Chemical composition of the Mg anode.
\r\n\tThis book objective is to explore more about; what are exosomes? What are their functions? How can they be isolated characterized and analyzed? Also to discuss their role and applications as therapeutic tool versus cell therapy or diagnostic markers for diseases and finally as a drug delivery system, all owing to their nano-size and involvement in intercellular communication and cell signaling.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d89fe207045e55dedfe62f44e174cd9f",bookSignature:"Dr. Radwa Ali Mehanna",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7948.jpg",keywords:"Cell secretome, Microvesicles versus exosomes, Ultracentrifugation, Sorting, CD Markers, Zeta sizing, heat shock proteins , intercellular communicators, Applications of Exosomes",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 9th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 31st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 19th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 18th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"182118",title:"Dr.",name:"Radwa Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Mehanna",slug:"radwa-ali-mehanna",fullName:"Radwa Ali Mehanna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182118/images/system/182118.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Radwa Mehanna PhD, Assistant Professor of Medical Physiology, Stem cells and Cell culture laboratories coordinator in the Center of Excellence for Research in Regenerative Medicine and its Applications (CERRMA), Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University. \nDr. Radwa had a postdoctoral research visits in McGill university, Canada and the European Collection of Cell Culture (ECACC), UK. She is a member in the Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine International Society (TERMIS), Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Egyptian Society and Egyptian Association of Advancement of Medical Basic Sciences (EAMBS). Dr. Radwa has a number of publications in international peer-reviewed journals in the fields of stem cells and cell culture and is a reviewer in many international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:"Alexandria University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6964",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"045f3a964a9628162956abc06ef5777d",slug:"cell-culture",bookSignature:"Radwa Ali Mehanna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6964.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182118",title:"Dr.",name:"Radwa Ali",surname:"Mehanna",slug:"radwa-ali-mehanna",fullName:"Radwa Ali Mehanna"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55551",title:"Biosynthesis and Biomimetic Synthesis of Flavonoid Diels-Alder Natural Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68781",slug:"biosynthesis-and-biomimetic-synthesis-of-flavonoid-diels-alder-natural-products",body:'The flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products are mainly found from the families of Moraceae and Zingiberaceae. Since the majority of these compounds are discovered from the Moraceae, they are often referred as mulberry Diels‐Alder flavonoids or mulberry Diels‐Alder type adducts. These secondary metabolites exhibit promising biological activities against hypertension, HIV, tuberculosis, anti‐inflammation and cancers [1–7]. Thus far, more than 140 of these Diels‐Alder type flavonoids have been discovered from nature (Figure 1). The structural complexity and promising bioactivities of these flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products have stimulated research interest into their biosynthesis and chemical synthesis.
Examples of flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products.
The Diels‐Alder type flavonoids are considered to be formed through an enzymatic Diels‐Alder reaction between a dehydroprenyl diene and a chalcone dienophile (Scheme 1) [8]. The diene is usually derived from a flavonoid, such as flavone, flavanone, flavonol, flavanonol, or from a monoterpene, such as myrcene and β‐trans‐ocimene. The dienophile of this class of Diels‐Alder compounds is exclusively derived from a chalcone derivative. Subsequent oxidation and cyclization steps of these flavonoid Diels‐Alder adducts can result in more complex structures. The Diels‐Alder adducts bearing the cis‐trans stereochemistry on the cyclohexenyl ring would be derived through an endo transition state (12), whereas the trans‐trans stereochemistry arises from the exo transition state (13) (Scheme 1) [8]. The stereochemistry of these adducts, including the absolute configuration on the cyclohexene ring, has been explicitly confirmed by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopic evidence [9] and X‐ray crystallographic analysis [10, 11]. The unique structural features and diverse activities of these adducts have recently aroused much interest of synthetic and medicinal chemistry. The main topics addressed in this chapter are biosynthesis and biomimetic synthesis of flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products and about 40 references are cited. As the flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products are composed of a diverse family of secondary metabolites, other subclasses where the dienophile is not a chalcone (e.g. mongolicin B, ‐E, sanggenon B, ‐R, ‐S, dimoracin, mulberrofuran H, meroterpene, pauferrol A derivatives, etc) are not covered in this chapter.
Stereochemistry on the cyclohexene ring of flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products.
Although the biosynthesis of the flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products that derived from a monoterpene is not well‐studied [12, 35], it is hypothesized that a Diels‐Alder reaction between a chalcone dienophile and a monoterpene (β‐trans‐ocimene or myrcene) would lead to the direct formation of these adducts (Figure 2).
Plausible biosynthesis of flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products that derived from a monoterpene.
The biosynthesis of the mulberry Diels‐Alder flavonoids has been intensively studied by Professors Taro Nomura and Shinichi Ueda. The biosynthetic studies of these adducts were carried out in the callus tissues of Morus alba L [13]. In their pioneering studies, the callus tissues induced from the leaves or seedlings were cultivated and subjected to selection over a period of 9 years for cell strains with high‐pigment productivity [14]. Extraction of these high pigmented cell cultures resulted in isolation of six Diels‐Alder adducts, kuwanons J (1), Q (23), R (24), V (25), mulberrofuran E (26), and chalcomoracin (27) along with morachalcone A (28), isobavachalcone (29), and moracin C (30) (Figure 3) [15–18].
Metabolites isolated from the Morus alba cell cultures [15–18].
The structures of metabolites 1, 23−27 suggested that they are either the Diels‐Alder adducts from a prenylchalcone and a dehydroprenylchalcone or the Diels‐Alder adducts from a prenylchalcone and a dehydroprenyl‐2‐arylbenzofuran. Nomura and co‐workers hypothesized that kuwanon J (1) was an adduct of morachalcone A (28) and dehydroprenylmorachalcone A. Kuwanon Q (23) was an adduct of isobavachalcone (29) and dehydroprenylmorachalcone A. Kuwanon R (24) was an adduct of morachalcone A (28) and dehydroprenylisobavachalcone. Kuwanon V (25) was an adduct of isobavachalcone (29) and dehydroprenylisobavachalcone. Chalcomoracin (27) was an adduct of morachalcone A (28) and dehydroprenylmoracin C. Mulberrofuran E (26) was an adduct of isobavachalcone (29) and dehydroprenylmoracin C. It is interesting that these Diels‐Alder metabolites and their monomeric precursors (morachalcone A, isobavachalcone and moracin C) were isolated from M. alba cell cultures. In addition, the callus tissue can produce 100 times more mulberrofuran E and chalcomoracin than the intact plant [15–17]. The biosynthetic studies of these Diels‐Alder adducts were further examined through feeding experiments of various exogenous substrates and putative precursors to the M. alba cell cultures.
Acetate is an important carbon source for biosynthesis studies in M.alba cell cultures. Feeding experiments of [1–13C]‐, [2–13C]‐, or [1, 2–13C2]‐acetates to the M.alba cell cultures resulted in the highly 13C‐enriched aromatic carbons of chalcomoracin (27) and kuwanon J (1), indicating that both 27 and 1 are derived from two molecules of cinnamoylpolyketide precursors (Figure 4) [19]. From the labeling patterns, the chalcone moiety (34) of both chalcomoracin (27) and kuwanon J (1) is hypothesized to be derived via deoxygenation at C‐5 of the cinnamoylpolyketide precursor 31, followed by Claisen condensation and aromatization (Figure 5) [20]. The 2‐arylbenzofuran moiety (36) of 27 and 1 is hypothesized to be derived by the Aldol condensation at C‐3 and C‐8 of the cinnamoylpolyketide precursor 32, followed by decarboxylation and aromatization (Figure 5) [19].
13C‐labeling patterns of Kuwanon J and chalcomoracin from [1‐13C]‐, [2‐13C]‐, or [1, 2‐13C2]acetate [19].
Hypothesized conversion of the chalcone and 2‐arylbenzofuran moieties from cinnamoylpolyketide precursor [19].
However, unlike the aromatic carbons, the isoprene units of chalcomoracin were marginally labeled (∼0.4% enrichment) [19]. On the basis of 13C–13C spin coupling in the 13C‐NMR spectrum, the labeling of [2–13C] acetate was incorporated into the starter acetate carbons in the biosynthesis of the isoprene unit of chalcomoracin (27). On the contrary, the [1–13C] acetate was not incorporated in the isoprene unit of chalcomoracin (27) [19]. These findings suggested that a tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle was involved in the biosynthesis of the isoprenyl unit of chalcomoracin [8]. The rational of this hypothesis was derived from the 13C‐labeling experiments. In the experiment with [2–13C] acetate, the contiguous 13C labels can be derived from the methyl groups of the intact acetate administered by way of at least two passages through the TCA cycle [19]. In the experiment with [1–13C] acetate, the 13C label was not found in the isoprenyl unit, presumably due to the removal of carbon dioxide during passage through the TCA cycle (Figure 6).
Formation of reorganized [1, 2‐13C2]acetate through the TCA cycle [19].
This hypothesis was reinforced by the feeding experiment with [2–13C] acetate in a pulsed manner (three times, every 12 h) to the M. alba cell cultures [21]. The result from this experiment enabled the identification of the satellite peaks based on the 13C–13C spin coupling between carbons at C‐25’’ and C23’’, C‐7’’ and C‐1’’, C‐23’’ and C‐24’’ as well as C‐6’’ and C‐1’’ of chalcomoracin. The 13C‐enrichment at C‐7’’ and C‐25’’ occurred after the first and third [2–13C] acetate administrations but not at the second administration suggested the isomerization between the 3,3‐dimethylallyl and 3‐methylbutadienyl groups (Figure 7) [8]. The coupling patterns of the central carbons (C‐1’’ and C‐23’’) appeared as doublet signal instead of the doublet of doublet signal indicated that these central carbons are independently coupled with the adjacent methyl carbons. Nomura et al. hypothesized that the independent 13C‐labeling pattern at the isoprenyl unit might due to the transfer of 13C‐labeling from cis‐methyl to trans‐methyl through the diene formation (Figure 7) [8, 21]. Taken together, these findings gave conclusive evidence on the diene formation from the isoprenyl moiety for the Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction. Thus, the feeding experiment with 13C‐labeled acetate revealed that the Diels‐Alder adducts chalcomoracin and kuwanon J are biosynthesized through the [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction between two cinnamoylpolyketide‐derived molecules [8].
Two independent 13C‐labeling patterns at the isoprenyl units of chalcomoracin and the transfer of the 13C‐labeling from cis‐methyl carbon to trans‐methyl carbon through the diene formation [8, 19].
Based on the fact that methoxychalcone or methoxy‐substituted Diels‐Alder adducts have not been found in the M. alba cell cultures, therefore involvement of these precursors in the construction of the Diels‐Alder adducts would be an important evidence for the enzymatic intermolecular Diels‐Alder reaction in M. alba cell cultures.
Indeed, feeding methoxychalcone 37 to the cell cultures yielded prenylchalcone 38 and Diels‐Alder adducts 40−43 (Figure 8) [22]. The formation of the prenylchalcone 38 from methoxychalcone 37 in the cell cultures indicated that isoprenylation occurs after the formation of chalcone skeleton from cinnamoylpolyketide precursor.
Feeding experiments of methoxychalcone derivatives to the M. alba cell cultures [22].
The metabolites 40−43 revealed that the methoxychalcone 37 was incorporated into the Diels‐Alder adducts. Interestingly, when the synthetic prenylchalcone 38 was fed to the cell cultures, the same Diels‐Alder metabolites 40−43 were isolated. Similarly, the feeding experiment of trimethoxychalcone 39 afforded the Diels‐Alder metabolite 44 [22]. Taken together, these results suggested that both the requisite diene and dienophile can be derived from the same chalcone precursor. For example, dehydrogenation of the prenyl unit of chalcone 38, followed by intermolecular [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction with the α, β‐double bond of another chalcone 38 leads to the formation of the Diels‐Alder adduct 42 (Figure 8).
In addition, all these Diels‐Alder metabolites derived from the methoxychalcone precursors were optically active and have the same stereochemistry as that of chalcomoracin (27) and kuwanon J (1). The results based on the feeding experiments of methoxychalcone derivatives revealed that the [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction in the M. alba cell cultures is an enzymatic process.
Nomura et al. further attempted the synthesis of Diels‐Alder natural product, artonin I (46) by using M. alba cell cultures (Figure 9) [23]. Although it is theoretically possible that artonin I could be derived from a chalcone dienophile (morachalcone A 28) and a prenylflavone diene (45), but precursor of 45 (artocarpesin 47) has not been found in M. alba cell cultures. Indeed, feeding 47 to the M. alba cell cultures resulted in the isolation of artonin I (46) through dehydrogenation of the prenyl group of 47 followed by the enzymatic [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction with an endogenously generated morachalcone A 28. This is the first example of a natural product’s structure elucidation through enzymatic synthesis by using M. alba cell cultures [8].
Biosynthesis of artonin I by administration of artocarpesin to the M. alba cell cultures [23].
The Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction which named after Otto Paul Hermann (1876–1954) and Kurt Alder (1902–1958) was discovered during their studies on the reaction of benzoquinone and cyclopentadiene in 1928. Today, this cycloaddition reaction is a well‐known method that is widely used to synthesize a six‐membered cyclic compound in a regio‐ and stereocontrolled way. The following section discusses the use of this powerful synthetic methodology to prepare flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products based on the biosynthesis models.
During the early studies of the Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction, the reaction was essentially carried out under thermal conditions owing to the simplicity of the experimental setup and the efficiency of the thermal process. Today, thermal promoted Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction remains the first line approach for the construction of a six‐membered cyclic compound, including that of flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products [24–30].
In 2010, Rizzacasa and co‐workers reported the synthesis of racemic methyl ether derivatives of chalcomoracin, mongolicin F, mulberrofurans C and J via thermal Diels‐Alder reaction (180°C in toluene) between chalcone dienophiles (39 and 49) and a dehydroprenyl‐2‐arylbenzofuran diene (48) (Scheme 2). The thermal Diels‐Alder reaction resulted in a mixture of endo‐ and exo‐diastereomers in almost equal quantity [24].
Synthesis of (±)‐mulberrofuran J (50), (±)‐mulberrofuran C (51), (±)‐mongolicin F (52), and (±)‐chalcomoracin (53) hexamethyl ethers by thermal Diels‐Alder reaction [24].
Rizzacasa and co‐workers also reported a similar strategy for the synthesis of (±)‐kuwanon I and J hexamethyl ethers. They hypothesized that the presence of an ortho‐phenol group in the chalcone dienophile was essential for the Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction. However, attempts to deprotect the methyl ethers of these Diels‐Alder adducts using various demethylating agents were unsuccessful [25].
Rahman and co‐workers utilized the thermal‐promoted Diels‐Alder reaction to synthesize (±)‐dorsterone, (±)‐kuwanon V and (±)‐morusalbanol A pentamethyl ethers based on the biosynthesis models [27, 29, 30].
Although the thermal‐promoted Diels‐Alder reaction provides a rapid entry to flavonoid Diels‐Alder adducts, this method may not be successful due to the instability of the diene or dienophile under a high‐temperature condition. This limitation can be overcame using a high‐pressure system for the Diels‐Alder reaction.
In 2013, Mcleod and co‐workers utilized this strategy to synthesize (±)‐panduratin A (4) and (±)‐4‐hydroxypanduratin A (58) [31]. Instead of late‐stage Diels‐Alder cycloaddition to synthesize the cyclohexenyl core of 4 and 58, they initiated the biomimetic Diels‐Alder reaction in an early stage by using methyl cinnamate (54) and β‐trans‐ocimene (20) (Scheme 3). High‐pressure Diels‐Alder reaction between 54 and 20 in dichloromethane at 19 kbar at room temperature gave a mixture of (±)‐panduratin I (56) and (±)‐panduratin H (57) in 1:2.9 ratio in 93% yield after 3 days. Subsequent transformations of panduratin H 57 afforded the natural products (±)‐panduratin A and (±)‐4‐hydroxypanduratin A in three more further steps.
Biomimetic synthesis of (±)‐panduratin A and (±)‐4‐hydroxypanduratin A by using high pressure conditions [31].
In 1960 when Yates and Eaton first reported the acceleration of the Diels‐Alder reaction by Lewis acid catalysts, a variety of Lewis acid catalysts have been developed to accelerate the reaction [32].
Porco and co‐workers developed a Lewis acid catalyst system that composed of multiple components (CoI2/o‐phenanthroline/ZnI2/Bu4NBH4) for the [4 + 2]‐cycloaddition reaction between 2′‐hydroxychalcone dienophiles and various simple dienes [33]. They hypothesized that the mechanism of this catalytic system was a single electron transfer initiated process (Scheme 4).
Proposed mechanism for an electron transfer‐initiated Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction [33].
According to their report, the role of CoI2and Bu4NBH4was hypothesized to be an electron donor [33]. As outlined in Scheme 4, coordination of ZnI2 activated the carbonyl of 2′‐hydroxychalcone 59 to form complex 62. In the presence of electron donors, complex 62 may undergo metal‐ion‐promoted single electron transfer to generate a chalcone radical anion 63. The regioselective addition of 63 to the diene should generate a stabilized, allylic radical 64 which may undergo ring‐closing cyclization to produce ketyl intermediate 65. Loss of ZnI2 from 65 and subsequent single electron transfer to another complex 62 may afford cycloadduct 61, thereby restarting the catalytic cycle [33]. Following this mechanistic studies, Porco et al. further established the total synthesis of (±)‐nicolaioidesin C (9) by using myrcene as a diene (Scheme 5) [33].
Biomimetic synthesis of (±)‐nicolaioidesin C (9) [33].
Rahman and co‐workers used the thermal‐promoted as well as single‐electron‐transfer‐initiated Diels‐Alder reaction to compare the efficiency of the biomimetic synthesis of (±)‐kuwanon V (71) and (±)‐doresterone (70) methyl ethers [27]. Thermal Diels‐Alder cycloaddition between dienophile 69 and diene 68 in a pressure tube at 160°C for 18 h afforded 70 (exo‐adduct) and 71 (endo‐adduct) in 55% yield in a 1.5:1 ratio (Scheme 6). A comparable result (48% yield, 1.7:1 ratio) was obtained by using the single electron transfer initiated Diels‐Alder reaction (ZnI2, Bu4NBH4, CoI2, 1, 10‐phenanthroline in 60:10:10:10 mol%).
Biomimetic synthesis of (±)‐dorsterone and (±)‐kuwanon V pentamethyl ethers [27].
Recently, Valentina et al. reported the synthesis of (±)‐kuwanol E and the heptamethyl ether derivative of (±)‐kuwanol Y by using a combination of thermal conditions and Lewis acid catalyst [34]. The key synthetic step involved a borane tetrahydrofuran mediated biomimetic intermolecular Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction. It is noteworthy that the endo/exo diastereoselectivity of the reaction was proven to be temperature‐controlled.
The first asymmetric synthesis of flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products was reported by Palomo and co‐workers in 2010 (Scheme 7). They employed a recoverable chiral auxiliary ((1 R)‐(+)‐camphor) in the asymmetric synthesis of nicolaioidesin C (9) [35]. First, the biomimetic Diels‐Alder reaction between myrcene 18 and α′‐hydroxy enone dienophile 72 was catalyzed by triflic acid at ‐78°C in dichloromethane to afford an enantiomeric enriched intermediate 73 in 85% yield. Subsequent transformation of the intermediate 73 in five further steps afforded (‐)‐nicolaioidesin C (9).
Asymmetric biomimetic synthesis of (‐)‐nicolaioidesin C (9) [35].
In 2010, Porco and co‐workers discovered that silver (0) nanoparticles (AgNp) could effectively catalyze the Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction [36]. The AgNP was prepared from a 3:1 molar ratio of AgBF4/Bu4NBH4 in CH2Cl2 and then coated with silica gel. The solid product was filtered and then calcinated at 220°C to give AgNP. A proposed catalytic cycle was showed in Scheme 8 [36]. It was hypothesized that proton removal and single electron transfer from the absorbed chalcone 59 to the silver nanoparticles may generate the AgNP‐stabilized phenoxyl radical intermediate 74 which is in resonance with the radical 75. A proposed concerted Diels‐Alder reaction between the radical intermediate 74/75 and diene 60 provides 76 which generates 55 via back electron transfer (BET) and protonation [36]. A final desorption step gave the Diels‐Alder adduct 61. Porco and co‐workers hypothesized that this silver nanoparticle (AgNp) may serve as ‘electron shuttle’ catalysts by accepting and returning a single electron from and to the substrate [36].
Proposed mechanism for the silver nanoparticles‐catalyzed Diels‐Alder reaction [36].
Following the mechanistic studies, Porco et al. utilized AgNP for the biomimetic syntheses of (±)‐panduratin A (Scheme 9) [36] and (±)‐sorocenol B (Scheme 10) [37]. Inspired by the aforementioned biosynthesis studies, Porco and co‐workers found that the AgNP can also be used to promote dehydrogenation of the prenyl group of a flavonoid to form the requisite diene for the Diels‐Alder reaction with a 2’‐hydroxychalcone dienophile. Such tandem reactions were successfully employed for the synthesis of (±)‐brosimone A and (±)‐brosimone B (Scheme 11) [38].
Synthesis of (±)‐panduratin A (4) [36].
Biomimetic synthesis of (±)‐sorocenol B [37].
Biomimetic synthesis of (±)‐brosimone A and (±)‐brosimone B [38].
In 2014, Lei and Wulff et al. reported the first enantioselective total synthesis of (‐)‐kuwanon I (2), (+)‐kuwanon J (1), (‐)‐brosimone A (86) and (‐)‐brosimone B (84) by using chiral ligand‐Lewis acid complex. This complex was prepared by coordination of an axially chiral ligand such as VANOL or VAPOL to borane [39].
Scheme 12 shows the mechanism proposed by Lei and co‐workers for the enantioselective Diels‐Alder reaction [39]. The mechanism was proposed to proceed through the formation of a chiral boron complex 88, followed by formation of a tetracoordinate boron complex 89 with 2′‐hydroxychalcone dienophile. Subsequently, Diels‐Alder reaction between the chiral complex 89 and a diene afforded a mixture of endo/exo diastereomers in high enantiomeric excess. Lei and co‐workers proposed that the enantioselective Diels‐Alder reaction may be induced by the following factors [39, 40].
Proposed mechanism for the chiral ligand‐Lewis acid complex mediated enantioselective Diels‐Alder reaction [39, 40].
The coordination bond between boron and dienophile which may lower the energy of LUMO.
The mobility of dienophile may be reduced upon complexation.
The π‐π stacking between the chiral ligand and dienophile shielding one face of the chalcone dienophile from attack by the diene.
Following the mechanistic studies, the (S)‐VANOL‐borane complex was efficiently used to mediate the synthesis of (‐)‐kuwanon I (2), (+)‐kuwanon J (1), (‐)‐brosimone A (84) and (‐)‐brosimone B (85) [39]. Asymmetric Diels Alder reaction for these molecules was summarized in Schemes 13–15.
Chiral ligand‐Lewis acid complex mediated enantioselective synthesis of (–)‐kuwanon I (2) and (+)‐kuwanon J (1) [39].
Enantioselective synthesis of (–)‐brosimone B [39].
Enantioselective synthesis of (–)‐brosimone A [39].
Based on the reported results, the chiral ligand strongly influences the enantioselectivity of the cycloaddition reaction. A 2.5 equivalent of (R)‐VANOL is required for the optimal formation of kuwanon J precursor endo‐95 (97% ee, 1.1:1 endo/exo), whereas similar amount of (S)‐8, 8’‐dimethyl‐VANOL is required for the optimal formation of kuwanon I precursor exo‐94 (84% ee, 1.2:1 exo/endo). Finall, deprotection of the acetate group of endo‐95 and exo‐94 furnished the desired natural products (-)‐kuwanon J (1) and (+)‐kuwanon I (2), respectively (Scheme 13) [39].
The synthetic routes for (–)‐brosimone B (84) and (–)‐brosimone A (86) were showed in Schemes 14 and 15, respectively. For (–)‐brosimone B (84), cycloaddition reaction between dienophile 97 and diene 98 using (S)‐VANOL gave a mixture of diastereomers 99 and 100 in 71% yield in a 1.2:1 ratio. Remarkably, excellent enantiomeric excess (ee) values for both compounds were obtained (98% ee for 100, 93% ee for 99). Deprotection of the acetyl groups of 100 gave (-)‐brosimone B in 70% yield (Scheme 14) [39, 40].
The diene 98 was also used in the synthesis of brosimone A (86) in a one‐pot inter‐/intramolecular Diels‐Alder cycloaddition cascade strategy (Scheme 15). The (S)‐VANOL‐borane complex efficiently mediated the cycloaddition reaction to give a mixture of three diastereomers 101−103 (Scheme 15). Deprotection of the adduct 103 gave (-)-brosimone A (86) in 70% yield [39, 40].
In 2016, Porco and co‐workers reported the syntheses of the flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products sanggenon C (108) and sanggenon O (109) by using a combination of silver nanoparticles (AgNP) and a BINOL‐borate catalyst (Scheme 16) [41].
Asymmetric synthesis of sanggenons C (108) and O (109) [41].
A catalytic amount of triphenylborate (B(OPh)3) and (R)‐3,3′‐dibromoBINOL was used to mediate the asymmetric Diels‐Alder reaction between diene precursor 104 and dienophile 105 (Scheme 16). In the first step, the diene precursor 104 underwent a retro 6π‐electrocyclisation followed by a formal 1,7 hydrogen shift process to afford the requisite diene functionality. Reaction of this diene with dienophile 105 in the present of a catalytic amount of chiral BINOL‐borate complex ((S)‐3,3′‐dibromoBINOL/triphenylborate) afforded a mixture of cycloadducts, which after deprotection gave sanggenon C (108) and sanggenon O (109) in 2:1 ratio of 98 and 93% ee, respectively. The use of AgNP gave a racemic mixture of 108 and 109.
In conclusion, this chapter has provided an overview of biosynthesis and biomimetic synthesis of flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products. Intensive biosynthesis studies led by Nomura et al. have provided important information for the enzymatic formation of these natural products. In particular, information from the diene formation and the feeding experiments have paved the way for an exploration of chemical synthesis of these natural products. Finally, with the innovative chemical strategies, enantiomerically pure flavonoid Diels‐Alder natural products were made possible for further biological activities evaluation.
Magnesium has a negative standard potential of −2.37 V vs. SHE and a high Faradaic capacity of 2.205 Ah/g, which is an attractive feature as the primary battery anode [1]. Mg primary batteries (dry batteries) were successfully used for military applications till 1970s [2]. Water/seawater-activated Mg batteries, or reserved batteries, are preferentially used for undersea devices or emergency signals [3]. Research and development of Mg-ion secondary batteries are under way. Charge-discharge performance comparable to lithium-ion batteries is a challenging task [4, 5]. In recent years, water-activated Mg batteries have been reevaluated [6, 7, 8]. Unlike other primary batteries, Mg batteries can be activated with neutral electrolyte when in use. This ensures a long shelf life, easy-to-use operation, and safe disposal of used batteries. Conventional sea water-activated Mg batteries use metal chloride cathodes [1, 3]. Recent water-activated Mg batteries follow the same principle, with incorporating modern electric and battery technologies. There are roughly two kinds of water-activated batteries. Type I battery consists of Mg anode, air-diffusion cathode, and electrolyte container. An appropriate amount of neutral electrolyte, usually NaCl solution, is injected in use. It is also called Mg-air battery [1, 6, 7]. Type II battery is a stacked structure of unit cells, and a small amount of water (1~2 ml) is injected in use [8]. Type I batteries can generate current densities of around tens of mA/cm2 and can be served as small-middle sized generators. Although the capacity of the type II battery is limited (about 1 mA/cm2), it is compact and boosts up easily by stacking unit cells, suitable for power saving devices like LED. There are several articles about type I battery [1, 6, 7], but technical information is limited for type II battery. Hereafter, type II battery is called as water-activated magnesium battery (WAMB) and described in this article.
Figure 1 shows several WAMB-operated LED lamps and their structure [9]. It is the size of a cigarette lighter, weighs about 20 g. A WAMB contains 3–4 unit cells stacked in a plastic casing. One or two LEDs are connected to the battery terminals. Details of the unit cell will be discussed later. Small amount of water is injected to the bottom of the casing to illuminate LED [10]. In the absence of water, juice and saliva can be used. As water is gradually lost during discharge, its intermittent supply is necessary. Figure 2 shows the change in LED illuminance with water injection [9]. Comparisons with other illumination sources are mentioned. Each water injection restores illuminance while the intensity gradually disappears. After 6–7 injections, the WAMB cannot generate enough power for the LED and goes out. One WAMB can provide light in about a week, which is sufficient as an emergency illumination source. In addition to its compactness, it does not contain any hazardous substances, which enables safe operation and disposal of the used WAMB [8, 9].
Appearance and structure of type II WAMB. (a) Commercial product (handy LED lamp). (b) Structure.
Illuminance of WAMB (stacked cell). Illuminance was measured at 30 cm distance from LED [9].
In this chapter, the discharge performance of WAMB is presented based on our recent research [11, 12, 13]. We first describe the discharge behavior of unit cells, following the studies of cell stacking. Factors that affect discharge performance are identified and analyzed. Several approaches to improve performance are also proposed.
A Mg-3%Al-1%Zn alloy (AZ31) magnesium alloy plate having a thickness of 0.8 mm (manufactured by Osaka Fuji Corp.) was used as the anode. The chemical composition is shown in Table 1. The surface was polished with #600 SiC paper, rinsed with water, and wiped with ethanol. As a cathode material, a part of commercially available WAMB (Aqumo Holdings “Aqumo candle®”) [9] was used. Although details are not clarified, it seems to consist of pulp-based nonwoven fabric containing MnO2, catalyst, graphite, and NaCl [8]. A Cu foil having a thickness of 0.6 mm was used as the current collector of the cathode. As the separator, pulp/polypropylene nonwoven fabric having a thickness of 0.25 mm was used. These electrodes were piled in the order of current collector/cathode/separator/anode to construct the unit cell, shown in Figure 3. The electrode size was 25 × 50 mm except for the separator which had 10 mm longer than others for absorbing water. A Pt wire of ϕ 0.6 mm was sandwiched between the separator and the anode and used as a reference electrode. To avoid direct contact with the Pt wire, a small piece of the separator was attached to the anode side. Two Cu sheets were attached to the outside of the unit cell and used as terminals. The assembly was further cramped with two acrylic plates under a pressure of 6 N. Stacked cells were prepared by superimposing four unit cells in series and inserted into a commercial WAMB casing. Tap water (Sagami river system, Samukawa water purifying plant) was used to activate WAMB by injecting them into the bottom of the separator. The amount of water was varied from 0.4 to 0.8 ml in a unit cell and 2 ml in a stacked cell.
Al | Zn | Mn | Si | Fe + Cu + Ni | Mg | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZ31B | 3.03 | 0.78 | 0.29 | 0.021 | <0.006 | Bal. |
Chemical composition of the Mg anode.
Experimental setup of WAMB discharge study. (a) Structure of the unit cell. (b) Setup of the unit cell. (c) Setup of the stacked cell.
The initial discharge capacity of WAMB was analyzed with a unit cell by measuring a potentiodynamic polarization curve. After 20 min of water injection, the cell voltage Vcell and the discharge current density id were monitored at a scanning rate of 1 mV/s.
A constant current discharge test of 0.24 mA/cm2 in the unit cell and 0.08–0.80 mA/cm2 in the stacked cell was performed. The anode potential Ea, the cathode potential Ec, Vcell, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) of the anode, cathode, and cell were independently measured in the unit cell. In the stacked cell, Vcell and the cell impedance were monitored. The EIS was performed in a current-controlled mode with an amplitude of 1% of id, and the scanned frequency was changed from 100 kHz to 1 Hz using an electrochemical apparatus (Solartron Analytical, Modulab Xm). The obtained spectrum was analyzed by curve fitting software (Scribner ZView). When Vcell fell below the terminal voltage of 0.7 V in the unit cell and 2.5 V in the stacked cell, the discharge test was interrupted. After that, the same amount of water was injected, and the test was restarted. When Vcell decreased to the terminal voltage within 1 h after water injection, the discharge test was terminated, and cumulative discharge time ttotal (h) was calculated.
The discharge capacity was evaluated by the gravimetric energy density Eg (Wh/kg).
Vcell.avg is the average of the monitored Vcell, S is the area of the electrode (= 12.5 cm2), M is the cell weight (g), and L is the total amount of injecting water (g). M does not include the weight of the casing. For the calculation of Eq. (1), L is fixed as 1.5 g for a unit cell and 6 g for a stacked cell, referring the result of the weight increase after the discharge test.
After the test, the discharged cells were disassembled, and the appearance of the electrodes was examined. The consumption of Mg anode ΔW (g) was measured after removing the discharged product by a wire brush. Current efficiency CE (%) was calculated by Eq. (2).
Igrav. (mA) was calculated with ΔW, assuming Mg is dissolved with the ionic valency of 2.
Figure 4 shows the polarization curve of the unit cell with a water injection of 0.8 ml [13]. The power density reached about 10 mW/cm2 with id of 15 mA/cm2. As described later, the current range used in the constant discharge test was less than 1 mA/cm2 (<10 mA), and Vcell was about 1.4 to 1.5 V. By stacking four cells in series, Vcell reaches 5.6 ~ 6 V, which is sufficient to illuminate a small LED with a forward voltage of 2.5–3.5 V.
Initial discharge performance of WAMB (unit cell) [13].
Figure 5(a) shows the discharge curve of WAMB unit cell at the initial injection of water [11]. The amount of water was changed from 0.4 to 0.8 ml. The unit cell did not hold more than 1 ml of water. Vcell was kept at about 1.4 V for a certain period and declined rapidly. The larger the amount of water, the longer the discharge time was obtained. Figure 5(b) shows the dependence of the discharge time on the amount of water. A relationship expressed by a quadratic function can be seen. Hereafter, the injection of water was fixed to 0.8 ml.
Discharge behavior of WAMB (unit cell) at the first injection of water at a current density of 0.24 mA/cm2 [11]. (a) Discharge curves of WAMB. (b) Dependence of discharged period on the water content.
Figure 6 presents the discharge behavior of WAMB with different discharge cycles [13]. Ea kept constant about −1.6 V regardless of discharge time and cycles, and Ec changed every discharge cycle. Vcell followed the change in Ec. The discharge time was gradually shortened by injection cycles shown in Figure 6(b). It was possible to regenerate WAMB up to 8 times of water injection. ttotal was calculated to be 51.7 h.
Discharge behavior of WAMB (unit cell) at a current density of 0.24 mA/cm2 [13]. (a) Change of Ea, Ec, and Vcell with time under different discharge cycle. (b) Change of discharge time and power with the discharge cycle.
Figure 7 exhibits the change of Nyquist diagram of the anode, cathode, and unit cell with different injection cycles. The Mg anode drew a depressed capacitive semicircle, followed by an inductive loop in the low frequency region. In general, the size of trajectory increased with injection cycles. The impedance of the cathode was negligible in the first cycle but increased thereafter. Furthermore, a Warburg impedance was recognized in the low frequency region.
Nyquist diagrams of the anode, cathode, and cell of WAMB unit cell after (a) first, (b) second, and (c) sixth cycles of water injection [13].
There are several EIS studies on the corrosion of Mg or Mg alloys [14, 15, 16], but the application to neither Mg battery nor Mg anodized in NaCl solution is rare. Then, referring the equivalent electric circuit of pure Mg corroding in NaCl solution [14], a circuit for the WAMB anode is proposed in Figure 8(a) [13].
Electrical equivalent circuits for the WAMB anode and the WAMB cathode. (a) Anode. (b) Cathode.
Rs.a: Solution resistance at the anode.
R1a, R2a: Resistance associated with the dissolution of the anode.
R3a: Resistance associated with the hydrogen gas evolution on the anode.
CPE1a: Constant phase element associated with the discharge product on the anode.
CPE2a: Constant phase element associated with the electrochemical double layer of the anode.
La: Inductance associated with the dissolution of the anode.
As for the WAMB cathode, an equivalent circuit was expressed in Figure 8(b), referring the MnO2 electrode of Zn-MnO2 battery [17, 18].
Rs.c: Solution resistance at the cathode.
Rct.c: Resistance associated with the reduction of MnO2.
CPEc: Constant phase element associated with the electrochemical double layer of the cathode.
Wc: Warburg impedance of the cathode (open).
Here, constant phase element (CPE) [19] such as CPE1a, CPE2a, and CPEc was employed instead of capacitance to reflect the inhomogeneity of the electrode surface.
The curve fitting of the experimental data of each electrode was performed using simulation software. The results are shown in Table 2 and superimposed on the experimental data in Figure 9. The proposed circuit approximated the impedance spectrum, showing the depressed capacitive semicircle, the presence of the inductive loop at the anode, and the Warburg impedance at the cathode. Curioni et al. [15] reported that the reciprocal of (R1a + R2a) shows a good correlation with the corrosion rate of pure Mg obtained from the hydrogen evolution reaction. Then, the parameter (R1a + R2a) is replaced with Rct.a, the sum of Rct.a and Rct.c. is replaced with Rct.cell, and discussed herewith. These parameters and Rs at each electrode can be obtained roughly from the trajectory shown in Figure 9 [14].
Anode | |||||||||
Rs.a (Ω) | R1a (Ω) | R2a(Ω) | R3a (Ω) | CPE1a-T (-) | CPE1a-(-) | CPE2a-T (-) | CPE2a-P (-) | La (Ωs) | |
First | 4.47 | 3E-07 | 23.3 | 27.2 | 3.74E-03 | 0.284 | 2.01E-04 | 0.84 | 4.17 |
Second | 11.3 | 0.13 | 36.1 | 34.8 | 1.93E-03 | 0.424 | 9.13E-06 | 1.14 | 6.96 |
Sixth | 3.05 | 3.72 | 36.5 | 58.7 | 4.01E-04 | 0.733 | 2.85E-06 | 1.25 | 12.9 |
Cathode | |||||||||
Rs.c (Ω) | Rct.c (Ω) | CPEc-T (-) | CPEc-P (-) | Wc-R (-) | Wc-T (-) | Wc-P (-) | |||
First | 12.3 | 1.71 | 8.99E-06 | 0.956 | 9.7 | 0.702 | 0.608 | ||
Second | 11.6 | 10.3 | 2.90E-05 | 0.744 | 17.6 | 1.053 | 0.744 | ||
Sixth | 2.24 | 25.7 | 4.49E-04 | 0.628 | 10.8 | 0.393 | 0.628 |
Parameters of equivalent circuit shown in Figure 8 to simulate the response of WAMB discharged at 0.24 mA/cm2.
Comparison between the calculated and the measured impedance spectra of WAMB. (a) Anode after 6th cycle. (b) Cathode after 6th cycle.
Figure 10 plots the time dependence of Rs and Rct of the anode, cathode, and cell at different injection cycles. In general, Rs increases with the discharge time, suggesting a decrease in the water content in the cell. However, at the sixth water injection, Vcell reached the terminal voltage before Rs started to increase. In case of Rct, the cathode took a smaller value at the initial stage than the anode. After that, both values increased with the number of water injections. In the sixth water injection, Rct.a and Rct.c reached the same level.
Time dependence of Rs and Rct of the WAMB cathode and the WAMB anode and their combined cell (unit cell) at a current density of 0.24 mA/cm2.
Figure 11 presents the potentiodynamic polarization curves of the cathode before and after the discharge test. The cathode current decreased significantly after the test, suggesting a decrease in discharge capacity. In case of the anode, a white-gray discharge product was observed. After removing them, the thickness of the Mg plate was partly diminished, but the shape remained.
Potentiodynamic polarization curves of the WAMB cathode (unit cell) before discharging and after six cycles of discharging.
Time variation of Vcell of the stacked WAMB at a current density of 0.24 mA/cm2 was presented in Figure 12. As expected, Vcell has quadrupled by stacking four unit cells. The behavior of Vcell was basically the same as that of the unit cell. Total discharge time reached 95.6 h, which was about twice that of the unit cell. Figure 13 shows the Nyquist diagram of the stacked cell after the first, third, and fifth water injections. The spectra drew depressed capacitive semicircles up to the fourth water injection. The diameter (= Rct.cell) was initially large, but gradually became smaller. In the fifth water injection, a Warburg impedance appeared in the low frequency region. Rs. cell and Rct.cell at the terminal voltage were 24 and 288 Ω, respectively, which were about four times the value in the unit cell.
Discharge behavior of the WAMB stacked cell at a current density of 0.24 mA/cm2. (a) Discharge curves. (b) Change of discharge time and power with discharge cycle.
Impedance spectra of WAMB (stacked cell) at the termination voltage after different discharging cycles.
The appearance of the electrode after the discharge test was shown in Figure 14. They are: (1) current collector, (2) cathode, (3) separator, and (4) anode before/after the removal of the discharge product. The alphabetical suffix indicates the layer of the stacked cell. Thus, the first unit cell was stacked in the order of [a1/a2/a3/b4], following the second cell as [b1/b2/b3/b4], the third as [c1/c2/c3/c4], and the fourth as [d1/d2/d3/d4]. At the anode, a white and gray discharge product was visible. After the removal of the product, more than half of the anode was disappeared except for the d4, which was located on the outermost side of the stacked cell. The surface of the Cu current collector attached to the Mg anodes was blackened.
Appearance of WAMB (stacked cell) at a current density of 0.24 mA/cm2 after six cycles of discharge [13].
Figure 15 illustrates the energy density Eg and the current efficiency CE of the unit, and the stacked cell. Eg reached its maximum of 71 Wh/kg at id of 0.48 mA/cm2. It is noticeable that CE was greatly decreased by stacking the unit cells.
Specific energy and current efficiency of WAMB [13].
Discharging of WAMB begins with feeding water to the cathodes via separators. Water dissolves NaCl in the cathode material and creates an ionic path between the electrodes. The cell reactions are expressed as:
Eq. (6) is an exothermic reaction. Enthalpy change −ΔH was calculated to be 484 kJ/mol [20]. Since WAMB is an open structure, the injected water evaporates gradually due to heat. Water was also consumed by Eq. (5) to form Mg(OH)2. Therefore, intermittent water injection is indispensable. The discharge behavior of WAMB depends on the dissolution of the Mg anode and the reduction of MnO2 in the cathode. As shown in Figure 6, Ea was stable regardless of the discharge time and the cycle of water injection. In contrast, Ec varied with discharge conditions that affected Vcell. All these facts suggest that WAMB is the cathode-controlled system. The decline in the cathode capacity after the discharge shown in Figure 11 confirms such an assumption.
Based on the EIS result shown in Figure 10, the anode and cathode behaviors during the discharge can be schematically interpreted as Figure 16. At the initial stage, Rct.c is smaller than Rct.a and does not affect the discharge behavior. As time elapses, Rs.cell gradually increases due to the depletion of water and stops the discharge reaction. After repeated water injection, the initial Rct.c and Rct.a tend to show larger values than the preceding cycle. This suggests a decrease in the conductive MnO2 in the cathode and a decrease in the reaction area of the anode due to the accumulation of Mg(OH)2. In addition, a decrease in Ec lowers Vcell. At the end of the period, even if the water amount is sufficient (small Rs.cell), the gap between Vcell and the terminal voltage becomes small, so the discharge ends in a short time.
Schematic diagram of the time variation of electrochemical parameters in WAMB [13].
At the terminal stage, the Warburg impedance appeared in the cathode of Figure 7(b) and (c). Qu [18] discussed the existence of Warburg impedance appearing at the MnO2 cathode of an alkaline Mn battery system, in terms of the volume expansion of the cathode during discharge. Such expansion prevents the proton diffusion of the entire lattice of MnO2, which is an important rate-determining step. When the discharge exceeds 50%, the localized Jahn-Teller deformation begins to occur and the proton diffusion coefficient decreases. Though such volume expansion was not recognizable in the present system, structural analysis of the cathode using XRD would provide detailed mechanism of the degradation of WAMB.
In general, the discharge behavior of the stacked cell follows that of the unit cell. It is worth noting that ttotal almost doubled by stacking. The exact cause is not clear, but it may be related to the generation of the voluminous Mg(OH)2 which is 73.5% more molar volume than Mg metal [21]. Such expansion compresses the electrodes in the casing, improves mutual contact, and would lead to the prolongation of the discharge time.
On the other hand, CE was sharply decreased in the stacked cell. CE of 64% obtained at the unit cell is within the range of 55–66%, which is reported in the corrosion of Mg [22]. The reason that the CE of Mg is less than 100% in Mg is closely related to the hydrogen gas evolution reaction that occurs simultaneously even if Mg is anodically polarized [23, 24].
However, the fact is that CE as low as 20% in the stacked cell cannot be explained in this context. The reason for this is interpreted by galvanic corrosion by the Cu current collector, which is illustrated in Figure 17 [13]. During water injection, most of the water penetrates from the separator into the cathode material osmotically. However, some of them may penetrate small gaps between the Cu collector and the Mg anode. As a result, a galvanic cell having Mg as anode and Cu as cathode is formed, and the former is corroded preferentially. In this case, the anode reaction is represented by Eq. (4) and the cathode reaction is by Eq. (7). In principle, WAMB establishes the flows of electron and ions (OH−) and generates electricity as shown in Section (a) of Figure 17. However, the portion where the galvanic corrosion is being occurred forms the closed circuit shown in section (b), and the Mg anode does not contribute to the discharge performance and is wasted by corrosion. The fact that the Mg anode d4 in Figure 14 is less susceptible to corrosion than other anodes corroborates the absence of such galvanic corrosion. In addition, galvanic corrosion results in forming the corrosion products between the anode and the Cu collector, causing IR drop and reducing Vcell. Cu collectors are also oxidized (see Figure 14—(1)) to increase the contact resistance. To reduce the loss due to galvanic corrosion and maximize the discharge capacity of WAMB, the choice of higher id up to around 0.5 mA/cm2 is recommended.
Schematic diagram of electron and ionic flows of WAMB (stacked cell): Section (a) indicates the normal discharge behavior, and section (b) indicates the abnormal behavior caused by the occurrence of a galvanic corrosion between the Cu current collector and the Mg anode.
Based on current research, the gravimetric energy density Eg of WAMB is 71 kWh/kg, which is inferior to Zn-alkaline MnO2 battery (154 Wh/kg) or Zn-air battery (415 Wh/kg) [25]. Since WAMB inherits the dry Mg-MnO2 battery or the reserved battery technologies [2, 3], of which Eg is less than 100 Wh/kg [25], dramatic improvement of WAMB may not be feasible. Still, there are several rooms to enhance the capabilities of WAMB.
Design to eliminate galvanic corrosion in the stacked cell.
Catalyst for enhancing the ability of the cathode [26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
They are briefly commented as follows. Several studies conducted in type I water-activated Mg battery are also useful for type II WAMB. In addition, we performed some experimental trials that are summarized in Table 3. The relative increase in ttotal compared to the standard condition was used as an index of improvement.
Method | Modification | Cell | ttotal (%) |
---|---|---|---|
A | Cu plated conductive tape bet. Mg/Cu | Stack | 146 |
B | Add Cu powder in cathode mix | Stack | 82 |
Add Ni powder in cathode mix | Stack | 135 | |
Add Fe powder in cathode mix | Stack | 105 | |
C | Use Mg-Li-Al alloy as anode | Unit | 208 |
D | Add LiCl in cathode mix | Stack | 163 |
— | None | — | 100 |
Technical proposals to improve the discharge performance of WAMB.
The galvanic corrosion occurs in the condition of stacking unit cells, and it seems that the penetration water in the gap between the anode and the Cu collector is the main cause. It is conceivable to separate the unit cells and connect them outside the casing to avoid the galvanic contact. Although it is technically possible, the structure becomes complicated. A solution is to bond the electrodes using conductive tape to seal the gap. Although it induces contact resistance to decrease Vcell, it is effective to eliminate the galvanic corrosion and improve the CE. With this configuration, a 150% increase in ttotal was possible in our preliminary trials.
Eq. (5) can be considered as a kind of oxygen reduction reaction. Therefore, the addition of oxygen catalyst shifts Ec more noble. Apart from Pt group catalysts, several organic [26, 27], inorganic [28], or complex [29, 30] catalysts are promising. We studied the effect of Ni, Cu, and Fe powder in the MnO2 containing cathode mix. The addition of Ni powder gave the best performance among them.
In this study, a versatile AZ31 alloy was used as the anode. There are several Mg alloys developed for type I water-activated Mg batteries. It is effective to improve the discharge capacity by adding specific alloying elements such as Li [31], Ca [32], Pb [33] to Mg-Al alloys. As shown in Table 3, it was found that Mg-14Li-1Al alloy demonstrated excellent performance as the anode. The presence of lithium hydroxide in the discharge product seems to maintain Rs.a low even after multiple water injections. Similar effects are expected for Mg-Al alloys containing Ca [32].
NaCl is the standard electrolyte for type I and II water-activated batteries. It results in a larger Vcell compared to a phosphate- or nitrate-based electrolyte but lowers CE [34]. Magnesium forms a soluble compound with organic acids such as acetic acid and citric acid [35]. Addition of citric acid did not improve the discharge performance of type I battery [36]. Some additives form chelates with Mg which raise Vcell [37]. We found that the use of LiCl instead of NaCl increased ttotal. Although the reason is uncertain, there is a possibility that the same effect as the Mg-Li-Al alloy anode described above may have occurred.
Finally, we consider that the recent attention of WAMB comes from aspects other than power-oriented issues, that is, the convenience and safe handling, or expectations of Mg as an energy carrier for a sustainable society [38]. Apart from LED lamps, water sensors from diapers [39] to underground pipelines [40], biodegradable batteries for medical implants or home appliances [41, 42] can be expected as new applications of WAMB.
A water-activated magnesium battery (WAMB) consisting of MnO2 cathode and magnesium anode was evaluated. The obtained results are as follows:
The initial power density of WAMB showed the maximum of 10 mW/cm2 at 15 mA/cm2. The cell voltage under a constant current discharge of 0.24 mA/cm2 was 1.4–1.5 V over 50 h at the unit cell. Changes in the cell voltage were closely related to the performance of the cathode. The injection of water regenerated the WAMB unit cell up to 8 times.
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was applied to monitor the discharge performance of WAMB. An electrical equivalent circuit of the anode and the cathode was proposed from the frequency spectra. They consisted of solution resistance, charge transfer resistance, constant phase element, inductance for the anode, and Warburg impedance for the cathode. Curve fitting using simulation software agreed well the experimental data.
By monitoring solution resistance and charge transfer resistance, the degradation behavior of WAMB was analyzed. At the initial stage, an increase of solution resistance due to the depletion of water determined the discharge time. When water was repeatedly injected to regenerate WAMB, the increase in the charge transfer resistance of the anode and the cathode controlled the discharge time and the cell voltage, respectively. At the final stage, the Warburg impedance appeared in the cathode frequency spectrum. These data suggest that WAMB is the cathode-controlled system. The loss of discharge capacity and the volume expansion of MnO2 was considered.
Stacking the unit cells in series was effective for increasing the cell voltage and extending the discharge time. On the other hand, the current efficiency decreased from 64 to 10–20%. The reason was interpreted in terms of a galvanic corrosion occurring at the Mg anode and the Cu current collector.
The power density of WAMB was 71 Wh/kg, which was lower than the current Zn batteries. Several approaches to improve performance were proposed. Promising applications of WAMB including biodegradable batteries were also mentioned.
You have been successfully unsubscribed.
",metaTitle:"Unsubscribe Successful",metaDescription:"You have been successfully unsubscribed.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/unsubscribe-successful",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":""}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:""}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10656",title:"Intellectual Property",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"135df9b403b125a6458eba971faab3f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and Dr. Suriyaprakash TNK",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10656.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10658",title:"Multilingualism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6bf171e05831c00f8687891ab1b10b5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xiaoming Jiang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10658.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10913",title:"Indigenous Populations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c5e8cd4e3ec004d0479494ca190db4cb",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10913.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10914",title:"Racism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0737383fcc202641f59e4a5df02eb509",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1028",title:"Hemodynamics",slug:"hemodynamics",parent:{title:"Hematology",slug:"hematology"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:16,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"hemodynamics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7042",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ab4cb86baa2cadb67630b31257cb04b2",slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",bookSignature:"Theodoros Aslanidis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7042.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"200252",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",middleName:null,surname:"Aslanidis",slug:"theodoros-aslanidis",fullName:"Theodoros Aslanidis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1653",title:"Hemodynamics",subtitle:"New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2cf4b686414a77f0c867007f5062914f",slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"A. Seda Artis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1653.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"36116",doi:"10.5772/36263",title:"The Evaluation of Renal Hemodynamics with Doppler Ultrasonography",slug:"the-evaluation-of-renal-hemodynamics-with-renal-doppler-ultrasonography",totalDownloads:11001,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Mahir Kaya",authors:[{id:"107675",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahir",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"mahir-kaya",fullName:"Mahir Kaya"}]},{id:"36121",doi:"10.5772/34272",title:"Carnosine and Its Role on the Erythrocyte Rheology",slug:"carnosine-and-its-role-on-the-erythrocyte-rheology",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"A. Seda Artis and Sami Aydogan",authors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"},{id:"110016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sami",middleName:null,surname:"Aydogan",slug:"sami-aydogan",fullName:"Sami Aydogan"}]},{id:"36119",doi:"10.5772/36876",title:"How Ozone Treatment Affects Erythrocytes",slug:"how-ozone-treatment-affects-erythrocytes",totalDownloads:3902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Sami Aydogan and A. Seda Artis",authors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"},{id:"110016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sami",middleName:null,surname:"Aydogan",slug:"sami-aydogan",fullName:"Sami Aydogan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62838",title:"Introductory Chapter: Hemodynamic Management. The Problem of Monitoring Choice",slug:"introductory-chapter-hemodynamic-management-the-problem-of-monitoring-choice",totalDownloads:537,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Theodoros Aslanidis",authors:[{id:"200252",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",middleName:null,surname:"Aslanidis",slug:"theodoros-aslanidis",fullName:"Theodoros Aslanidis"}]},{id:"36119",title:"How Ozone Treatment Affects Erythrocytes",slug:"how-ozone-treatment-affects-erythrocytes",totalDownloads:3900,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Sami Aydogan and A. Seda Artis",authors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"},{id:"110016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sami",middleName:null,surname:"Aydogan",slug:"sami-aydogan",fullName:"Sami Aydogan"}]},{id:"36116",title:"The Evaluation of Renal Hemodynamics with Doppler Ultrasonography",slug:"the-evaluation-of-renal-hemodynamics-with-renal-doppler-ultrasonography",totalDownloads:10998,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Mahir Kaya",authors:[{id:"107675",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahir",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"mahir-kaya",fullName:"Mahir Kaya"}]},{id:"62847",title:"Cerebral Hemodynamics in Pediatric Hydrocephalus: Evaluation by Means of Transcranial Doppler Sonography",slug:"cerebral-hemodynamics-in-pediatric-hydrocephalus-evaluation-by-means-of-transcranial-doppler-sonogra",totalDownloads:455,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Branislav Kolarovszki",authors:[{id:"92436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Kolarovszki",slug:"branislav-kolarovszki",fullName:"Branislav Kolarovszki"}]},{id:"63370",title:"Functioning of the Cardiovascular System of Women in Different Phases of the Ovarian-Menstrual Cycle",slug:"functioning-of-the-cardiovascular-system-of-women-in-different-phases-of-the-ovarian-menstrual-cycle",totalDownloads:389,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Olena Lutsenko",authors:[{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena Ivanivna",middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-ivanivna-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Ivanivna Lutsenko"}]},{id:"62523",title:"Influence of Branching Patterns and Active Contractions of the Villous Tree on Fetal and Maternal Blood Circulations in the Human Placenta",slug:"influence-of-branching-patterns-and-active-contractions-of-the-villous-tree-on-fetal-and-maternal-bl",totalDownloads:339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Yoko Kato",authors:[{id:"249827",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoko",middleName:null,surname:"Kato",slug:"yoko-kato",fullName:"Yoko Kato"}]},{id:"36122",title:"Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Modulators in Heart Failure",slug:"soluble-guanylate-cyclase-modulators-in-heart-failure",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Veselin Mitrovic and Stefan Lehinant",authors:[{id:"111559",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Lehinant",slug:"stefan-lehinant",fullName:"Stefan Lehinant"}]},{id:"62149",title:"3D Numerical Study of Metastatic Tumor Blood Perfusion and Interstitial Fluid Flow Based on Microvasculature Response to Inhibitory Effect of Angiostatin",slug:"3d-numerical-study-of-metastatic-tumor-blood-perfusion-and-interstitial-fluid-flow-based-on-microvas",totalDownloads:356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Gaiping Zhao",authors:[{id:"172001",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gaiping",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"gaiping-zhao",fullName:"Gaiping Zhao"}]},{id:"36118",title:"Hemodynamics Study Based on Near-Infrared Optical Assessment",slug:"hemodynamics-study-based-on-near-infrared-optical-assessment",totalDownloads:2352,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Chia-Wei Sun and Ching-Cheng Chuang",authors:[{id:"116138",title:"Dr",name:"Chia-Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"chia-wei-sun",fullName:"Chia-Wei Sun"}]},{id:"36120",title:"Regulation of Renal Hemodyamics by Purinergic Receptors in Angiotensin II -Induced Hypertension",slug:"regulation-of-renal-hemodynamics-by-purinergic-receptors-in-angiotensin-ii-induced-hypertension",totalDownloads:1323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Martha Franco, Rocío Bautista-Pérez and Oscar Pérez-Méndez",authors:[{id:"113134",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",slug:"martha-franco",fullName:"Martha Franco"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"hemodynamics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/343342/jaime-a-cardona-ospina",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"343342",slug:"jaime-a-cardona-ospina"},fullPath:"/profiles/343342/jaime-a-cardona-ospina",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()