Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Dust generation and its dispersion has been the major concern in ambient air quality in deep cavities such as open cast mines. Major mining activities in deep open pit coal mines range from exploration to the processing of end product that primarily contribute particulate matter (PM), dominantly PM10 leading to the problem of air pollution and related health hazards (Falk and Jurgelski, 1979; Pless-Mulloli et al, 2000). As a result, the simulation of dispersion characteristics within the deep open pit coal mines becomes essential to analyze the complex wind flow patterns that significantly affect the dispersion of PM10. The dispersion equations developed within the deep pit boundary provide a reasonable accurate estimate of PM10 dispersion within the near field region of the deep open pit coal mines (Silvester et al, 2009). The fundamental equations of continuity and momentum describe the in pit dispersion mechanisms within the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). In addition, the meteorological conditions within the deep open pit coal mine are significantly affected by temperature (stability) and roughness conditions which ultimately generate complex dispersion phenomenon including separation of atmospheric boundary layer, recirculation, resuspension and settling of PM10 (Bitkolov, 1969; Grainger and Merony, 1993). However, the in-field measurements of PM10 within the deep open pit coal mines are constrained by safety regulations, complex geometry of the pit, uncontrolled wind flows and different operation types that make it extremely difficult to carry out monitoring of the PM10 conventionally (Roy et al, 2011). Further, the simulation of dispersion characteristics using the fundamental governing equations may require modifications to incorporate the in pit microclimatic effects on the flow regimes (Markov et al, 1978; Aloyan et al, 1982). Therefore, it is essential to analyze and evaluate micro-climatic parameters including the wind turbulence and shear in order to simulate the dispersion of PM10 (Turner, 1994). This chapter presents a comprehensive description of the dispersion mechanisms in the deep open pit coal mines considering the topographic, thermal and meteorological factors.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Dispersion mechanism in deep open pit coal mine
\n\t\t\t
Dispersion mechanisms consist of diffusion and advection processes. The atmospheric motions transport and diffuse the pollutants that are released from sources. Richardson (1926) has investigated the dispersion characteristics by using tracers. The fundamental scaling and power laws have been studied by Taylor (1921) and Roberts (1923). The temporal and spatial scales of motion serve to disperse pollutants in the atmosphere by mixing and thus lowering the ambient pollutant concentrations (Turner, 1994). Mikkelson (2003) and Hanna et al (1982) have discussed various aspects of dispersion and associated parameters that are primarily influenced by source dimensions, buoyancy and momentum of the release, roughness and surrounding topography, atmospheric stability and large scale differential heating. In case of PM10 its dispersion is additionally affected by intertial and dynamic forces acting on the particulates acting on them. Open cast coal mining involves various operations e.g overburden removal, drilling, blasting, mineral loading, haulage and unloading that generate particulates due to various mechanisms. It has been observed that out of total particulates generated, the PM10 constitute one-third to half (Ghose & Majee, 2007; Trivedi et al, 2009). The operations and their contribution to the generation of the particulates have been listed in table 1.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Operation
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
% of particulates generated
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Overburden removal
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7%
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Top soil removal
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1%
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Coal processing
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
72%
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Coal extraction
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3%
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Wind erosion
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
17%
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Contribution of operations to the particulate generation (Ghose & Majee, 1998)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Flow dynamics in deep open pit coal mines
\n\t\t\t
The flow in the deep pit coal mine is a special case of a deep cavity flow where shear stresses are dominant (Tani et al, 1961; Chang, 1970). It depends significantly upon the state of the boundary layer ahead of the cavity, pressure and forces due to the flow. Sometimes, vortices are formed in the cavities due to the deflection of part of the separated boundary layer. Cavities are generally classified according to their length to depth (L/D) and length to width (L/W) ratios, respectively. A cavity is deep, if L/D < 1 ; and shallow, if L/D > 1; two dimensional if L/W <1 ; and three dimensional if L/W>1 (Larcheveque et al, 2003). The cavity flows are further classified into open type (L/D <10) and closed type (L/D>13) according to the aspect ratio. In the closed type cavity, the shear layer generated at the leading edge collides with the cavity floor. The layer is reflected from the floor forming the expansion waves and the flow escapes the trailing edge. Therefore, two small separate zones are formed in the cavity. In the open type cavity, the free stream shear layer is reattached to the trailing edge and divides the flow into internal and external flow (Woo et al, 2008). Table 2 describes different types of cavities and their characteristics.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sl no
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Property /parameter
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Shallow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Intermediate
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Deep
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Recompression layer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Not Investigated
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Not Investigated
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Decreases with increased L/D ratio
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Boundary layer and its influence
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Not Investigated
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Not Investigated
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Bridges the cavity and has little influence over the cavity flow parameters
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Redevelopment length
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Redevelopment is small
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Redevelopment is maximum
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Redevelopment is small
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Variation of coefficient of pressure
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Low
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Maximum
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Low
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Boundary layer thickening
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
More \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Less
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
More
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Free shear layer flow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Less strongly distributed \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
More strongly distributed
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Less strongly distributed
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Drag Coefficient \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
High
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Medium
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Low
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Flow type
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
unsteady
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Not Investigated
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Dead/laminar
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Flow reattachment
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Occurs on the floor of the cavity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Not Investigated
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Occurs on the rear shoulder of the cavity
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reynolds number
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Large
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Medium
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Small
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Velocity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Large
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Medium
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Small
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Skin friction
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Large
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Medium
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Small \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Base pressure
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
First decreases and then increases
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Not Investigated
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Constant in the middle and slightly irregular in the front and rear portions \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Three dimensionality of shear layer flow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Slightly
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Strongly
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Slightly
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Types of cavities and their characteristics (Chowdhary, 1977)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. The cavity regions
\n\t\t\t\t
The cavity region contains different zones where the boundary layer undergoes various changes (Figure 1). The Upstream zone comprises the developing boundary layer zone which is upstream of the front corner of the notch with a finite approaching boundary layer. Expansion zone is a small zone just downstream of the separation corner where the pressure falls to the base pressure level. In this zone, the inner 10-15% of the approaching boundary layer adjusts rapidly to expansion at the separation corner and forms a new viscous sublayer slightly below the separation corner. Mixing zone is in the initial part of the free shear layer. The flow is similar to a separated jet type wake and lies between the isoenergic free stream flow and the dividing stream line. This intermediate buffer zone acts as a coupling between the outer free stream flow and the inner dissipative flow and brings about the transport of mass and momentum from the former to the latter. The pressure is nearly constant in this zone. This region is associated with large velocity gradients and substantial viscous activity. After the constant pressure mixing region, the shear layer negotiates the pressure rise which continues up to the reattachment point where a apart of the shear layer gets reversed and forms a recirculating cavity flow. The recirculating cavity flow lies between the separation point and the reattachment point, having a low Reynolds number and a constant static pressure. This zone is called as compression zone. This recirculating cavity flow has also been termed as separation wake. After the reattachment point, the shear layer negotiates the further pressure rise which continues upto the free stream value. This is called as the recompression zone. The flow in the ramp corner as well as in the recompression zone is assumed to be isentropic and invicid. Further, the recompression zone entrains an unsteady vertical flow, which is known as the recompression wake. After the recompression region the flow forms a new uniform stream with a redeveloping zone which becomes fully developed at some distance downstream. Various factors affecting the flow dynamics in the case of deep open pit coal mines have been discussed in subsequent sections.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Cavity flow field operating in open configuration (solid line) and closed configuration (dotted line). Source:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLazar et al, 2008\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
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3.1.1. Topographic factors
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The open pit coal mine topography is mostly rugged and uneven. In general, it is a few kilometers wide and more than 50 m deep. In the case of deep open pits, the depth may be as high as 300-400 meters. The complexity arises due to the presence of overburden dumps, construction of access roads and blasting activities. The topography affects the dispersion of pollutants due to changes in the mean flow (Castro & Apsley, 1997). It also affects the trajectory of the wind that channels and confine the plume dispersion and also causes flow re-circulations within the pit (Shi et al, 2000; Appleton et al, 2006).
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3.1.1.1. Slopes & benches
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Slopes facilitate an easy penetration of the wind because the shape of the pit guides the wind flow (Grainger & Merony, 1993; Peng & Lu, 1995). Besides, the slopes play a major role in the reduction of the size of the primary eddies (Mcquain et al, 1994). The presense of slopes also result in increase in the wind speed (Figure 2). Additionally, the faces and elevation of the benches cause the local deflection of the plume affecting the direction of the dispersion (Figure 3). Moreover, the presence of corners enable the particulate matter to get confined to a particular region within the deep open pit till they reach a particular height where the effect of topography gets diminished and plume expansion is observed. This is called the venturi effect (Appleton et al, 2006). The sloping terrain may result in katabatic and anabatic flows (i.e drainage of air down or uphill sides in response to changing vertical temperature profiles). Further, the terrain elevation may either restrict or exacerbate aereal dispersion when the lower boundary layer heights confine the particulate plume closer to the terrain surface.
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Figure 2.
Wind speed due to the presence of slopes (Ngo and Lechford, 2008)
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3.1.1.2. The depth of the open pit coal mine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
When the depth of a mining pit is increased, an open air space with characteristic properties under extreme physical conditions is created (Baklonov, 1986). Under such conditions, the depth of the open pit affects the penetration angle α, which is defined as the angle of the shear interface line defining the boundary between the penetration of the external ABL velocity profile and the induced leeward in pit recirculation zone (Figure 4). Further, the depth has a significant effect on the air flow patterns within the mine. In case of shallow pits, air flow expands gradually, without any gap in mine area. There is a little compression of flow line on outlet area due-to action of flow inertia. In case of medium depth mines, fluid vortex has shape of flattened ellipse whose height and width differ significantly.
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Figure 3.
Effect of local deflection on the dispersion of particulate plume (Appleton et al, 2006)
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The viscous forces, pressure gradients and turbulence friction act as driving mechanisms (Figure 5). Close to leeward side, there is detached point area of thickened boundary layer. In windward side zone, there is flow connection point zone, near which part of flow turns back in detached vortex zone and part moves up and toward exit from zone (Markov et al, 1978). Moreover, for the same incoming airflow and the same slope angle, the mechanical forcing and turbulence increase with increase in the depth, which will result in or strengthen the reverse airflow and the recirculation (Shi et al, 2000).
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Figure 4.
Penetration angle α in deep open pit mines (Peng and Lu, 1995)
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3.1.1.3. Width and breadth of deep open pit coal mine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The width and breadth of the coal mine affects the rate of cooling in the mine, which is defined in terms of terrain amplification factor (TAF) (Equation 1).
The aspect ratio decides whether the air outside the pit intrudes into the pit or not. Recirculation zones are formed based on the aspect ratio of the pit (Figure 6). The formation of the secondary vortex has been observed as the aspect ratio increases. It is due to the fact that the penetration of the external boundary layer in to the cavity acts as a driving force for the formation of the secondary vortex.
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Figure 5.
Vector fields of speed of steady-state flow processes in the deep open pit mines (Markov et al, 1978).
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3.1.1.5. Effect of overburden dumps
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaklonov and Regina (1998) has investigated the effect of overburden dumps on dispersion and observed that the velocity increases as the wind passes through the dump from bottom to the top. Further, if the dump is located at the upwind side, it alters the wind flow and turbulence characteristics from those measured at the nearest meteorological station. The rough terrain changes the wind speed directions and turbulence characteristics and enhance mixing in the air stream (Kirchgessner et al, 1993). Huertas (2009) has observed the effect of deposition by altering the area of dumps which shows that the retention of particulates is dependent on the volume and the area of the overburden.
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Figure 6.
Effect of aspect ratio on the flow (Kang & Sung, 2009)
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3.1.2. Meteorological effects
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3.1.2.1. Wind speed & direction
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It is observed that the wind speed is positively correlated and reduced to three fourth after entering into the pit (USEPA, 1985). The higher wind speeds attribute to the lesser deposition fluxes and lesser concentrations of particulates due to the elongation of the particle plumes generated inside the pit. Further, higher wind speeds cause an elongation of particulate plume and a reduction in the airborne concentration and deposition flux gradients observed near source (Appleton et al, 2006). The wind direction inside and outside the pit are not positively co- related. The wind direction displaces the air to a particular direction, thus causing thermal inhomogeneities within the open pit mine. The standard deviations of vertical and horizontal wind directions enable the prediction of the deviation of the wind from its original direction. It has been found that the wind direction changes by an angle of 60º with respect to the direction at the surface (USEPA, 1985).
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3.1.2.2. Stability
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The stability affects the flow in the mine by influencing the vertical motion. It is observed that stable atmosphere suppresses the vertical motion of the pollutants resulting into deposition of pollutants. However, for unstable and neutral conditions, the escape fraction of the particulates has been found to be more. Under the effect of stratification, the flows in a pit are expected to be similar to the night time flows occurring in the mountains due to the accumulation of cold air and nocturnal cooling (Grainger & Merony, 1993). Further, the inversion depth and strength tend to be stronger than those found over valleys or flat terrain (Maki et al, 1986). Grainger & Merony (1993) have observed that inversion effects are more predominant in pits rather than on flat terrains. The occurrence of the inversion in the pit depends upon the Froude number (Fr), which is independent of the pit geometry. Further, it has been found that the coal pit dispersion under stably-stratified conditions is dominated by the buoyancy-inertia forces (Equation 2).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, is the air temperature at the ridge top\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, is the air temperature at the valley floor
If Fr > 1.6, then inversion is swept away;
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If 1.3 < Fr < 1.6, the air in the basin is coupled to the air above the basin;
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
and if Fr < 1.3, the air is totally decoupled
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Further, the dispersion is dependent on the pasquill stability classes (Table 3).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stability class
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Effects on dispersion in the coal mines
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(2), (3), (4)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
B
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(2),(3), (4)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(2), (4)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
D
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(2)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
E
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(1), (2), (3), (5)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(1), (3), (5)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
G
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(1), (3), (5)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Factors affecting dispersion for different stability classes
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Where,
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aids dispersion if terrain is flat and restricts dispersion if the terrain is rising
Impact by particulate deposition
Impact by airborne particulates
Higher values of Surface heat flux aids dispersion due to the generation of upward air currents
Lower values of surface heat flux restricts aerial dispersion
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\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.1.3. Thermal effects
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The combined action of the mechanical shear of the ABL across the surface opening and the thermal buoyancy forces produce the air flow by the differential heating in the pit surface (Silvester et al, 2009). Solar energy controls the physical processes of the atmosphere through the mediation of the surface. Open pit mining modifies the ground surface material composition, structure, cover, morphology, colour which affects the meteorological processes and also affects the partitioning of the incoming solar radiation into sensible and latent heat fluxes which affects the amount of solar radiation that is scattered back to the space. The airspace of a mine pit tends to warm up rapidly when insolation is intense, while cold air tends to accumulate in it when insolation is low or missing (Loska, 2007). More over the solar radiation has different effects during different seasons, which affects the total amount of air heated in the open pit mine (Figure 7). Further, the solar radiation influences many physical processes. The physical processes and their interactions form chains of interactions, which are highly dependent on the type of the terrains and surrounding conditions, like radiation (Figure 8).
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.1.3.1. Thermal inhomogenities
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Due to the combined effect of nonuniform horizontal temperature field and the wind direction, thermal inhomogenities are created in the deep open pit. With an active influx of solar radiation, the effect of thermal forces is manifested not only as the component of the resulting wind velocity, but also affects the stability within the deep open pit. The inhomogenities can be classified into four types
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
With increasing depth, the air temperature rises by a value greater than the adiabatic temperature gradient
The air temperature increases with depth
The air temperature remains constant with depth
The air temperature decreases with depth
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Thus two main types of stratification exist within the deep open pit space: unstable (lst type) and stable (2nd, 3rd, and 4th types), which may be present in single form or as combinations (Bitkolov, 1969).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Effect of solar radiation during winter and summer in the mine pit
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Figure 8.
Chains of interactions of physical processes (Zilitinkevich, 1990)
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4. Modelling the flow in open pit coal mines
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Dispersion uses mathematical equations describing the atmosphere along with chemical and physical processes to estimate and predict concentrations at various locations. Dispersion models for predicting particulate concentrations have been discussed by Mikkelson (2003), Reed (2005) and Holmes & Morwska (2006). The conventional models of dispersion for the plane terrain retain flow stationarity and horizontal uniformity hypothesis. As a result, they are no longer valid when the open pit terrain complexity produces mesoscale and local scale circulations. Most of the conventional models employ the hydrostatic approximation which neglects the vertical acceleration versus the pressure gradient and the gravitational terms. This implies that the vertical scale of motion is smaller than the horizontal scale. This applicability of the hydrostatic approximation depends not only on the geometry of the wind, but also on the vertical stability. Hence the non-hydrostatic multiscale approach is preferred. Penenko & Aloyan (1976) have proposed a three-dimensional non stationary model for mesoscale boundary layer of atmosphere. The model includes the effects of horizontal gradients of potential temperatures, stratification parameters and vertical and horizontal turbulence factors. Later, a two dimensional model has been proposed by improving this model to allow considering substantial two-dimensional effects of flow in the deep open pit coal mines having complex geometry (Markov et al, 1978). Further, Aloyan et al (1982) have used a fictious region method in which the equations are generated in a rectangular cartesian coordinate system. The model has helped in simulation of the winds in a quarry under various thermal conditions (stable, unstable and equilibrium stratifications) and investigating the effects of the external wind on the temperature inversion. The model describes the flow in deep open pit coal mines and helps analyzing influence of their geometric parameters by detailed consideration of characteristics of impurity sources. Later, these mathematical models describing the dynamics of the atmosphere in the deep open pits have been combined with the system for calculating the thermal and radiational balance on the surface (Baklonov, 1984). Baklonov (1986) has also established a thermodynamic model for the deep open pit ventilation systems. The model simulates the diurnal changes that take place during the differential solar heating of the surface during the day and the release of this energy during the evening. Further, Baklanov (1995) has presented the results of a series of numerical modeling case studies that consider the pollutant dispersion within naturally ventilated deep open pits, for a range of different external wind speeds and directions, internal thermal stratifications, recirculation flow regimes and the interaction of local open pit thermal circulations with the external atmospheric flow field. In a later study, a high-resolution, non-hydrostatic and three dimensional PBL model for characterizing the flow in the open mine has been developed by Shi et al (2000). The classical 2-D Navier-Stokes equation and a 0-D bond-graph model have been used to investigate the flow dynamics of the mines by discussing the interconnections, nonlinearities and turbulence. The 0-D model efficiently provides for a fast and representative global model for the mine ventilation problem (Witrant et al, 2008). Table 4 summarizes the various studies conducted on open pit mines.
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4.1. The model and its features
\n\t\t\t\t
The governing equations which serve the basis of modeling the deep open pit mines have been described (Markov et al, 1978). Equations 3-6 include non stationary hydrodynamic equations of Navier-Stokes, continuity equation for incompressible fluid and equation for carryover of impurity concentration in plane cartesian system of coordinates.
u, w - projection of velocity vectors on horizontal and vertical directions (m/sec);
\n\t\t\t\t
p - deviation of pressure from hydrostatic (Kpa);
\n\t\t\t\t
c - specific volumetric concentration of impurities (g/m3);
\n\t\t\t\t
k - turbulent kinematic viscosity factor (kg/m/s);
\n\t\t\t\t
LB - characteristic longitudinal dimension of upper section of the mine(m);
\n\t\t\t\t
ReT =\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Reynold’s turbulence number;
\n\t\t\t\t
Prd= k/ke, Prandtl’s diffusion number, which characterizes ratio between turbulence viscosity factor k and diffusion factor ke.
\n\t\t\t\t
For the values LB/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tρ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, the subscript \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t characterizes the parameters of incident flow.
\n\t\t\t\t
This model overcomes the limitations of the single dimensional models, which does not allow considering substantial two-dimensional effects of flow in open pit coal mines having complex geometry of surface. This approach helps in solving wide range of problems concerning natural air exchange. The model describes dispersion in deep open coal mines and helps analyzing influence of their geometric parameters on natural air exchange, by considering pollutant characteristics. Thus, the model with sufficient practical accuracy describes the natural ventilation process and can be useful for calculation of flows in deep open pit coal mines.
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\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.2. The model limitations
\n\t\t\t\t
The present model has no provision for considering the effects of settling of the particles. Moreover, it does not consider: stability (temperature effect)/ buoyancy effects that govern the dispersion of PM within the mine boundary. The model can be modified to incorporate the effects of the buoyancy interms of the temperature difference (Equation 5). Due to the temperature difference existing between the two vertical layers of the atmosphere within the mine, the buoyant force may rise the particle vertically (Grainger & Merony, 1993). Moreover, the temperature equation (Equation 6) can be modified to incorporate the effect of the vertical temperature gradient and the existing temperature gradient. These limitations are presently being addressed as Ph.D problem in Civil Engineering Department at IIT Delhi (Chinthala, 2010).
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AQ model/ Technique
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Type
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Reference
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3-D Non Hydrostatic Model
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Numerical
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gresho et al (1976)
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Non Stationary N-S model \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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Numerical \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Markov et al (1978)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3-D Non Stationary Model \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Simulating the dispersion in deep open pit coal mines is an effective tool to give advanced warning of potential emission problems and providing the basis for future planning applications. The meteorological conditions within an open pit coal mine are significantly affected by temperature (stability) and roughness conditions that generate complex fluid flows phenomenon e.g. separation of atmospheric boundary layer, recirculation, resuspension and settling of particulates. The complex geometry, uncontrolled wind flows and different operations taken place within the deep open pit coal mines, makes it extremely difficult to measure the particulates. Therefore, an appropriate mathematical model is needed which may predict the complex processes in the near field regions of the deep open pit coal mines effectively. The fundamental understanding of the microclimate that is created in the deep open pit mine due to influence of the external ABL and the contributions of the mechanical and thermal forces present, can be achieved by developing a dynamic numerical based inverse hill model to investigate the complex wind flows and dispersion mechanisms.
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\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/16149.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/16149.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/16149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/16149",totalDownloads:3896,totalViews:326,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 8th 2010",dateReviewed:"March 27th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 5th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/16149",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/16149",book:{slug:"air-quality-models-and-applications"},signatures:"Sumanth Chinthala and Mukesh Khare",authors:[{id:"24724",title:"Prof.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Khare",fullName:"Mukesh Khare",slug:"mukesh-khare",email:"mukeshk@civil.iitd.ernet.in",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Dispersion mechanism in deep open pit coal mine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Flow dynamics in deep open pit coal mines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. The cavity regions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1. Topographic factors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"3.1.1.1. Slopes & benches",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"3.1.1.2. The depth of the open pit coal mine",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"3.1.1.3. Width and breadth of deep open pit coal mine",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"3.1.1.4. Aspect ratio",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"3.1.1.5. Effect of overburden dumps",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"3.1.2.1. Wind speed & direction",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"Table 3.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.1.3. Thermal effects",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"3.1.3.1. Thermal inhomogenities",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. Modelling the flow in open pit coal mines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.1. 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'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"167",title:"Air Quality",subtitle:"Models and Applications",fullTitle:"Air Quality - Models and Applications",slug:"air-quality-models-and-applications",publishedDate:"July 5th 2011",bookSignature:"Dragana Popovi?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/167.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"59513",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Popovic",slug:"dragana-popovic",fullName:"Dragana Popovic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"16144",title:"Advances in Airborne Pollution Forecasting Using Soft Computing Techniques",slug:"advances-in-airborne-pollution-forecasting-using-soft-computing-techniques",totalDownloads:2388,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Aceves-Fernandez Marco Antonio, Sotomayor-Olmedo Artemio, Gorrostieta-Hurtado Efren, Pedraza-Ortega Jesus Carlos, Ramos-Arreguín Juan Manuel, Canchola-Magdaleno Sandra and Vargas-Soto Emilio",authors:[{id:"20944",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Pedraza-Ortega",fullName:"Jesus Carlos Pedraza-Ortega",slug:"jesus-carlos-pedraza-ortega"},{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves-Fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez"},{id:"34943",title:"Dr.",name:"Artemio",middleName:null,surname:"Sotomayor-Olmedo",fullName:"Artemio Sotomayor-Olmedo",slug:"artemio-sotomayor-olmedo"},{id:"34944",title:"Prof.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta",slug:"efren-gorrostieta"},{id:"34945",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos",fullName:"Juan Manuel Ramos",slug:"juan-manuel-ramos"},{id:"34946",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Vargas-Soto",fullName:"Jose Emilio Vargas-Soto",slug:"jose-emilio-vargas-soto"},{id:"78092",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Canchola-Magdaleno",fullName:"Sandra Canchola-Magdaleno",slug:"sandra-canchola-magdaleno"}]},{id:"16145",title:"Urban Air Pollution Modeling",slug:"urban-air-pollution-modeling",totalDownloads:5678,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Anjali Srivastava and B. 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Russell",authors:[{id:"26054",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",fullName:"Alberto Mendoza",slug:"alberto-mendoza"},{id:"36442",title:"MSc.",name:"Santosh",middleName:null,surname:"Chandru",fullName:"Santosh Chandru",slug:"santosh-chandru"},{id:"36443",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongtao",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",fullName:"Yongtao Hu",slug:"yongtao-hu"},{id:"36444",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana",middleName:"Yael",surname:"Vanoye",fullName:"Ana Vanoye",slug:"ana-vanoye"},{id:"36445",title:"Dr.",name:"Armistead",middleName:null,surname:"Russell",fullName:"Armistead Russell",slug:"armistead-russell"}]},{id:"17386",title:"Uncertainty in Integrated Modelling of Air Quality",slug:"uncertainty-in-integrated-modelling-of-air-quality",signatures:"Piotr Holnicki",authors:[{id:"40665",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Holnicki",fullName:"Piotr Holnicki",slug:"piotr-holnicki"}]},{id:"17387",title:"Evaluation of Regional Emission Control Based in Photochemical Air Quality Modelling",slug:"evaluation-of-regional-emission-control-based-in-photochemical-air-quality-modelling",signatures:"Ángel Rodríguez,1Santiago Saavedra, María Dios, Carmen Torres, José A. Souto, Juan Casares, Belén Soto and José L. Bermúdez",authors:[{id:"28616",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Souto",fullName:"Jose Souto",slug:"jose-souto"},{id:"41491",title:"MSc.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",fullName:"Angel Rodriguez",slug:"angel-rodriguez"},{id:"41492",title:"Dr.",name:"Santiago",middleName:null,surname:"Saavedra",fullName:"Santiago Saavedra",slug:"santiago-saavedra"},{id:"41493",title:"MSc",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Dios",fullName:"Maria Dios",slug:"maria-dios"},{id:"41494",title:"MSc.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",fullName:"Carmen Torres",slug:"carmen-torres"},{id:"41495",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Casares",fullName:"Juan Casares",slug:"juan-casares"},{id:"41496",title:"MSc.",name:"Belen",middleName:null,surname:"Soto",fullName:"Belen Soto",slug:"belen-soto"},{id:"41497",title:"MSc.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Bermudez",fullName:"Jose Bermudez",slug:"jose-bermudez"}]},{id:"17388",title:"Development of GIS-aided Emission Inventory of Air Pollutants for an Urban Environment",slug:"development-of-gis-aided-emission-inventory-of-air-pollutants-for-an-urban-environment",signatures:"Sailesh N. Behera, Mukesh Sharma, Onkar Dikshit and S.P. Shukla",authors:[{id:"26958",title:"Prof.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Mukesh Sharma",slug:"mukesh-sharma"},{id:"41422",title:"Mr",name:"Sailesh",middleName:"N.",surname:"Behera",fullName:"Sailesh Behera",slug:"sailesh-behera"},{id:"41424",title:"Prof.",name:"Onkar",middleName:null,surname:"Dikshit",fullName:"Onkar Dikshit",slug:"onkar-dikshit"},{id:"99206",title:"Dr.",name:"S.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",fullName:"S.P. Shukla",slug:"s.p.-shukla"}]},{id:"17389",title:"Air Pollution, Modeling and GIS based Decision Support Systems for Air Quality Risk Assessment",slug:"air-pollution-modeling-and-gis-based-decision-support-systems-for-air-quality-risk-assessment",signatures:"Anjaneyulu Yerramilli, Venkata Bhaskar Rao Dodla and Sudha Yerramilli",authors:[{id:"46041",title:"Dr.",name:"Yerramillia",middleName:null,surname:"Anjaneyulu",fullName:"Yerramillia Anjaneyulu",slug:"yerramillia-anjaneyulu"}]},{id:"17400",title:"Contribution of Geostatistics to the Study of Risks Related to Air Pollution",slug:"contribution-of-geostatistics-to-the-study-of-risks-related-to-air-pollution",signatures:"Jacques Deraisme, Michel Bobbia and Chantal de Fouquet",authors:[{id:"36969",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Deraisme",fullName:"Deraisme",slug:"deraisme"},{id:"37080",title:"Mr",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Bobbia",fullName:"Michel Bobbia",slug:"michel-bobbia"},{id:"37081",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chantal",middleName:null,surname:"de Fouquet",fullName:"Chantal de Fouquet",slug:"chantal-de-fouquet"}]},{id:"17390",title:"Spatial Interpolation Methodologies in Urban Air Pollution Modeling: Application for the Greater Area of Metropolitan Athens, Greece",slug:"spatial-interpolation-methodologies-in-urban-air-pollution-modeling-application-for-the-greater-area",signatures:"Despina Deligiorgi and Kostas Philippopoulos",authors:[{id:"29291",title:"Prof.",name:"Despina",middleName:null,surname:"Deligiorgi",fullName:"Despina Deligiorgi",slug:"despina-deligiorgi"},{id:"38634",title:"MSc.",name:"Kostas",middleName:null,surname:"Philippopoulos",fullName:"Kostas Philippopoulos",slug:"kostas-philippopoulos"}]},{id:"17391",title:"The Electrical Conductivity as an Index of Air Pollution in the Atmosphere",slug:"the-electrical-conductivity-as-an-index-of-air-pollution-in-the-atmosphere",signatures:"Nagaraja Kamsali, B.S.N. Prasad and Jayati Datta",authors:[{id:"27465",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamsali",middleName:null,surname:"Nagaraja",fullName:"Kamsali Nagaraja",slug:"kamsali-nagaraja"},{id:"41601",title:"Dr.",name:"BSN",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",fullName:"BSN Prasad",slug:"bsn-prasad"},{id:"41602",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayati",middleName:null,surname:"Datta",fullName:"Jayati Datta",slug:"jayati-datta"}]},{id:"17392",title:"Quick and Economic Spatial Assessment of Urban Air Quality",slug:"quick-and-economic-spatial-assessment-of-urban-air-quality",signatures:"Panayotis C. Yannopoulos",authors:[{id:"47696",title:"Prof.",name:"Panayotis",middleName:null,surname:"Yannopoulos",fullName:"Panayotis Yannopoulos",slug:"panayotis-yannopoulos"}]},{id:"17393",title:"New Approaches for Urban and Regional Air Pollution Modelling and Management",slug:"new-approaches-for-urban-and-regional-air-pollution-modelling-and-management",signatures:"Salvador Enrique Puliafito, David Allende, Rafael Fernández, Fernando Castro and Pablo Cremades",authors:[{id:"25984",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvador",middleName:"Enrique",surname:"Puliafito",fullName:"Salvador Puliafito",slug:"salvador-puliafito"},{id:"35281",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:"Gabriel",surname:"Allende",fullName:"David Allende",slug:"david-allende"},{id:"35282",title:"MSc.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",fullName:"Fernando Castro",slug:"fernando-castro"},{id:"35283",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",middleName:"Pedro",surname:"Fernandez",fullName:"Rafael Fernandez",slug:"rafael-fernandez"},{id:"35284",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Cremades",fullName:"Pablo Cremades",slug:"pablo-cremades"}]},{id:"17394",title:"A New Air Quality Index for Cities",slug:"a-new-air-quality-index-for-cities",signatures:"Lígia T. Silva and José F. G. Mendes",authors:[{id:"26075",title:"Prof.",name:"Ligia",middleName:null,surname:"Torres Silva",fullName:"Ligia Torres Silva",slug:"ligia-torres-silva"},{id:"42205",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"F. G. Mendes",fullName:"José F. G. Mendes",slug:"jose-f.-g.-mendes"}]},{id:"17395",title:"An Analytical Application for the Determination of Metals in PM10",slug:"an-analytical-application-for-the-determination-of-metals-in-pm10",signatures:"Tony Byrd, Mary Stack and Ambrose Furey",authors:[{id:"42636",title:"Dr.",name:"Ambrose",middleName:null,surname:"Furey",fullName:"Ambrose Furey",slug:"ambrose-furey"}]},{id:"17396",title:"Artificial Neural Networks - a Useful Tool in Air Pollution and Meteorological Modelling",slug:"artificial-neural-networks-a-useful-tool-in-air-pollution-and-meteorological-modelling",signatures:"Primož Mlakar and Marija Zlata Božnar",authors:[{id:"40485",title:"Dr.",name:"Primož",middleName:null,surname:"Mlakar",fullName:"Primož Mlakar",slug:"primoz-mlakar"},{id:"40486",title:"Dr.",name:"Marija Zlata",middleName:null,surname:"Božnar",fullName:"Marija Zlata Božnar",slug:"marija-zlata-boznar"}]},{id:"17397",title:"Indoor Air Control by Microplasma",slug:"indoor-air-control-by-microplasma",signatures:"Kazuo Shimizu",authors:[{id:"26245",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",middleName:null,surname:"Shimizu",fullName:"Kazuo Shimizu",slug:"kazuo-shimizu"}]},{id:"17398",title:"Method for Validation of Lagrangian Particle Air Pollution Dispersion Model Based on Experimental Field Data Set from Complex Terrain",slug:"method-for-validation-of-lagrangian-particle-air-pollution-dispersion-model-based-on-experimental-fi",signatures:"Boštjan Grašič, Primož Mlakar and Marija Zlata Božnar",authors:[{id:"40485",title:"Dr.",name:"Primož",middleName:null,surname:"Mlakar",fullName:"Primož Mlakar",slug:"primoz-mlakar"},{id:"40486",title:"Dr.",name:"Marija Zlata",middleName:null,surname:"Božnar",fullName:"Marija Zlata Božnar",slug:"marija-zlata-boznar"},{id:"27856",title:"Dr.",name:"Boštjan",middleName:null,surname:"Grašič",fullName:"Boštjan Grašič",slug:"bostjan-grasic"}]},{id:"17399",title:"Air Quality and Bioclimatic Conditions within the Greater Athens Area, Greece - Development and Applications of Artificial Neural Networks",slug:"air-quality-and-bioclimatic-conditions-within-the-greater-athens-area-greece-development-and-applica",signatures:"Panagiotis Nastos, Konstantinos Moustris, Ioanna Larissi and Athanasios Paliatsos",authors:[{id:"32823",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",middleName:"T",surname:"Nastos",fullName:"Panagiotis Nastos",slug:"panagiotis-nastos"},{id:"40633",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Moustris",fullName:"Konstantinos Moustris",slug:"konstantinos-moustris"},{id:"40634",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioanna",middleName:null,surname:"Larissi",fullName:"Ioanna Larissi",slug:"ioanna-larissi"},{id:"40635",title:"Prof.",name:"Athanasios",middleName:null,surname:"Paliatsos",fullName:"Athanasios Paliatsos",slug:"athanasios-paliatsos"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73926",title:"Green Supply Chain in Solid Waste Management: Case Study of EcoCare H2H Waste Collection, Goaso, Ghana",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93718",slug:"green-supply-chain-in-solid-waste-management-case-study-of-ecocare-h2h-waste-collection-goaso-ghana",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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In recent years, the value that society places on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and better stewardship of soil, water and wildlife is leading to consumer demand for climate-friendly production methods and supply chain. In addition there has become a greater level of the world’s appreciation of the impact of climate change and environmental sustainability. There is also society’s general consciousness of personal and public health in relation to products that they use. And then there is an increase awareness of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) especially the SDG12 – sustainable consumption and production. Day in and out people are becoming more concern of environmental issues, consumers thus ask a lot of questions these days about the authenticity of products that they buy. And we question how green producers manufacturing processes are, how big their carbon footprints are and how they recycle [1]. Various supply activities can have a significant threat to the environment. These threats vary but in terms of carbon monoxide emissions, discarded packaging materials, scrapped toxic materials, traffic congestion and other forms of industrial pollution [2, 3].
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This means that we are heading towards a near future where, people are becoming so conscious of their health and the ecology that, if your production or ecological service does not have anything to do with protection of the earth’s resource, along its supply chain, you will not survive on both international and local markets. Undoubtedly, across all sectors of the economy, we see that companies are being influence to reformulate their environmental and supply chain models due to increases in environmental problems caused by products. Therefore, the requirement to extend companies’ environmental activities to include the whole supply chain has been instrumental in the concept of green supply chain management (GSCM) [4]. It is therefore, reasonable to say that the requirement to extend companies’ environmental activities to include the whole supply chain has been driving force of the development of the GSCM concept.
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Green supply chain management is basically the integration of environmental thinking into various supply chain management (SCM) models. In the broader sense, GSCM can be considered an environmental innovation [2]. This is because, it’s ultimate goal is to eliminate wastages including hazardous chemical, emissions, energy and solid waste along supply chain such as product design, material resourcing and selection, manufacturing process, delivery of final product and end-of-life management of the product [5, 6]. Also, because GSCM has become a multidisciplinary concept by constructing environmental management practices in the context of various supply chains [7], whether they directly provided environmental services or not. And finally, because GSCM plays a vital role in influencing the total environment impact of any firm involved in supply chain activities and thus contributing to sustainability performance enhancement [2]. Therefore, with the environmental issues becoming an integral part of the supply chain management concept, we see the context being extended so that each step from organization’s materials management and transportation functions to the end customer can be structured to include environmental awareness [8].
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It is against this backdrop that green supply chain becomes very important when designing environmental impact initiatives especially within environment organization such as waste management companies, or any social enterprise that works at the national, regional or community level to impact the triple bottom line from a green economy context. And this disposition spurs the authors of this chapter to do a review of literature in relation to the theme while reflecting on their work on waste, at their organizational level, to establish or reestablish the gains in waste value chains to inform policy makers to rethink the current waste management practices to accelerate the socioeconomic development of the country.
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This chapter therefore, analyses the waste management services as key green initiatives in Ghana; siting the case of how EcoCare Waste Initiative an environmental startup in Goaso, Ghana, achieves green supply chain in its attempt to offer community waste collection service, the lessons that could be drawn.
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2. Problems associated with unhealthy environments
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It is noted that poor water, sanitation and hygiene, and indoor air pollution from burning wood for cooking and heating were as well as unconventional burning of wastes have been the cause of pneumonia and other common environmental related disease over and over again. In order to prevent these diseases, the environment needed to change [9]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that, 24% of all global deaths – roughly 13.7 million deaths a year – are linked to environment risks such as air, water and soil pollution, chemical exposures, climate change and ultraviolet radiation. Beyond pneumonia and diarrheal diseases, these risks may contribute to more than 100 diseases and injuries [9, 10]. In sub-Saharan African region the 2.5 million deaths a year are attributable to environmental risks. Generally, the fraction of the global burden of disease due to the environment is 22% if we are accounting for both death and disability. And in children under 5 years especially, up to 26% of all deaths could be prevented, if environmental risks were removed [10]. These facts, show us the importance of ensuring that whatever product or service that impacts the environment is sustainable to give us healthy environments which will help prevent the greatest percentage if not all environmental related diseases.
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\nFigure 1 below, adopted from [10] gives a nice patristic illustration of (i) the ratio of deaths attributable to environment to deaths by other facts, and (ii) ration of disability-adjusted life year (DALY) attributable to environment to DALY non-attributable to environment; globally in 2012.
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Figure 1.
Imagery illustration of the global deaths attributed to environmental factors (adopted from [10]).
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3. Challenges with solid waste management
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3.1 Problems with solid waste in developing countries
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In the developing world, the private sector and various actors have been keenly involved in solid waste management over the past decades, yet there are still problems with solid waste delivery services [11]. The problems with solid waste in most urban cities of some countries have really become burdensome despite efforts being made by city authorities and governments. The problems of solid waste common in developing countries include the following but not limited to:
inadequate service coverage,
irregular waste collection,
waste spill over from bins and storage containers, and
lax attitude of people towards indiscriminate disposal at unauthorized places
waste littering on streets and in gutters/drains
indiscriminate burning of waste and
pressure on dump sites (locally created landfills).
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These solid waste problems are what consequently lead to environmental health problems, such as discussed in the previous section above. And not only do they impact environmental health, they also lead to esthetic nuisance, and environmental pollution in general [12, 13].
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3.2 Challenges in solid waste value chains
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One major challenge in handling solid waste problems is that these problems impact on each other and on the environment in a circular manner – which makes it difficult to only tackle only a single aspect of the solid waste value chain. For example, in Ghana, due to inadequate service coverage in many cities, rural settlements and slums, insufficient service coverage; the public dump uncollected solid waste into drains, rivers and surrounding areas, or it is locally burnt or buried. These practices lead to considerable environmental pollution and degradation, and pose serious health risk to the population. These problems impair, in the long run, not only the quality of life of the urban poorer communities but also affect the welfare of the entire urban population. These complexities are what make cities still faced with urban environmental health issues related to solid waste management [14].
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On the other hand the main causes of these waste problems in developing parts are not feasible to tackle in isolation because they are enormous, and complex interconnected social, environmental and economic factors. First, rapid urbanization poses a big problem to urban solid waste management. The rapid and unregulated urban growth and development in urban areas lead to a situation where solid waste services infrastructure lag behind the growth in population, or simply overpowers government strengths to fund municipal solid waste management.
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Second, low cost of solid waste recovery as well as limited funds from central government is another constraint to solving the challenges in the waste management value chaing in developing economies. Local authorities have difficulties in keeping pace with solid waste facilities development and in meeting the growing demand for solid waste services due to financial constraints.
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Third, there is very low political will and priority given to solid waste service, Meanwhile most governments acknowledge immediacy and seriousness of solid waste problems to their countries. The lack of priority, political will, and public sector commitment limit rapid and sustainable improvements in the solid waste sector in developing countries like Ghana.
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Fourth, there is also the factor of the enforcement solid waste management. This contributes to the lax attitude of the people towards indiscriminate disposal at unauthorized places, waste littering, and burning in open space. The enforcement of regulation by government officials appears to be weak and this may be due to lack of capacity, lack of resources and political will, and problems with the institutional set-up.
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Finally, we have also noticed that there are problems with physical and human capacity for solid waste collection and technology operations in some countries. The human capacity of the public and private sector organizations may not be adequate and most of the few waste collection businesses that step in to contribute are usually not designed to be green, scalable and sustainable enough [14].
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4. How green can waste collection be?
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The root causes of solid waste problems have causal relationships with the various environmental and socio-economic factors that are already impacting the lives of populations living in these cities that are the most affected by the solid waste management challenge. That is why for our solid waste collection services to be sustainable enough, it must integrate social, environmental and economic impact models. If a waste collection service provider is able to consider the impact of their services on the triple bottom line – that is addressing social, environmental and economic variables – then we can say that the service is sustainable. Figure 2 illustrates the intersessions of the social, environmental and economic variables that affect populations which when address makes a service sustainable.
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Figure 2.
The interconnection of the elements of the triple bottom line concept (adopted from [15]).
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First of all, the service must have measurable impacts on the social variables faced by the affected people and communities – that is to cause social change and improvement. This means for a waste collection services to be green it must address some social variables that deals with the community, education (e.g. increased awareness about effects of waste etc.), equity (e.g. reduction in child labor, increase in girl child education etc.), health, well-being and quality of life of the people.
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Secondly, a green service must bring economic benefits to the populations involved. This means, not only must the service make some profits for its sustainable cash flow (to remain in business), the service provider must also factor the economic dynamics of the users when pricing its services, and the activities in the service must create jobs and employment opportunities. Thus they must offer a service that is available and affordable to all classes of the population.
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Finally a green waste collection service must integrate protection of the environment at the core of serving the people and the economy. It must have considerations for saving natural resources, water, air quality, energy conservation and land use across all of its supply chains. If all aspects of a solid waste collection service – from procurement of logistics, collection of wastes and transport to disposal, are able to respect protection of the environments, reduce pollution and carbon emission, then we can say that such a waste collection service is green – it respects green supply chain management (GSCM).
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5. Greening the waste supply chains: national to local contexts
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Within the waste management industry a generalized broader way of defining waste would be: wastes are materials that are not prime products for which the generator has no further use in terms of his or her own purposes of production, transformation, or consumption and of which he or she wants to dispose [16]. And from national to local contexts we identify that:
the extraction of raw materials,
processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products,
the consumption of final products, and
other human activities are ways through which waste may be generated [17].
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In Ghana particularly it is estimated that an average city generates about four thousand (4000) tons waste daily. To this end, the rate of waste generation in Ghana stands at 0.47 kg/person/day, which translates into about 12,710 tons of waste per day averagely [5].
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The conventional methods of dealing with these waste in Ghana have included throwing into open dumps, wetlands, landfills, and uncontrolled dumps or in some cases are incinerated in the open air. Due to our current conventional approaches to dealing with waste, it is difficult to get a significant quantity of waste generated to go into recycling, composting or reuse to tap the potential end use value of solid wastes. However, if waste is properly managed – from generation to disposal – there are enormous untapped potentials that could be fully exploited. And this also have a consequential potential of improving greatly the quality of life for Ghanaians through energy generation, employment generation, income acquisition, and resource for goods production among others.
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Therefore, the municipal solid waste (MSW) collection model ran by the government and city authorities where waste is collected and simply dumped at landfills by only one government agent or contractor, could be remodeled to make it more green and sustainable. We can decentralize the entire municipal waste management value chain – using a zonation approach. Government in an effort to rid the respective metropolis of the mountain of filths, these metropolises contract private waste management companies in a joint venture termed public-private partnerships (PPP) which over the years have witnessed a considerable increase particularly as witnessed in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, to assist in the collection and disposal of MSW at landfill sites [16, 17]. This PPP for waste management could be replicated at local levels in peri-urban centers where we are witnessing an exponential growth of startups and youth organizations committed to social entrepreneurship [18, 19, 20].
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When the waste management value chain is decentralized, what it also means is that we will have many actors – even SMEs and startups – on the various points of the waste value chain. Some will specialize on the collection to ensure that communities achieve 100 percentage recovery of waste from homes and the public. Which will also make waste collection service relatively affordable for every household to subscribe. More people subscribed to waste collection means little or no more indiscriminate disposal of waste at unauthorized places like drains, bushes and water bodies; and no burying or burning of wastes by households. Secondly, at local (zonal) levels, waste management companies could partner, together with government initiative, and build one major community owned state-of-the-art landfill system or incinerator. This will ensure that waste disposal in each community is not scattered to claim more arable lands that could be used for farming. Finally, while some waste service providers focus on collection and disposal, some others could only invest in treatment and recycling. The waste collected by company A from the same city could be sold to company B as raw material to be converted into various end-user resources like upcycling plastic wastes into bricks, tiles and ceramics or processing to produce energy like combustion chambers, gasification systems, liquefaction etc. [16, 21, 22].
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Here, the authors propose a conceptual framework for turning wastes back into production chains in a circular economy manner – to make national and local wastes supply chains green. From the triple bottom line modeling, we considered EcoCare activities that result in economic gains, those that impact the environment and those that lead to social change. For a given community as an entity if a waste initiative is able to link all of its solutions to economic and environment holistically, that service will indirectly take care of its social impact variables (Figure 3).
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Figure 3.
Conceptual framework for green waste supply chains (from EcoCare pitch deck [23]).
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6. Factors affecting waste management supply chains in Ghana
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\n
6.1 Actors and elements of solid waste management (SWM)
\n
Solid Waste Management (SWM) could be defined as managing the processes involved in solid waste collection, treatment and disposal of waste generated in households, commercial and business establishments, institutions, and non-hazardous industrial process wastes. Solid waste collection has evolved over the years from collection of unsegregated waste and disposal on dumping grounds to collection of source separated waste streams through formal and informal service providers. The management of the processes involved which was traditionally public has now become public-private-community provision and partnerships arrangements [24].
\n
The direct activities in solid waste management could be grouped into six functional elements basically:
waste generation and characterization,
on-site storage and handling,
collection,
transfer and transport,
separation processing, treatment and resource recovery, and
final disposal.
\n\n
These functional elements require planning and management in order to achieve high quality of service. Unfortunately, however, the waste management value chain has not contributed to greening cities because most cities’ agencies responsible for SWM often pay too little attention to integrated management approaches based on adequate information systems, management approaches, methods, and techniques. The activities of service provision may be concentrated in one organization or fragmented over multiple organizations.
\n
As mentioned in Section 5 above, if solid waste management in cities is decentralized whereby various actors of waste management initiatives (private and public) were contracted to work on different activities of the waste value chains, it would be easy for cities to achieve green waste management supply chains. It is noted by [11] that these activities of the waste supply chain could best be regrouped into four fragmented stages, and it is best if different actors worked on different fragments in the process of making solid waste management green. A diagrammatic representation of the four fragmented process of waste management is shown by Figure 4 below.
\n
Figure 4.
Elements and actors in the solid waste management supply chain (adopted from [11]).
\n
From Figure 4, we discover that at least 4 groups of elements and 4 groups of actors run through 4 stages of the waste management supply chain. Again we can see that a waste management supply chain can take a linear pathway (as is being done in most cities) and a circular pathway (which has only been promoted recently to be the most eco-friendly and green approach).
\n
The linear waste management supply chain will take a path in which waste moves straight away from stage 1 (primary storage points) through stage 2 (collection and transport) to stage 4 (final disposal). In some typical rural communities in Ghana, the linear model could even involve just stage 1 (waste generators store long piles of waste in their houses for a long time) and then move it straight away to stage 4 (a local community dump site, call “borla so” in local dialect). This means that in the linear model, most actors may be left out. In the Stage 1–4 linear approach for example, you notice that households, institutions etc. who generate their waste at stage 1, store the waste, and then later send it to dump site by themselves – cutting off public and private waste collectors in stage 2, and even recyclers in stage 3.
\n
On the other hand, the circular waste management supply chain is one that progress from Stage 1 through 2 and 3 to 4, then back to 3. What happens here is that, after the waste reaches the final stage they are not disposed completely into permanent landfills, but all or some percentage of the waste is recovered back for reuse, recycling and other purposes of getting the waste material back into a production cycle again. These waste recovered could be repurpose into other end user goods and products through various means of treatment and processing – such as organic compositing, plastic recycling and upcycling, plastic extrusion, reuse etc. With this circular model of solid waste management, all the actors across the 4 stages on the waste supply chain get some work to do, and contribute to making the city’s waste management green and sustainable.
\n
\nTable 1 gives an idea of how different types of solid waste could be repurposed in the circular economy waste management model.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Types of solid waste
\n
Typical sources
\n
Potential products
\n
Methods (processes)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Agro waste (organic)
\n
Rice, wheat, straw and husk, cotton stalk, saw mill waste, vegetable residues, nut, shells etc.
Types of waste and their repurpose potential in a circular waste supply chain.
We could not separate recycle and non-recyclable plastics as it is done commonly, so take these to be only plastics that could directly be recycled/or repurposed easily.
[Source: authors’ construct based on synthesis of various prototypes and recycled products in literature].
\n
\n
\n
6.2 Modes of solid waste collection services
\n
According to 11 we can identify four modes of solid waste collection service1 depending on the income levels of the people, housing types and the level of service required. They include:
\nCommunal\n2\ncollection mode is rendered in low income areas. The householders discharge their waste into communal storage containers at transfer stations or designated locations and collection vehicles pick up the containers full of waste at frequent intervals.\n
\nBlock collection mode is used where there are large apartment residential buildings. For this service, collection vehicle travels along a predetermined route at specific intervals (every 2–3 days) and stops at selected locations. The householders bring their waste bins upon hearing a bell sound and hand them to the crew who empties the bins and gives them back to the householders [\n\n11\n\n].\n
\nKerbside collection mode is rendered in middle and high income areas. The collection crew collects bins and bags of waste which are deposited at the kerbside on fixed days (e.g. 2 specific days in a week) when collection takes place. The householders leave their bins at the kerbside and collect them later in the day [\n\n11\n\n].\n
\nDoor-to-door or house-to-house\n3\ncollection mode is rendered in middle and high income areas. The collection crew enters each premise, takes out the bin and sends it back after emptying the waste into collection vehicles. No bins are left out-side household premises.
\n\n
The residents served by the kerbside and house-to-house collection use standard bins to store waste. And this is what is practiced in the EcoCare H2H Waste Collection model.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. The case of EcoCare waste initiative
\n
\n
7.1 The EcoCare story
\n
A brief capture of the story of the EcoCare team and initiative could help paint a picture of how an environmental company could be born out of a passion to protect lives by cleaning and greening our environments. We capture this from an unpublished executive document of the EcoCare Waste Initiative [25]:
\n\n
Jackson Nyarko the visionary of EcoCare had a friend who was part of the victims that lost their lives to the June 3, 2015 flood disaster in Accra, Ghana. One of the major cause of this disaster was later linked to a major drain that was choked by filth (plastic wastes especially) due to indiscriminate waste disposal. A year later, 2016, Jackson had the opportunity to participate in an Eco-enterprises development incubator. He was touched by his lost due to the indiscriminate problem to build a concept around Waste Management. In search of his first team members, Jackson first brought on board his Friend, Frank Yeboah, who also related to the loss of lives in that June 3rd disaster. So the 2 united their passion, loss and expertise to design EcoCare Waste Initiative. With the mission to challenge Ghanaians wasteful paradigm and throwaway culture. Then from there, their need to fill up the expertise gap brought in Felix Ankamah Yeboah (an environmental engineer), then later Isaac Sarfo Larbi, Maxwell Osei-Bonsu and the late Acheamponmaa Duffour.
\n\n
\n
\n
7.2 The EcoCare business model
\n
EcoCare Waste Initiative was set up with the sustainable development goal (SDG) 12 in mind first, then later partnerships (SDG 17) with other actors to integrate other goals – SDG 6 and 13 started running through the model. Figure 5 below shows a non-updated business model of EcoCare developed by the co-founders which is used in modeling all the services and programs initiated by EcoCare since 2017.
\n
Figure 5.
Business model of EcoCare waste initiative (from EcoCare pitch deck for TEDxAccra, 2017).
\n
\n
\n
7.3 Milestones towards a greening cities of Ahafo
\n
Since the conception in 2016, the EcoCare team has been challenged by the daunting vision “to become a world class environmental company solving global sustainability and ecological problems and inspiring African excellence.” And driven by the mission “develop innovative technologies for managing wastes and protecting environments for people and communities,” EcoCare has moved through 3 growth stages:
\n
Through 2017–2018: EcoCare first focused on social campaigns against plastics pollution and indiscriminate waste disposal – mainly on social media (virtual) and talk shows in and around Goaso. At this point it was quite difficult to identify on which of the four stages (illustrated in Figure 4) that the EcoCare was acting. But it served as a foundation process.
\n
Through 2019: EcoCare added EcoEvents Cleanup to its business model – where we did waste Collection and segregation at source (people’s events like wedding receptions and funerals) - for revenue generation. Now it becomes clear to identify EcoCare as an actor at the Stage 2 and 4 – in a linear model of waste management.
In May 2020, we rolled out the House to House Waste Collection Service (called H2H Waste Collection) in 4 “elite communities” in Goaso. This business model though currently on a small scale, has elements of primary storage (with segregation at source), collection, and recovery of recyclables before disposal at authorized landfill sites. Now you can see EcoCare acting across the 4 major stages of green waste supply green chain – in a circular mode. The next subsection (7.3) describes some details of how the H2H Waste Collection makes EcoCare contribute to greening the waste management supply chain of Goaso.
\n\n
\n
\n
7.4 The EcoCare H2H waste collection model
\n
The EcoCare House to House Waste Collection was designed to achieve six (6) goals, but which will cut across the social, economic and environment triple bottom line and have a tremendous impact in setting a new pace for green waste management supply chain models in Goaso. The six goals are:
support municipal waste collection to reach all neighborhoods in Goaso – Social\n
help every household to adopt the behavior of segregating their wastes – Social\n
ease families of monthly sanitation bills by cheap and easy payment plans – Economic\n
create direct and indirect jobs for waste supply chain in Goaso – Economic\n
ensure prompt collection and odor free neighborhoods – Environment\n
make Goaso the cleanest district capital in Ghana – Environment\n
\n\n
So moving from the conventional linear approach to solid waste management, the EcoCare H2H Waste Collection has introduced a circular model by:
supplying waste bins for storage of waste in households,
supplying recycling bags for segregation of recyclable wastes at the homes (source),
prompt collection of wastes on weekly basis,
recovering and storing recyclables waste (e.g. plastics, glass, paper etc.) at our warehouse,
transporting disposable waste to authorized community landfills and
Distributing recovered recyclable wastes to partner recycling companies.
\n\n
Without capacity to recycle, EcoCare is currently creating a distribution model for connecting with plastic recycling companies within Ahafo who will receive our recovered wastes as raw materials for the recycling plants. This will ensure that even while we do not have the capacity to complete our circular model, by partnership with other actors in the sector we could still make a complete green waste supply chain.
\n
\n
\n
\n
8. Results and lessons learned from EcoCare and the green initiatives
\n
Most cities in Ghana continue to spend on solid waste management whereas others in other parts of the world persistently generate clean energy, income and raw materials and social development through the solid waste value chains. The common practice of waste management in Ghana since independence, which has been the linear supply chain approach – where we just collect and dispose – has not been very much beneficial until the last decade.
\n
In recent years, some actors in the waste management industry have made efforts to transform Ghana’s sanitation services into a more sustainable development (circular economy) model – where different actors partner to work on different aspects of the waste value chain. By so doing, today, not only do we see collect and dump waste management services, but also there are being a crop of recycling initiatives coming in.
\n
There are large scale companies like Zoomlion, Surfisana, and CleanTeam etc. contributing to this new revolution to transform Ghana’s linear waste management supply chain into a more circular sector. And interestingly, the efforts of environmental SMEs which are even at startup stages but are more passionate about circular economy, are inspiring green initiatives in Ghana, and EcoCare Waste Initiative is the number on of such inspirations for the Asunafo North Municipality and almost the entire Ahafo region of Ghana.
\n
Since 2017, EcoCare has been into advocacy and contributed a voice to speaking out for a change in Ghanaians behavior towards indiscriminate disposal of waste, plastic pollution, environmental depletion and a call for circular economy in the environment industry. And EcoCare Waste Initiative was the first the startup to inspire the small scale local green waste supply chain model in Goaso, which few other startups and youth groups are to replicating today in the Asunafo North Municipality.
\n
\nTable 2 below shows the four (4) main initiatives that had been rolled out by EcoCare since incorporation in 2017; and the impacts that these activities have made across the social, environmental and economic development variables of Goaso and other.
Active in 2017–2019; No current active challenge in 2020
\n
Impacting and influencing climate action and responsible consumption and production in 70 members
\n
Saved 21,900 L of water in 2018–2019 by our community of 70 environmental lovers through the challenge
\n
Several indirect jobs and revenue created for partners and suppliers – e.g. media houses, graphic designers, web/app designers
\n
\n
\n
EcoEvent cleanup service
\n
Operated in 2019; Not operated yet in 2020
\n
Influenced the way event organizers manage their waste in Goaso
\n
Reduced amount of waste that ended up at dump site in Goaso during weekends; Expected to save up to 6516 tons of CO2-eq emission from waste burning by 2022
\n
Created 11 direct jobs within, 2 outside; several indirect jobs
\n
\n
\n
EcoCare DIY recycling training
\n
Active 2018–2019
\n
Influenced 600+ youth and students to consider waste as a resource for artifact creation
\n
Prevented indiscriminate throwing of plastic wastes;
\n
Provided skills for youth and women in plastic craft work
Rolled out in May 2020; Operated for about 10 weeks now
\n
Served and impacted 16 households to choose paid waste collection service, learn to practice segregation of waste and control their waste generation
\n
1800 kg of wastes collected and properly disposed in 8 weeks of active operation; 11.25 kg waste per household per week; Generation is fairly constant
\n
Created 3 different direct jobs for transporters, collectors and recyclers; 1/3 of waste generated go into recycling for revenue creation etc.
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Social, environmental and economic impacts of EcoCare’s green initiatives.
Plastic Free Campaign is global remote community (across 7 African countries) so impact are more global than local.
Find highlights of impacts discussed in Sec 9 below, since H2H Collection is the main model discussed for this chapter.
Some values are estimates from our unpublished Impact Assessment.
\n
\n
\n
9. Summary and way forward
\n
From a careful review of the results and lessons learned from EcoCare and other solid waste management companies that incorporate circularity into their services, we found that incorporation of a recovery and recycling channel at some point makes them contribute greatly to greening their environments. And such services are setting a pace for understanding, adoption and replication of green supply chain management (GSCM) into waste management in the country.
\n
Waste generation among the user communities of EcoCare’s H2H Waste Collection, has been fairly constant. Meaning users are influenced to keep their waste generate at a moderation (in check) since the bin provided them is not the usual larger bins that public services provide. Also, the weekly collection and pay per pickup plan of the H2H Collection service influence users to not exceed their thresholds between weekly pickups.
\n
Customer feedback tells us that the people prefer this service to the conventional collect and dump model. Feedback also suggests that a flexible and affordable payment plan has a potential to motivate more households to subscribe to paid waste collection services, rather than resort to their indiscriminate disposal of wastes.
\n
A green supply chain model like the H2H Waste Collection also makes users (the people) feel a part of contributing to keeping their cities clean and green. This could be true because customers generally accepted the responsibility for the environmental pollution in their neighborhoods caused by the dumping of wastes at unauthorized places or long term storage of piles of wastes in their backyards.
\n
The H2H Waste Collection model is highly commended for the fact that it connects multiple actors in the waste service, and opens door for more jobs and economic activities to be created in the city if the public municipal solid waste department adopts this model too.
\n
Over all, if successful, we are optimistic that these four (4) green initiatives provided by EcoCare Waste Initiative could create 1000+ decent direct employment activities and 1000 change agents for the global goals on sustainable consumption and production (SDG 12) by 2022 from recycling model alone.4\n
\n
The authors recommend that private-public-partnerships for waste management in Goaso and other cities would be greener if they replicated the circular economy model implemented by EcoCare Waste Initiative and its H2H Waste Collection model.
\n
\n
\n
10. Conclusion
\n
One key factor that affects green supply chain management (GSCM) is the integration of environmental value proposition. Environmental companies thus have little to do to achieve a green supply chain model, since their business models start with providing solutions to environmental problems, with consequential impacts on social and economic variables. EcoCare, a waste management startup in Goaso, Ghana, has proved that incorporating the triple bottom line, in municipal solid waste management – according to a circular economy model – is very possible, and that more cities have the potential to respecting the green supply chain management. Four main activities of EcoCare Waste Initiative – Plastic Free Campaigs, EcoEvent CleanUps Service, DIY Recycling Training and H2H Was Collection service – have been found to contribute to the greening the waste collection supply chain in Goaso, the capital of Asunafo North Municipality and the Ahafo region of Ghana. The House-to-house waste collection service (EcoCare H2H) ran by EcoCare is setting a pace for green supply chain management in Goaso.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"supply chain, environment, circular economy, sustainability, solid wastes, EcoCare, TBL, sanitation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73926.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73926.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73926",totalDownloads:23,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 27th 2020",dateReviewed:"August 24th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Today, Green supply chain management (GSCM) has become a multidisciplinary concept by constructing environmental management practices in the context of various supply chains including waste management services. Environmental issues have become an important integration into the supply chain management, so that each step from organization’s materials management and transportation functions to the end customer can be structured to include environmental awareness. The authors analyze the levels of application of GSCM in waste management value chain of Ghana and use our house-to-house waste collection model as case. Review of the social, environmental and economic impacts made by waste EcoCare and other solid waste management companies that incorporate circularity – at least a recovery and recycling channel at some point – into their service shows are setting a pace for understanding, adoption and replication of green supply chain management (GSCM) into waste management in the country. The authors recommend that private-public-partnerships for waste management in Goaso and other cities would be greener if they replicated the circular economy model implemented by EcoCare Waste Initiative and its H2H Waste Collection model.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73926",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73926",signatures:"Jackson Nyarko, Frank A. Yeboah, Felix A. Yeboah, Isaac S. Larbi and Maxwell Osei-Bonsu",book:{id:"9555",title:"Green Supply Chain",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Green Supply Chain",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Tamás Bányai and Dr. Ireneusz Kaczmar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9555.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Problems associated with unhealthy environments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Challenges with solid waste management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Problems with solid waste in developing countries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Challenges in solid waste value chains",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. How green can waste collection be?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Greening the waste supply chains: national to local contexts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Factors affecting waste management supply chains in Ghana",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.1 Actors and elements of solid waste management (SWM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.2 Modes of solid waste collection services",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. The case of EcoCare waste initiative",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"7.1 The EcoCare story",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.2 The EcoCare business model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.3 Milestones towards a greening cities of Ahafo",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"7.4 The EcoCare H2H waste collection model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Results and lessons learned from EcoCare and the green initiatives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"9. Summary and way forward",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nMurray M. Introduction to the green supply chain: Starting to create a green supply chain can add to the bottom line [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https://www.thebalancesmb.com/introduction-to-the-green-supply-chain-2221084 [Accessed: January 21, 2019]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nChin TA, Tat HH, Sulaiman Z. Green supply chain management, environmental collaboration and sustainability performance. Procedia CIRP. 2015;26:695-699. DOI: 10.1016/j.procir.2014.07.035\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nWisner JD, Tan K-C, Leong GK. Supply Chain Management: A Balanced Approach. 3rd ed. Canada: South-Western Cengage Learning; 2012\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nSezen B, Çankaya SY. Green supply chain management theory and practices. In: Akkucuk U, editor. Ethics and Sustainability in Global Supply Chain Management. IGI Global: United States of America; 2017. pp. 92-114. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2036-8.ch005\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nRao P. Greening of Suppliers/In-bound Logistics In the South East Asian Context. In: Sarkis J, editor. Greening the Supply Chain. London: Springer; 2006. DOI: 10.1007/1-84628-299-3_11\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nSrivastava SK. Green supply-chain management: A state-of-the-art literature review. International Journal of Management Reviews. 2007;9(1):53-80\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nEltayeb T, Zailani S, Ramayah T. Green supply chain initiatives among certified companies in Malaysia and environmental sustainability: Investigating the outcomes. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2011;55(5):495-506. DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.09.003\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nSimpson D, Power D. Use the supply relationship to develop lean and green suppliers. Supply Chain Management. 2005;10(1):60-68. DOI: 10.1108/13598540510578388\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nNeira M. Environments should improve not harm our health [Internet]. 2016. Available from: https://www.who.int/mediacenter/ [Accessed: May 22, 2020]\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nPrüss-Ustün A, Wolf J, Corvalán C, Bos R, Neira M. Preventing Disease through Healthy Environments: A Global Assessment of the Burden of Disease from Environmental Risks. Geneva: WHO Press; 2016. p. 147\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nOduro-Kwarteng S. Private sector involvement in urban solid waste collection [Thesis]. CRC Press/Balkema: Erasmus University, Rotterdam; 2011\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nZurbrugg C. Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries. Duebendorf, Switzerland: SANDEC/EAWAG; 1999\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nOduro-Kwarteng S, Awuah E, Kotoka P. Solid Waste Man-Agement Practices in Kumasi, Ghana: Public Concerns and Attitude towards Disposal and Cost Recovery. The Netherlands: CRC Press/Balkema; 2006\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nUnited Nations Habitat (UN-HABITAT). An Urbanizing World, Global Report on Human Settlements. New York: United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT); 1996\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nDalibozhko A, Krakovetskaya I. Youth entrepreneurial projects for the sustainable development of global community: Evidence from Enactus program. SHS Web of Conferences. 2018;57:01009. DOI: 10.1051/shsconf/20185701009\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nAbalo E.M, Peprah P, Nyonyo J, Ampomah-Sarpong R, and Agyemang-Duah W. A Review of the triple gains of waste and the way forward for Ghana. Renewable Energy. Journal of Renewable Energy. 2018;2018. ID 9737683. DOI:10.1155/2018/9737683\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nShah R. Generation of waste by economic activities. In: Proceedings of United Nations Statistical Division, (UNSD Workshop on Waste Statistics). Geneva: UNECE/EUROSTAT/EE; 2012\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nGhana Statistical Service, Estimation of population in Ghana, Ghana, Accra, Ghana [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/ [Accessed: June 29, 2020]\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\n“Accra Metropolitan Assembly composite budget for the 2015 fiscal year. Republic of Ghana” [Internet]. 2015. Available from: http://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/budget/2016/Composite/GR/AMA.pdf [Accessed: June 29, 2020]\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nAccra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), The Composite Budget for 2017-2019. Programme Based Budget Estimates. 2017 fiscal year. Republic of Ghana [Internet]. 2017. Available from: http://www.mofep.gov.gh/ [Accessed: June 29, 2020]\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nAddaney M, Oppong RA. Critical issues of municipal solid waste Management in Ghana. Journal of Energy and Natural Resource Management. 2015;2(1):30-36\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nSchubeler P, Wehrle K, Christen J. Conceptual Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Management in low-Income Countries. St. Gallen: Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in Technology and Management; 1996\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\n“Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly composite budget for the 2016 fiscal year, Republic of Ghana” [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/budget/2016/Composite/AR/KMA.pdf [Accessed: June 29, 2020]\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nTchobanoglous G, Theisen H, Vigil S. Integrated Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1993\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nNyarko J. Note to EcoCare Shareholders [Unpublished]; 2020. Source: http://www.ecocaregh.com\n\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nEnayetullah I, Sinha M. Breaking Barriers. Dhaka: Oral Presentation at TEDxDhaka Conference; 2014\n'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Take Collection service in general as the collection of solid waste from households in the municipality or from communal storage point."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"\nCommunal collection: A system for solid waste collection in which individuals bring their municipal solid waste directly to a central point, from where it is collected."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"\nHouse-to-house collection- Method of collecting domestic solid waste in which the house-holder is responsible for putting the waste (in a container) outside his property at the curb- or roadside at specified times for collection. The container should generally be kept within the property (definitions are adopted from [11])."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Enayetullah and Sinha [26], TEDxDhaka estimates recycling 1ton of waste creates 2 new jobs for waste pickers etc."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jackson Nyarko",address:"nyarkojackson@gmail.com",affiliation:'
EcoCare Waste Initiative, Ghana
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Frank A. Yeboah",address:null,affiliation:'
EcoCare Waste Initiative, Ghana
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Felix A. Yeboah",address:null,affiliation:'
EcoCare Waste Initiative, Ghana
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Energy and Natural Resource, Ghana
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Isaac S. Larbi",address:null,affiliation:'
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