered as emerging technologies, the level of security is still in question, so the risk of compromising sensitive information of users and services through a crypto-hacking attack is high. Let us remember that the security infrastructure in the cloud is high, but not that of the IoT, added to the bad practices that inevitably lead to unauthorized access to a network.
\nNormally, unnecessary or insecure network services are activated, being exposed to attacks where unauthorized control of any service can be assumed, violating the confidentiality, integrity, authentication or availability of the information. Along the same lines, there are often interfaces that are managed by proprietary or third-party devices, such as mobile applications, data repositories in the cloud, the corporate website itself and the backend APIs. These flaws lead to vulnerabilities such as weak encryption (or lack thereof) on the data circulating on the network, as well as the absence of input/output filters.
\nOther common failures found in IoT devices are: failure to update firmware or manage related processes such as encrypting in transit and validating updates without appropriate mechanisms for doing so; use of insecure or outdated software components and libraries; inappropriate use of personal information stored on a device whose degree of security is questionable, in addition to the absence of a formal permission or informed consent; absence of data encryption and access control.
\nThere are variants of the IoT, such as the industrial and services field, known as the Internet of Robotized Things (IoRT), which is gaining strength due to the continuous industrialization that demands the attention of robots, particularly in industrialized countries. There is also the Internet of Things on the Battlefield (IoTotBF) [58]; which combines various advanced communication network technologies (including quantum ones) with massively interconnected systems, thus taking warfare to a new level of technicality. In this context, the technicality of the military is increasing and AI together with robotics are frequently used in the development of new intelligent weapons, of which there is no guarantee that something can go wrong in the field of cybersecurity. Viewed in this way as [59], oversight at the cybersecurity level by human operators is going to be increasingly difficult, if not impossible. This opens a strong discussion about the role of the human being in military operations, since the responsibility of decision-making is transferred to a machine about destroying a target in which it implies the death of innocents.
\nFrom the above, a number of questions are presented related to how to minimize the risk of a cyber-attack on a military infrastructure with technologies such as IoTotBF or similar, by foreign militias, terrorist groups, organized crime or by advanced automatic systems based on AI. We must not forget that the militias of various nations of the world are constantly developing new robotic and cybernetic technologies, aimed at improving their attack and defense systems while minimizing the number of casualties.
\nThe IoT presents great benefits for society, as well as great challenges in terms of security, due to its integration with various standard and advanced communication technologies, which manage multiple devices in the home, industry, health and transportation, among others. This trend must be taken into consideration not only by manufacturers and governments, but by society itself, since the risk of information collection by third parties is high and the uncertainty of its handling remains between said. In fact, the tradeoffs of transparency in the management of information by governments and large corporations are critical, and this problem will be further accentuated with the advent of next generation technologies.
\nAs for cyberattacks such as DDoS combined with other techniques mentioned throughout the chapter, the spectrum of damage to private and public computer networks is broadened, including devices connected to it such as the IoT, mobile devices and other emerging technologies. In this sense, the authorities and governments in general must take the potential cyberattacks that can be carried out on critical infrastructures such as health very seriously, since not only information is compromised, but people’s lives are compromised. For example, zero-day or volume-based DDoS attacks, which are difficult to avoid due to the speed with which they run. In fact, it only takes one flaw for a botnet to saturate its target’s network and fully control it. Along the same lines, there are other types of more sophisticated, highly destructive and selective attacks that take control of a system, such as protocol attacks, in this case TCP directed at networks that communicate with servers, firewalls (physical and logical), gateways and load balancers, where damage to an infrastructure can be severe.
\nTo recap, although the attacks mentioned in this document are attributed to organized groups, a person with minimal knowledge could put an institution, industry and even a nation in serious trouble, since some of the information to create malware does not It is only found on the Darknet, but on the conventional internet, where with a minimal payment you can find programs to create ransomware and other types of computer viruses. Likewise, you can hire the service of any type of malware, the packages are sold on the dark web for reasonable prices, even malware kits. Most of the public is unaware of this type of thing and in this way is exposed to their personal or corporate information being stolen by cybercriminals.
\nBased on what is stated in this document, it is evident that special attention must be paid to privacy, ethical, bioethical and legal aspects, security and rights, among other elements that threaten human dignity. Under this fact, there is a constant concern about the unauthorized access and manipulation of personal and massive data concentrated in technologies such as big data, IoT, cloud computing, among others, which contain sensitive information at a clinical, ethnic, sociocultural, economic, financial and industrial, etc., which require a thorough examination from the bioethical and biopolitical point of view that guarantee respect for the protection of information. At this point, a number of elements arise to evaluate, because not only is reference being made to the seizure of information and sale of it to third parties, but also to irreparable damage to the individual in terms of inequity or damage generated by the interference to the private life of the victim or victims.
\nUnder the exposed characteristics of a cyberattack, the violation in terms of property, rights, use, exploitation, maintenance and licenses for the administration of massive data, means little or nothing for the attackers, but if a great legal, ethical weight, bioethics and security for the organization and/or personnel in charge of managing and administering this data. From this point of view, there are gray areas regarding the formulation of public policies that guarantee an adequate safeguard on the property of the data, protection and prohibition of use for other purposes, so it is expected that in the coming years letters will be taken on this matter will require the collaboration of various groups of experts and disciplines that seek to minimize risks, both in the handling of massive data, and in cyberattacks by various means.
\nSociety is increasingly dependent on technology, examples of which are: the internet, mobile technology, artificial intelligence, big data, cloud computing and blockchain among others, which facilitate the management and administration of massive information. In the case of the IoT, it has been becoming widespread in various environments such as health, industrial, transport and services, among others, progressively incorporating the aforementioned technologies. In this sense, there is growing concern about the fragility of this technology, which proves to be notoriously vulnerable to cyberattacks. The reason for this is the continuous proliferation of IoT devices that do not meet the minimum-security standards; thus, they expose an individual and society in general to being spied on and possibly attacked. Added to this panorama are the vulnerabilities inherent to communication architectures, which have yet to be resolved, and the lack of management and administration of devices by the personnel in charge, which increase the risk of unauthorized access to an information system. What is critical about this matter is that the health sector has been incorporating the IoT into its services and although it takes their security very seriously, the spectrum of vulnerabilities to which this technology is subjected is alarming.
\nThe IoT is expanding its range of action by integrating with 5G communication networks, and the hospital environment is no stranger to this. With this in mind, the diversification of services and connectivity will be reflected in Smart City, Green Systems and Transport Systems, which will facilitate the analysis and visualization of large volumes of data that the IoT generates permanently. This implies that secure communication architectures are required, capable of withstanding attacks of various kinds, particularly those of the DDoS type that have been expanding their modalities by integrating other advanced malware technologies. Consequently, the development of networks of sensors, actuators and remote diagnostic systems will require a unification of standards and protocols that guarantee that the IoT devices that are or are released on the market present a minimum risk that compromises critical or sensitive information, well of a person, institution, industry or government.
\nBased on the current global instability attributed to social, political, economic, health and environmental factors, cyberattacks have not diminished. In fact, with the problem of the COVID-19 pandemic, remote work skyrocketed and with it the objectives of cybercriminals were diversified, where resources such as corporate VPN gateways and non-public web resources such as emails have been compromised by the high risk of being hijacked by malware, such as APTs, ransomware and botnet, to name a few, giving way to the growth of the DDoS market.
\nFinally, in the coming years an increase in IoT devices is predicted in large cities in their critical infrastructures, expanding their services and promoting permanent monitoring in search of anomalies of various types: climate, environmental pollution, security (citizen, computing, biosafety, etc.), mobility and health, among others, which is why the use of other technologies for the analysis and treatment of massive data is expected to explode, and with it the risk and vulnerabilities that need to be addressed from now on. The task in this sense is not easy but it is not impossible either, technologies such as quantum encryption, quantum internet and AI processors that reduce the risk of attacks on hardware such as system software, are some advances that promise to reduce the gap to information security. However, there is a problem regarding the role that governments play under what is stated in this document, since in the end their transparency in the handling of information is debatable, especially when it has an incalculable value.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
",metaTitle:"Access policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All IntechOpen published chapters are available OPEN ACCESS can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\\n\\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\\n\\nThe full content of chapters can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\\n\\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\\n\\nIntechOpen chapters are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\\n\\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\\n\\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\\n\\nAll IntechOpen books are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2021-02-26
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"All IntechOpen published chapters are available OPEN ACCESS can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\n\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\n\nThe full content of chapters can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\n\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\n\nIntechOpen chapters are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\n\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\n\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\n\nAll IntechOpen books are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2021-02-26
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10684",title:"Biorefineries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"23962c6b77348bcbf247c673d34562f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10684.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:187},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"69",title:"Globalization",slug:"globalization",parent:{title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"},numberOfBooks:6,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:133,numberOfWosCitations:66,numberOfCrossrefCitations:47,numberOfDimensionsCitations:83,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"globalization",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6605",title:"Globalization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"668508e80e1d73c5292bc19eeeb12c0b",slug:"globalization",bookSignature:"George Yungchih Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6605.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202778",title:"Prof.",name:"George Yungchih",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"george-yungchih-wang",fullName:"George Yungchih Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3009",title:"Globalization",subtitle:"Approaches to Diversity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3a0b441ba233f7f6e07afb92c30833d6",slug:"globalization-approaches-to-diversity",bookSignature:"Hector Cuadra-Montiel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3009.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31673",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadra-Montiel",slug:"hector-cuadra-montiel",fullName:"Hector Cuadra-Montiel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2922",title:"Globalization",subtitle:"Education and Management Agendas",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"68cb740dac25a7b8096685d2aa71943d",slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",bookSignature:"Hector Cuadra-Montiel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2922.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31673",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadra-Montiel",slug:"hector-cuadra-montiel",fullName:"Hector Cuadra-Montiel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"470",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08e011d059a55b7a904787039b394b29",slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",bookSignature:"Piotr Pachura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/470.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33832",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Pachura",slug:"piotr-pachura",fullName:"Piotr Pachura"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"207",title:"The Systemic Dimension of Globalization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"66505d156fe5c137eb7aba3c41c3f71a",slug:"the-systemic-dimension-of-globalization",bookSignature:"Piotr Pachura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33832",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Pachura",slug:"piotr-pachura",fullName:"Piotr Pachura"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3590",title:"Globalization",subtitle:"Today, Tomorrow",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63d2eefe753f6b341adc052fbca3d766",slug:"globalization--today--tomorrow",bookSignature:"Kent G. Deng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3590.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"125761",title:"Dr.",name:"Kent",middleName:null,surname:"Deng",slug:"kent-deng",fullName:"Kent Deng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"38348",doi:"10.5772/45655",title:"Globalization and Culture: The Three H Scenarios",slug:"globalization-and-culture-the-three-h-scenarios",totalDownloads:15006,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"globalization-approaches-to-diversity",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Approaches to Diversity"},signatures:"Abderrahman Hassi and Giovanna Storti",authors:[{id:"148330",title:"Dr.",name:"Abderrahman",middleName:null,surname:"Hassi",slug:"abderrahman-hassi",fullName:"Abderrahman Hassi"},{id:"152537",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Storti",slug:"giovanna-storti",fullName:"Giovanna Storti"}]},{id:"38271",doi:"10.5772/47800",title:"Human Resource Management and Performance: From Practices Towards Sustainable Competitive Advantage",slug:"human-resource-management-and-performance-from-practices-towards-sustainable-competitive-advantage",totalDownloads:19305,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Education and Management Agendas"},signatures:"Asta Savaneviciene and Zivile Stankeviciute",authors:[{id:"146659",title:"Prof.",name:"Asta",middleName:null,surname:"Savaneviciene",slug:"asta-savaneviciene",fullName:"Asta Savaneviciene"},{id:"148268",title:"MSc.",name:"Zivile",middleName:null,surname:"Stankeviciute",slug:"zivile-stankeviciute",fullName:"Zivile Stankeviciute"}]},{id:"17529",doi:"10.5772/21231",title:"Sport in Asia: Globalization, Glocalization, Asianization",slug:"sport-in-asia-globalization-glocalization-asianization",totalDownloads:5297,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Peter Horton",authors:[{id:"42366",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Horton",slug:"peter-horton",fullName:"Peter Horton"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"38348",title:"Globalization and Culture: The Three H Scenarios",slug:"globalization-and-culture-the-three-h-scenarios",totalDownloads:14995,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"globalization-approaches-to-diversity",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Approaches to Diversity"},signatures:"Abderrahman Hassi and Giovanna Storti",authors:[{id:"148330",title:"Dr.",name:"Abderrahman",middleName:null,surname:"Hassi",slug:"abderrahman-hassi",fullName:"Abderrahman Hassi"},{id:"152537",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Storti",slug:"giovanna-storti",fullName:"Giovanna Storti"}]},{id:"38371",title:"The Role of the International Organisms in the Globalization Process",slug:"the-role-of-the-international-organisms-in-the-globalization-process",totalDownloads:3481,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"globalization-approaches-to-diversity",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Approaches to Diversity"},signatures:"Dorina Tănăsescu, Felicia Dumitru and Georgiana Dincă",authors:[{id:"146791",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgiana",middleName:null,surname:"Dinca",slug:"georgiana-dinca",fullName:"Georgiana Dinca"},{id:"148338",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorina",middleName:null,surname:"Tănăsecu",slug:"dorina-tanasecu",fullName:"Dorina Tănăsecu"},{id:"148340",title:"Dr.",name:"Felicia",middleName:null,surname:"Dumitru",slug:"felicia-dumitru",fullName:"Felicia Dumitru"}]},{id:"17523",title:"The Importance of Globalization in Higher Education",slug:"the-importance-of-globalization-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:9037,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Patricia Fox and Stephen Hundley",authors:[{id:"29989",title:"Prof.",name:"Patricia",middleName:"Lynn",surname:"Fox",slug:"patricia-fox",fullName:"Patricia Fox"},{id:"45640",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Hundley",slug:"stephen-hundley",fullName:"Stephen Hundley"}]},{id:"60620",title:"The Moral Dilemmas of Global Business",slug:"the-moral-dilemmas-of-global-business",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"globalization",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization"},signatures:"Federico Ast",authors:[{id:"230355",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Ast",slug:"federico-ast",fullName:"Federico Ast"}]},{id:"17421",title:"Cultural Globalization and Transnational Flows of Things American",slug:"cultural-globalization-and-transnational-flows-of-things-american",totalDownloads:4822,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"the-systemic-dimension-of-globalization",title:"The Systemic Dimension of Globalization",fullTitle:"The Systemic Dimension of Globalization"},signatures:"Mel van Elteren",authors:[{id:"31042",title:"Prof.",name:"Mel",middleName:null,surname:"Van Elteren",slug:"mel-van-elteren",fullName:"Mel Van Elteren"}]},{id:"17417",title:"Globalization and Global Innovations",slug:"globalization-and-global-innovations",totalDownloads:6229,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"the-systemic-dimension-of-globalization",title:"The Systemic Dimension of Globalization",fullTitle:"The Systemic Dimension of Globalization"},signatures:"Hassan Danaeefard and Tayebeh Abbasi",authors:[{id:"27849",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Danaeefard",slug:"hassan-danaeefard",fullName:"Hassan Danaeefard"},{id:"110750",title:"Dr.",name:"Tayebeh",middleName:null,surname:"Abbasi",slug:"tayebeh-abbasi",fullName:"Tayebeh Abbasi"}]},{id:"17540",title:"The Impact of Globalization Determinants and the Health of the World’s Population",slug:"the-impact-of-globalization-determinants-and-the-health-of-the-world-s-population",totalDownloads:12008,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Mario J. Azevedo and Barbara H. Johnson",authors:[{id:"31127",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Azevedo",slug:"mario-azevedo",fullName:"Mario Azevedo"},{id:"45668",title:"Dr",name:"Barbara",middleName:"H.",surname:"Johnson",slug:"barbara-johnson",fullName:"Barbara Johnson"}]},{id:"17418",title:"Demistifying Globalization and the State: Preliminary Comments on Re-Commodification, Institutions and Innovation",slug:"demistifying-globalization-and-the-state-preliminary-comments-on-re-commodification-institutions-and",totalDownloads:1441,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"the-systemic-dimension-of-globalization",title:"The Systemic Dimension of Globalization",fullTitle:"The Systemic Dimension of Globalization"},signatures:"Hector Cuadra-Montiel",authors:[{id:"31673",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadra-Montiel",slug:"hector-cuadra-montiel",fullName:"Hector Cuadra-Montiel"}]},{id:"38267",title:"The Impact of Globalization on Cross-Cultural Communication",slug:"the-impact-of-globalization-on-cross-cultural-communication",totalDownloads:24546,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Education and Management Agendas"},signatures:"Lowell C. Matthews and Bharat Thakkar",authors:[{id:"148763",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat",middleName:"S.",surname:"Thakkar",slug:"bharat-thakkar",fullName:"Bharat Thakkar"},{id:"149061",title:"Dr.",name:"Lowell",middleName:"Christopher",surname:"Matthews",slug:"lowell-matthews",fullName:"Lowell Matthews"}]},{id:"38368",title:"Globalization, Olympism, Sport and Multiculturality - Reality or Necessity",slug:"globalization-olympism-sport-and-multiculturality-reality-or-necessity",totalDownloads:1974,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"globalization-approaches-to-diversity",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Approaches to Diversity"},signatures:"Constantin Pehoiu and Gica Pehoiu",authors:[{id:"146024",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Pehoiu",slug:"constantin-pehoiu",fullName:"Constantin Pehoiu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"globalization",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/343421/bercem-yeman-kiyak",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"343421",slug:"bercem-yeman-kiyak"},fullPath:"/profiles/343421/bercem-yeman-kiyak",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()