\r\n\t \r\n\tAlso, the book deals with the motions and path of charged particles in an electromagnetic field and in a field gradient. Some numerical and unsolved problems are discussed as well. \r\n\t \r\n\tFurther discussion is based on the linearized theory for plasma for single and two-fluid species, the dispersion relations for cold plasma, electron plasma wave in warm plasma and ion-acoustic wave. Electromagnetic waves in cold plasma and electrostatic electron oscillation perpendicular to the applied magnetic field are given. Experimental techniques used in plasma physics and diagnostic methods are discussed, as well. The growth rate of plasma fluid stability is calculated for different types of plasma instabilities and conditions. \r\n\t \r\n\tThe methods of heating and confinements of plasma will be also used as a topic.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-679-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-678-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-680-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0fe936bfad77ae70ad96c46de8b7730d",bookSignature:"Dr. Sukhmander Singh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8490.jpg",keywords:"Plasma frequency, Debye length, plasma motion, electromagnetic field, electron plasma wave, electromagnetic wave, ion-acoustic wave, Alfven wave, microwave method, the acoustic method, nuclear reaction, heating of plasma",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 3rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 22nd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"282807",title:"Dr.",name:"Sukhmander",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"sukhmander-singh",fullName:"Sukhmander Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282807/images/system/282807.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sukhmander Singh is working as an assistant professor in the department of physics, central university of Rajasthan, Kishangarh. Ajmer, India. Prior to joining here, he has also worked at Delhi university for almost four years. He did his Ph.D. in theoretical plasma physics from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. Dr. Singh has published several research articles in Internation journals and conferences. 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1. Introduction
Advancements in cement-based technology, such as concrete technology, have led to the development of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) materials [1]. Considerable research efforts have been made contributing to theoretical and technological knowledge about properties and behaviour of FRC across the globe. Applications of FRC are very common in civil and structural engineering.
There are numerous fibre types, in various sizes and shapes, available for commercial and experimental use. The basic fibre types are steel fibre; synthetic fibres, such as polypropylene, glass, carbon, polyolefin and polyvinyl; and waste fibre materials. Using these fibres individually as well as on hybrid basis has an effect on the mechanical properties of FRC members. These mechanical properties depend on the type, geometry, and content of fibres [2, 3] as described below.
The addition of fibres into cementitious composites enables considerable improvement in mechanical and dynamic properties of reinforced concrete members. The delay and control of tensile cracking in the composite material are the most considerable outcome of fibre associated with concrete [4]. Most mechanical properties of composite are enhanced using intercept micro-cracks. ACIFC [5] stated the reliance of the level of enhancement accomplished on the type of fibre and the dosage rate as compared to plain concrete. Thus, FRC demonstrates excellent tensile strength, toughness and energy dissipation capacity [6, 7]. It also increases significantly the shear [8, 9, 10], flexural [9, 11, 12], punching [13, 14], resistance and durability ([15, 16]; Kunieda et al., 2014) of concrete structures as well as superb resistance to cracking [17].
Those attractive properties allow the direct application of fibres in concrete. However, each fibre type could enhance specific concrete properties. Accordingly, the aim of this chapter is to investigate into the potential of using various types of fibres which include steel fibre and synthetic fibres such as polypropylene, glass, carbon, polyolefin and polyvinyl in enhancing the mechanical properties of concrete.
Recent researches have shown that waste fibres can also be a valuable reinforcement system to decrease significantly the brittle behaviour of cement-based materials, by improving their toughness and post-cracking resistance [18]. It also has beneficial environmental and economic impacts [19, 20]. The effect of using waste fibre in enhancing concrete properties is also reported.
The use of two or more types of fibres in a suitable combination showed a great potential to optimise the properties of concrete material as well as to improve the mechanical performance of reinforced concrete members. This combining of fibres, often called hybridization is currently used as the inclusion of single fibre in concrete cannot attain an optimal performance. The use of hybrid is commonly limited to two types. These are a mix of steel and polypropylene fibres and a mix of steel fibres with different geometry, shape and size. A further description on different fibre combinations is shown in the below sections. This chapter reported on the historical use of fibres; types of fibres; the addition, mixing, placing, finishing and curing of steel, polypropylene and structural synthetic fibres and the mechanical properties of cement-based composites reinforced with steel, polypropylene, structural synthetic, water fibres and hybrid fibres.
2. Fibres: origin and history
Fibres were used at least 3500 years ago to build the 57 m high hill of Aqar Quf near Baghdad through brittle matrix materials and sun-baked bricks [21]. Additionally, masonry mortar and plaster were reinforced through horsehair [22]. Similarly, cement products were reinforced through asbestos fibres for about 100 years ago. In contrast, alternate fibre types were instigated within the 1960s and 70s due to health issues related to asbestos fibres.
In the nineteenth century, the use of reinforcing rods in the tensile zone of the concrete was imposed for the low tensile strength and brittle character of concrete [23]. In addition, the incorporation of discontinuous steel reinforcing elements including metal chips, nails and wire segments into concrete was attempted through patents recently.
Romualdi and Baston [24] have investigated the steel fibres potential for steel reinforcing rods in concrete during the early 1960s in the United States. Afterwards, steel fibre reinforced concrete has been advanced through assorted experimentation, industrial application and research development. Similarly, Goldfein [25] conducted experiments with and without reinforcement using plastic fibres in concrete. Structural synthetic fibres were used explicitly by Japanese construction companies since 1997 as an alternate of steel fibre reinforcement. The expansion of structural synthetic fibres is attempted in Europe, North America and Australia.
Most applications suggest the use of fibre reinforced concrete such as refractory materials, concrete products, and road and floor slabs over the past 40 years [23].
3. Types of fibres
Fibre types are accessible for experimental and commercial use in assorted sizes and shapes. The basic fibre categories are steel fibre; synthetic fibres, such as polypropylene, glass, carbon, polyolefin and polyvinyl; and waste fibre materials. However, in structural cement-based elements, steel, polypropylene and structural synthetic fibre reinforced concrete as well as waste fibres are the main types of fibre, which are used as a replacement for conventional steel fabric reinforcement. Using these fibres individually as well as on hybrid basis has an effect on the mechanical properties of FRC members. These mechanical properties depend on the type, geometry and content of fibres [2, 3] as described below.
3.1. Steel fibres
Many efforts have been made in recent years to optimise the shape of steel fibres to achieve improved fibre-matrix bond characteristics, and to enhance fibre dispersibility in the concrete mix [26]. The classification for four general types is provided by ASTM A 820 on the basis of manufacturing products [22]. These products include cut sheet, melt extracted, cold-drawn wire and other fibres.
Figure 1 has shown other common types of steel fibres. By cutting and chopping wire, rounded and straight steel fibres, having a diameter between 0.25 and 1.0 mm are produced. Furthermore, shearing sheet of flattening wire produces flat and straight steel fibres of 0.15–0.41 mm thickness by 0.25–1.14 mm width. The production of crimped and deformed steel fibres is based on the full-length crimpling or bent or enlarged at each side of the fibres. The bending or flattening process is used to deform fibres to expand bond and allow mixing and handling [28].
Figure 1.
Different steel fibre types [27].
Element
Quantity
Cement
320–350 kg/m3
Well-graded sharp sand
750–850 kg/m3
Continuous aggregate grading
28 mm
Crushed stone
14 mm, 15–20%
Characteristic compressive strength
25 N/mm2
Water/cement ratio
0.50–0.55
Table 1.
Concrete mix design of steel fibre reinforced concrete.
The handling and mixing process is facilitated through fibres being collated into bundles. The bundles are distributed into single fibres during the mixing process. Similarly, cold-drawn wire is used to produce fibres that are smooth for making steel wool. In addition, the melt extraction process is used to produce steel fibres [22].
Young’s modulus is 205 MPa, aspect ratio varies from 30 to 100, ultimate tensile strength of steel fibre varies from 345 to 1700 MPa, and length varies from 19 to 60 mm for respective fibres.
The largest fibre producers offer a statistical analysis to claim the sale of 67% fibre based on the hooked type. Katzer (2006) explained that crimped fibre (8%), straight fibre (9%) and fibre with deformed wire (9%) are other most popular fibre types.
3.2. Synthetic fibres
Research and development reflect the efforts of man-made fibres in the form of synthetic fibres specifically in the textile and petrochemical industries. Organic polymers derive fibres for synthetic fibre reinforced concrete based on available formulations [22]. Acrylic, polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyester, carbon and aramid are the concrete-based matrices for synthetic fibre types in Portland cement. However, there is a dearth of these fibres, but other fibres are found extensively in commercial applications [22]. Low modulus of elasticity and high elongation properties are found in synthetic and organic fibres. In contrast, high modulus of elasticity is found in steel, glass, carbon and asbestos and fibres [29]. Similarly, structural and polypropylene are emerged as synthetic fibres and extensively found in concrete ground floor-slabs.
The significance of polypropylene fibres emerged due to their high alkaline resistance and low price of the raw polymer material [30, 31]. Their formation is based on fibrillated or monofilament manufactured in an enduring process through polypropylene homopolymer resin extrusion. Micro synthetic fibres are used for reducing, plastic settlement cracking and plastic shrinkage cracking in ground-supported slabs based on 100% polypropylene. According to Perry [32], micro-synthetic fibres are usually 12 mm long by 18 μm diameter.
During the last 7 years, the development of micro-synthetic fibres has expanded comprehensively. The potential of these fibres is evident in providing concrete with significant ductility. These fibres have potential to control cracking resultant from lasting drying shrinkage and thermal movements in concrete floors and slabs [33]. These macro-synthetic fibres vary from polypropylene micro-fibres due to their large and higher polymers even though they typically comprise few polypropylenes [32]. A significant level of post-crack control is provided from synthetic structural fibres to accomplish steel fibres and fabrics [34].
Steel fibres and polypropylene fibres as well as structural synthetic fibres are the most common types of fibres used in structural members. Therefore, the following section discusses the addition, mixing, placing, finishing and curing of steel, polypropylene and structural synthetic fibres. Also, they present the effect of adding these fibre types on the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. However, using waste fibres is relatively a new practice and it is not limited to one type of wastes. Therefore, there is no clear guidance for the addition, mixing, placing, finishing and curing of such fibres. On the other hand, using hybrid fibres is limited to the use of steel and polypropylene as well as using different types of steel fibres. Thus, the below practices of adding single steel or polypropylene fibres are applicable.
4. Fibre reinforced concrete addition, mixing, placing, finishing and curing
4.1. Steel fibre
4.1.1. Composition and quality
Higher cement, smaller aggregates and fine contents are generally combined in the fibre reinforced concrete as compared to plain concrete. The fibre content increases to decrease the extent of the slump [21, 22]. Therefore, a steel wire manufacturer signifies the following specification for acquiring steel fibre reinforced concrete [35].
4.1.2. Addition and mixing of steel fibre
It is deemed that 20–40 kg/m3 is usually the recommended dosage for steel fibres. According to Knapton, [27], the flexural strength of the concrete results in higher dosage rate. In general, the fresh concrete is combined with the fibres and; afterwards, these fibres are moved initially to the mixer. Newman and Choo [21] revealed that these fibres can be incorporated to the aggregated conveyor belt. The fibres might be dispensed directly regardless of any balling risk, when the aspect ratio of the fibre is less than 50. Particular packing techniques are employed by manufacturers for reducing the risk with higher aspect ratios [22]. On the contrary, the satisfactory outcome of visual inspection is evaluated for fibre distribution during pouring [27].
4.1.3. Placing finishing and curing
Approved mixing, quality control procedures, and finishing are required for good quality and economic construction of steel fibre reinforced concrete [22]. The placement of concrete through good concrete practice is affective in positioning during curing. The reduced flow characteristics allow positively the final placement of steel fibre reinforced concrete (Unwalla, 1982; [36]).
Placing, curing and finishing steel fibre reinforced concrete are satisfactorily used by traditional tools, procedure and equipment [36, 37, 38, 39]. Antiwear products and cement are usually expanded on the concrete surface after levelling and compaction [27]. Same methods and techniques can be used for curing and protecting SFRC. Plastic and shrinkage cracking can be produced through insufficient curing methods in traditional concrete [36, 37, 39].
4.1.4. Mechanical properties of fresh steel fibre-reinforced concrete
The important problem produced during the steel fibre reinforced concrete is the accomplishment of sufficient workability. Fibres are included in the concrete mix with aspect ratio and fibre volume, which affect the workability [36, 40]. The steel fibres can mitigate the estimated composite slump as reported from the variations of volume fractions included in steel fibre reinforced concrete (0.25–1.5 vol%). Furthermore, the effects of vibration are suggested to assess workability of a SFRC mixture with the VB test because mechanical vibration is suggested in a number of SFRC applications as compared to traditional slump measurement. A good workability is maintained through the inclusion of superplasticiser. In contrast, the fibre balling should be ignored when considering above specifications.
4.2. Polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete
4.2.1. Addition and mixing (polypropylene)
The addition of polypropylene fibres is at a recommended dosage of approximately 0.9 kg/m3 (0.1% by volume) [27]; the fibre volume is so low that mixing techniques require little or no modification from normal practice [21]. The fibres may be added at either a conventional batching/mixing plant or by hand to the ready-mix truck on site [27].
4.2.2. Placing finishing and curing (polypropylene)
Polyproline fibres are comprised of concrete mixes that can be transformed by normal methods and; therefore, flow easily from the hopper outlet. The essential compaction might be used for providing traditional means of vibration and tamping. The traditional concrete can be considered strictly for curing procedures. The floating and trowelling of fibre-dosed mixes can be used for normal hand and poor tools [27].
4.2.3. Mechanical properties of fresh fibre-reinforced concrete
According to Ramakrishnan [4], proper design and application of fibre reinforced concrete mixes can be essentially considered on the basis of knowledge of the fresh concrete properties. The occurrence of polypropylene fibres is mechanically observed since a comprehensive impact is imparted on the concrete, cement hydration and delaying evaporation by holding water [27]. The polypropylene fibres did not affect the slump of fibre-dosed concrete. The properties of the fresh concrete are modified through the primary role of polypropylene. The movement of solid particles, the bleed of water chemicals and the homogeneity of the mix are stabilised, blocked and increased through polypropylene fibres. The bleed capacity of the concrete and plastic settlement is reduced, and decreases the rate of bleed through polypropylene fibres.
The plastic concrete is formed due to plastic cracking and drying shrinkage. The formation of plastic cracks took place in the first 24 h, when there is high evaporation rate and the concrete surface dries after the placement of the concrete [27]. The appearance of concrete along with its durability and physical and mechanical properties is affected through this high evaporation rate [41]. The width of plastic shrinkage cracks can be restricted due to the polypropylene fibres. In the initial phases, the post-cracking ductility of the concrete emerged from the fibres, increasing strain capacity and affecting plastic shrinkage cracking [21].
4.3. Structural synthetic fibres
For synthetic structural fibres, the dearth of available references and design guidelines are the considerable barriers for effective comprehension to add, mix, compact, finish, cure, and place within concrete properties. The information associated to these sources are mentioned in the following paragraph [32, 34, 42]. During the patching or mixing processes, the fibres can be incorporated to the concrete at any point.
The particular application and intended properties relied on the additional rate, which differs from 1.8 to 7 kg/m3. Careful attention is required for their additional rate within both batching procedures and mix design to accomplish optimum consequences. The required workability is accomplished by ensuring the adjustments into the mix design. Afterwards, the fine aggregate contents include a slight increase for coating the fibres comprehensively. The concrete is assisted with efficient finishing and rapid placing. In contrast, medium to high level of workability is accomplished through the inclusion of a superplasticiser. It is evident that the position of structural synthetic fibres is appropriately similar according to the normal concrete. Moreover, concrete must be compacted adequately to assure the surface placement with the easy finishing. An easy float is typically transformed over the concrete for patching the surface after compaction. The fibre reinforced is enabled to cure effective concreting practice once it is levelled, floated and compacted. Structural synthetic fibre mostly relies on surface friction to achieve anchorage across a crack. It controls plastic shrinkage cracking and cracking due to drying shrinkage of the concrete. Moreover, it improves concrete properties including ductility, fracture toughness, impact and fatigue resistance.
5. Effect of using single type of fibres on concrete mechanical properties
5.1. Steel fibres
Steel fibre is becoming an important type of concrete reinforcement due to the numerous advantages that it offers for concrete. Compared to traditional fabric reinforcement, steel fibres have a tensile strength typically two to three times greater and a significant greater surface area to develop a bond with the concrete matrix [5]. Over the past three decades, the potential of using steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) to improve the performance of structures has been investigated [43]. The available literature on the subject shows that steel fibre reinforcement can increase significantly the compression, tension, flexure, impact and toughness, shear and punching resistance, as well as the energy dissipation capacity and durability of concrete structures.
The occurrence of fibres affects the compressive strength as it varies from 0 to 15%. In contrast, the order of 30–40% fibres is increased with direct tension. There are little data dealing strictly with the torsion and shear even though they are usually increased [22, 44]. Moreover, steel fibre has a noteworthy effect on the residual tensile strength and flexural strength, with increase of more than 100% being reported [45, 46]. The most important part of the commercial use of steel fibre is the post-crack flexural performance, which is based on the steel fibre concrete and sections subjected to point or flexure load. The flexural behaviour of concrete reinforced with straight and hooked end steel fibres was studied by Pajak and Ponikiewski [26]. It was found that the increase of fibre volume ratio increases the flexural tensile strength. The fracture energy increases with the increase of fibre dosage and is higher for hooked end steel fibres than for straight ones. Steel fibres continue to carry stresses after matrix failure. This is also confirmed by many researchers [9, 11, 12].
According to Hauwaert et al. [47], impact strength and toughness are significantly increased, which is defined as energy absorbed to failure. Under the load deflection curve, the toughness increases resulting in tension and flexure due to the increase in area [21]. A claim is usually made due to fatigue and increased resistance to dynamic load. The resistance of increased resistance to dynamic loading highly emerged as it is associated with the fibre distribution in concrete [48].
In studying the effect of steel fibres on the shear capacity of concrete, some investigations were carried out for evaluating the performance of beam–column sub assemblages. Susetyo et al. [10] undertaken experimental investigations on concrete panels based on pure-shear monotonic loading conditions for assessing the steel fibre effectiveness to meet minimal shear reinforcement requirements for concrete elements. Ductile behaviour, good crack control attributes and sufficient shear strength are exhibited through the test results. Minimum extent of traditional shear reinforcement is accomplished through the level of performance. The role of steel fibres in enhancing the shear strength of concrete was also confirmed by many researchers [8, 9, 49].
Labib (2008) conducted experimental investigations on concrete slab-column connections reinforced with hooked end steel fibres failing in punching; it was found that the inclusion of steel fibres significantly increases the load carrying capacity of tested specimens and is strongly dependent on the fibre dosage. Moreover, the crack opening restraint provided by the reinforcement mechanisms of steel fibres bridging the crack surfaces leads to a significant increase in terms of load carrying capacity and energy absorption capability of concrete structures. This was also confirmed by [13, 14].
In particular, steel fibre possesses a positive impact on the shrinkage behaviour of concrete that mitigates the extent and organises the cracks width, as compared to plain concrete [22, 28]. The fibres will corrode quickly in exposed situations, if the concrete compacts the fibre corrosion under the surface. The deterioration caused due to freeze-thaw cycling and the permeability of cracks can be reduced from the fibres [22, 50].
The role of fibres in bridging the crack opening and enhancing the load capacity and post-peak behaviour leads to better concrete durability and structural integrity ([15, 16]; Kunieda et al., 2014). This was also confirmed by the experimental results of Stephen (2001) which showed that the introduction of steel fibres into the concrete can arrest the early spalling of the concrete cover and increase the load capacity as well as the ductility of the columns over that of comparable non-fibre reinforced specimens. Similar observations were reported more recently by Lee et al. [49], Joao (2010), and Röhm and Arnold [51]. Steel fibres improve the ductility of concrete under all modes of loading.
5.2. Synthetic fibres
Synthetic organic fibres have low modulus of elasticity and high elongation properties [29]. Therefore, they have the potential to provide concrete with significant ductility. As a result, when added to concrete, these fibres are able to control cracking caused by thermal movements and long-term drying shrinkage [33] and improve the performance of concrete by negating its disadvantages such as low tensile strength, low ductility and low energy absorption capacity (Lakshmi et al., 2010; [52]; Mu et al., 2000; [53, 54]). Glass, polyvinyl, polypropylene, polyolefin and carbon are concrete-based matrices used in the synthetic fibre types in Portland cement.
Synthetic fibre types that have been tried in Portland cement concrete-based matrices are: polypropylene, glass, carbon, polyolefin and polyvinyl. For many of these fibres, there is little reported research or field experience, while others are found in commercial applications and have been the subject of extensive reporting [22]. Among these materials, polypropylene fibres are one of the most widely used for construction applications such as blast-resistant concrete and pavements (Mwangi, 2001).
Polypropylene fibres are gaining significance due to the low price of the raw polymer material and their high alkaline resistance [30, 31]. Their formation is based on fibrillated or monofilament manufactured in an enduring process through polypropylene homopolymer resin extrusion. Micro-synthetic fibres are used for reducing, plastic settlement cracking and plastic shrinkage cracking in ground-supported slabs as based on 100% polypropylene. Polypropylene fibres are used extensively in concrete for the purpose of reducing, plastic shrinkage cracking and plastic settlement cracking [32].
Mazaheripour et al. (2011) investigate the effect of polypropylene fibre inclusion on fresh and hardened properties of concrete. The results obtained have shown that the polypropylene fibres did not influence the compressive strength and elastic modulus; however, applying these fibres at their maximum percentage volume increased the tensile strength and the flexural strength of concrete.
Fire still remains one of the most serious risks for tunnels, buildings and other concrete structures. Thereby, the risks related with increased temperatures should be considered by engineers when designing concrete structures, including explosive spalling due to adverse concrete deterioration (Phan et al., 2002; Horiguchi et al., 2004).
It has been widely shown that polypropylene fibres are very effective in mitigating spalling in concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. Bangi et al. (2012) conducted an experimental study for investigating the fibre type effect and maximum pore pressure amount in fibre reinforced high-strength concrete. It uses different lengths of steel fibres, polyvinyl and polypropylene. The pore pressure reduction in heated concrete is contributed through pore pressure measurements based on organic fibres. The most effective maximum pore pressure development is polypropylene fibres as compared to polyvinyl alcohol fibres. On the contrary, there is a low effect found on the steel fibres. This result has been proved by studies from different researchers. These studies found that the complex mechanism of porosity variations in concrete at elevated temperatures, enriched with polypropylene fibres (Khoury, 2008; [55, 56]; Zeimi et al., 2006; Muzzucco et al., 2015).
On the other hand, polypropylene fibres can improve not only mechanical properties of concrete but also its durability due to reduced crack width by fibre bridging effect. Therefore, it could be considered as solution to extend lifecycle in terms of improvement of durability (Kunieda et al., 2014). The polypropylene fibres enhance the resistance to frost attack and the surface of abrasion resistance. The protection of the steel reinforcement is increased through these aspects alongside corrosion and mitigates the concrete water permeability. Knapton [27] states that the chemical resistance of concrete is not changed in this process. In particular, polypropylene fibres are usually more durable as compared to plain concrete [28].
As stated previously, while polypropylene is extensively used in concrete, other synthetic fibres such as glass, carbon, polyolefin and polyvinyl had little reported research or field experience. Barhum et al. (2012) studied the impact of the dispersed and short fibres of carbon and alkali resistance on the textile-reinforced concrete’s fracture behaviour. The strength, fracture behaviour and deformation of the study are performed through a series of deformation-controlled and uniaxial tension tests. Pronounced enhancement of first-crack stress was achieved due to the addition of glass and carbon fibres. While more and finer cracks were observed on the specimens with short fibres added, a moderate improvement in tensile strength was recorded.
The formation of polyolefin fibre reinforced concrete is based on the employment of polyolefin fibres since they are lighter and possess a final lower cost and not chemically stable. They have been proved to be suitable for structural uses. Moreover, in some cases, they have substituted steel fibres (Behfarnia et al., 2014; Pujadas et al., 2014; Alberti et al., 2015). On the other hand, polyvinyl alcohol organic fibres and nylon are also effective in mitigating spalling, while others like polyethylene fibres are not so effective. Investigations from Laura et al. (2014) indicated that the use of synthetic fibre reinforced concrete can enhance the ductility and energy dissipation capacity of concrete.
5.3. Waste fibres
The use of waste fibres plays an important role in sustainable solid waste management. It helps to save natural resources, decreases the pollution of the environment and saves energy production processes. It has beneficial environmental and economic impacts; therefore, wastes and industrial by-products should be considered as potentially valuable resources merely awaiting appropriate treatment and application [19, 20]. Therefore, the addition of waste to concrete corresponds to a new perspective in research activities, integrating the areas of concrete technology and environmental technology.
Steel fibres originated from the industry of tyres and plastic wastes are among these wastes; their disposal has harmful effects on the environment due to their long biodegradation period, and therefore one of the logical methods for reduction of their negative effects is the application of these materials in other industries.
Recent research is showing that steel fibres originated from the industry of tyre recycling and can be a valuable reinforcement system to decrease significantly the brittle behaviour of cement-based materials, by improving their toughness and post-cracking resistance. Recycled steel fibre reinforced concrete is therefore becoming a promising candidate for both structural and non-structural applications [18]. Zamanzadeh et al. [43] compared the characterisation of the post-cracking properties of recycled steel fibre reinforced concrete and industrial steel fibre reinforced concrete, on its use as shear reinforcement. Although the results indicated that the fibre reinforcement mechanisms for relatively small crack width levels were not as effective in the recycled steel fibres as the industrial steel fibres, it was verified that both fibres have similar trend in the post-cracking behaviour.
Much research effort has focused on reusing waste materials from plastic industries in concrete. Different works have analysed the effect of the addition of recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) to the properties of concrete (Choi et al., 2005; Jo et al., 2007; Robeiz, 1995). The reinforced concrete with PET bottles has been analysed by Foti (2011). The study has found that there is a great influence on post-cracking performance of simple concrete elements, when incorporating little amount of recycled fibres from PET bottle wastes. The sample’s toughness and the concrete plasticity are enhanced and increased, respectively, through these fibres. Moreover, fibres are used from recycled PET bottles in reinforced mortar by De Oliveira et al. (2011). The findings have shown that a significant enhancement on compressive strength of mortars is shown from these PET fibres on their toughness and their flexural strength. The possibility of recycling PET fibres is explored by Foti (2013) as acquired from waste bodies with assorted shapes. The ductility of concrete is increased through these tests and PET fibres in a concrete mixture. At the end, as limited research has been carried out in this area, therefore, more studies could be carried out on the effect of using the previously mentioned wastes on the mechanical properties of concrete to prove the above results and to further examine different mechanical properties. In addition, the effect of using other types of wastes on the mechanical properties of concrete could be investigated.
6. Effect of using hybrid fibres
It is noteworthy to examine that the concrete failure is based on a multi-scale and a gradual process even though the research mentioned above have convinced us that remarkable improvement in mechanical performance can be achieved by using single fibre type in concrete. Therefore, significant attempts are made toward fibre combinations with different functions and constitutive responses and dimensions into cementitious composite. Potential advantages can be offered through hybrid combinations of steel and non-metallic fibres to enhance concrete properties and to reduce the entire cost of concrete production (Bentur and Mindess, 1990). Fibre fractions result in a uniform and a denser fibre distribution within the concrete as it enhances post-crack strength of concrete and reduces shrinkage cracks. This combination of low- and high-modulus fibres can arrest the micro- and macro-cracks, respectively, which could be also achieved by using a combination of long and short fibres as different lengths of fibres would control different scales of cracking.
A number of studies indicated the overall benefits of using combinations of steel fibres and polypropylene fibres (Xu et al., 2011; Sivakumar, 2011; Chi, 2014; Ding et al., 2010; Sahoo et al., 2015), while limited research was carried out on the effect of using steel fibres and other types of fibres such as glass and polyethylene (Banthia et al., 2014) or using a mix of short and long steel fibres [11].
Xu et al. (2011) found that the tensile strength of steel-polypropylene hybrid fibre reinforced concrete. The results indicated that the tensile strength of conventional concrete can be dramatically improved by mixing with hybrid steel-polypropylene fibres. The enhancing effect of hybrid fibre is better than that of single fibre, and the volume fraction of steel fibre is observed to have a great impact on the tensile strength. The same results were found by Sivakumar (2011) who studied the flexural strength, toughness, and ductility of concrete specimens containing individual steel fibres and hybrid combinations of steel and non-metallic fibres such as glass, polyester and polypropylene. He found that the ability of non-metallic fibres to bridge smaller micro-cracks was suggested as the reason for the enhancement in flexural properties compared to individual steel fibre.
The effect of inclusion hybrid steel-polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete on triaxial compression was developed by Chi (2014). The results showed that the steel fibres mainly contribute to the composite’s triaxial strength that was observed to improve significantly when both the volume fractions and aspect ratios of steel fibre were increased. On the other hand, the polypropylene fibres were found to have considerable effect on improving the tensile meridian rather than compressive meridian.
Ding et al. (2010) analysed the influence of various fibre types, including steel macro-fibre and hybrid fibre (macro-steel fibre and macro-plastic fibre) on the shear strength and shear toughness of reinforced concrete beams. The results indicated that hybrid fibres can evidently enhance both the shear toughness and the ultimate shear bearing capacity.
Sahoo et al. (2015) studied the influence of using both high-modulus (steel) and low-modulus (polypropylene) fibres on the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams. A better post-peak residual strength response is noticed in the case of all FRC beam specimens due to multiple cracking associated with the fibre bridging action. The main parameters investigated are shear strength, failure mechanism and displacement ductility. The FRC specimens with combined steel and polypropylene fibres showed that the shear resistance and deformability values are improved significantly; multiple cracks of smaller crack width are noticed at the failure stage of the specimens indicating the better fibre bridging action of combined metallic and non-metallic fibres.
Banthia et al. (2014) used hybrid fibres by using two types of macro-steel fibres and a micro-cellulose fibre. Flexural and direct shear tests were performed, and the results were analysed to identify the degree of enhancement in the mechanical properties associated with various fibre combinations.
7. Conclusion
This chapter reported on the historical use of fibres; types of fibres; and the addition, mixing, placing, finishing and curing of steel, polypropylene and structural synthetic fibres. This chapter also discussed the potential of using various types of fibres in reinforced concrete to optimise the properties of concrete material as well as to improve the mechanical performance of reinforced concrete members. The reviewed literature highlighted the role of fibres in enhancing the concrete tensile strength, flexure strength; shear strength, punching shear strength, toughness, energy dissipation capacity, resistance to cracking and durability. The reviewed literature also indicated that, in most cases FRC contains individual type of fibres, which includes steel, polypropylene, glass, carbon, polyolefin and polyvinyl. Although extensive research is conducted on the FRC, the reviewed literature showed a dearth of research conducted on waste fibre. The reviewed literature highlighted that the research conducted on the use of waste fibre in concrete is limited to the effect of waste fibre on toughness, flexural strength, compression strength and post-peak behaviour of concrete elements. In addition, this chapter reported on the use of two or more types of fibres in a suitable combination which has proved the potential to improve the mechanical properties of concrete. Numerous studies on hybrid fibre reinforced concrete have been performed. The reviewed literature showed that combination of fibres is commonly limited to two types of mixes, a mix of steel and polypropylene fibres and a mix of steel fibres with different geometry, shape and size. It is recommended that more mixes should be analysed to identify the degree of enhancement in the mechanical properties associated with various fibre combinations.
\n',keywords:"cement, steel fibre, synthetic fibre, hybrid fibre, waste fibre, concrete",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/61087.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/61087.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61087",totalDownloads:429,totalViews:438,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 15th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 8th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 10th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Progression in cement-based technology has driven the development of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) materials; such as concrete technology. Steel fibre and synthetic fibre are fundamental fibre types, which include glass, carbon, polyvinyl, polyolefin, waste fibre materials and polypropylene. The mechanical properties of FRC members are affected from these fibres individually and in hybrid aspects. The type, content and geometry of fibres are relied to these mechanical properties. A significant improvement in mechanical and dynamic properties of reinforced concrete members is enabled due to additional fibres into cementitious composites. Most mechanical properties are enhanced through intercept micro-cracks. The level of enhancement accomplished relied on the type and dosage of fibre as compared to plain concrete. Effective tensile strength, energy dissipation capacity and toughness are explained through FRC. The shear, punching and flexure are significantly increased through the level of enhancement accomplished. These fibres include polyvinyl, glass, carbon, polyolefin and polypropylene that improve the mechanical properties of concrete. The historical use of fibres and types of fibres are reported in this chapter. Similarly, the curing of steel, structural synthetic fibres, the mechanical properties of cement, the addition, placing, finishing and mixing are based on waste fibres, hybrid fibres, steel and structural synthetic.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/61087",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/61087",book:{slug:"cement-based-materials"},signatures:"Wafa Abdelmajed Labib",authors:[{id:"227554",title:"Dr.",name:"Wafa",middleName:"Abdelmajeed",surname:"Labib",fullName:"Wafa Labib",slug:"wafa-labib",email:"wlabib@psu.edu.sa",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fibres: origin and history",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Types of fibres",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Steel fibres",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Synthetic fibres",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.2.1. Polypropylene fibres (micro-synthetic fibres)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.2.2. Structural synthetic fibres (macro-synthetic fibres)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Fibre reinforced concrete addition, mixing, placing, finishing and curing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Steel fibre",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.1. Composition and quality",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.2. Addition and mixing of steel fibre",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.3. Placing finishing and curing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.4. Mechanical properties of fresh steel fibre-reinforced concrete",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2. Polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.2.1. Addition and mixing (polypropylene)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.2.2. Placing finishing and curing (polypropylene)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.2.3. Mechanical properties of fresh fibre-reinforced concrete",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.3. Structural synthetic fibres",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"5. Effect of using single type of fibres on concrete mechanical properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.1. Steel fibres",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.2. Synthetic fibres",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.3. Waste fibres",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23",title:"6. Effect of using hybrid fibres",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Huang L, Xu L, Chi Y, Xu H. Experimental investigation on the seismic performance of steel–polypropylene hybrid fiber reinforced concrete columns. Construction and Building Materials. 2015;87:16-27'},{id:"B2",body:'Bentur A. Microstructure, interfacial effects, and micromechanics of cementitious composites. Ceramic Transactions. 1990;16:523-550'},{id:"B3",body:'Buratti N, Mazzotti C, Savoia M. Post-cracking behaviour of steel and macro-synthetic fibre-reinforced concretes. Construction and Building Materials. 2011;25(5):2713-2722'},{id:"B4",body:'Ramakrishnan V. 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Prince Sultan University, PSU, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6513",title:"Cement Based Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Cement Based Materials",slug:"cement-based-materials",publishedDate:"October 10th 2018",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6513.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam El-Din",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-el-din-saleh",fullName:"Hosam El-Din Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"59180",title:"Introductory Chapter: Properties and Applications of Cement- Based Materials",slug:"introductory-chapter-properties-and-applications-of-cement-based-materials",totalDownloads:287,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hosam M. Saleh and Rehab O. 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1. Introduction
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1.1 Chagas disease
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Chagas disease was described in 1909 by a Brazilian researcher, Carlos Chagas, who discovered a new trypanosomiasis in Minas Gerais, Brazil, during his work on an anti-malaria campaign [1, 2]. The disease presents three phases: acute, indeterminate, and chronic. The acute phase is asymptomatic and presents nonspecific symptoms and signs, such as inflammatory lesions at the site of entry of the parasite (chagoma) and fever. At this stage, the parasitic load in the blood is high. The indeterminate phase is characterized by the presence of antibodies against T. cruzi and absence of clinical manifestations of the disease. The chronic phase of the disease involves the cardiac system, digestive system, or both. The patients at this stage may develop (1) a Chagas’ heart disease that compromises the cardiac function by increasing the size of the heart and tissue damage (fibrosis) and (2) chronic inflammation and destruction of parasympathetic neurons leading to progressive enlargement of the esophagus (megaesophagus), sigmoid colon, or rectum (megacolon) [3, 4].
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1.2 The biological cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi
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The causative agent of the disease is a flagellate protozoan that belongs to the order Kinetoplastida and family Trypanosomatidae, the Trypanosoma cruzi. Classically, transmission of Chagas disease occurs through insect vectors of the subfamily Triatominae, popularly known as barbers. However, there are other transmission routes such as oral, congenital, blood transfusion, organ transplantation, and laboratory accidents [5].
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T. cruzi presents different evolutionary forms that alternate with each other throughout its cycle. Trypomastigote forms present in the blood of infected vertebrate hosts are ingested by the insect vector, where they differentiate into epimastigote replicative forms. These forms undergo another process of differentiation througout the intestine, however this time to infectious and non-replicative forms, the metacyclic trypomastigotes. In turn, these are released with the feces and penetrate into the vertebrate host through the sting of the triatomines or through another portal of entry, such as mucosae. Trypomastigotes are able to invade host cells and differentiate into amastigotes in the intracellular environment. Such forms multiply through binary divisions and are transformed into the infective trypomastigote forms still within the host cell. With the disruption of the plasma membrane of the vertebrate host cell, the trypomastigote forms gain the bloodstream and invade other cells and tissues of the mammal or can be sucked in by new triatomine restarting the cycle [6].
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It is known that during its life cycle T. cruzi is exposed to different redox environments inside the invertebrate and vertebrate hosts [7, 8] and the ability of T. cruzi to adapt to the redox state contributes to the success of the infection [9]. Additionally, in terms of a physiological approach, ROS play a vital role in T. cruzi-vector interactions, because heme, a molecule from the insect blood digestion, triggers epimastigote proliferation through a redox-sensitive signaling mechanism [10].
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1.3 Redox signaling
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Cells generate ROS endogenously and constitutively when oxygen is partially reduced in mitochondria-producing oxidants, the so-called reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide radicals (O2•−) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) [11]. To maintain their hemostasis, cells adopt strategies called antioxidant defense. ROS participate in signal transduction pathways involved in cell growth and differentiation [12]. However, when oxidant levels are high, the oxidative/antioxidant balance within the cells disrupts the redox signaling and the redox control, which can lead to cellular damage [13, 14, 15, 16]. This exacerbation of the endogenous production of ROS is known as oxidative stress. These oxidant species can lead to lipid peroxidation, affecting membrane integrity, DNA damage, and oxidation of sugars and protein thiols [14, 15]. On the other hand, controlled ROS increase leads to a temporary imbalance that represents the physiological basis for redox regulation [16, 17]. Indeed, redox processes have fundamental implications in biology.
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In addition to ROS, other reactive species have notable impacts on redox biology, including the reactive nitrogen species (RNS), such as nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide (both free radicals), peroxynitrite, and nitrite/nitrate. Besides these, forms of cysteine, methionine, and some low-molecular-mass compounds such as glutathione and trypanothione are called reactive sulfur species (RSS). Another group of reactive species is the reactive carbonyl species (RCS) including various forms of metabolically generated aldehydes and electronically excited (triplet) carbonyls. Finally, reactive selenium species (RSeS) include low molecular mass such as selenocysteine and selenomethionine residues in proteins [17].
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2. ROS and Trypanosoma cruzi
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2.1 The journey inside the bug insect
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2.1.1 The epimastigotes and redox environment
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Evidence in the literature indicates that the interaction between T. cruzi and triatomines is essential for the successful spread of Chagas disease [18] and several factors and molecules have been shown to be important in establishing the infection. After feeding, the insect vector digests the blood in the midgut, where hemoglobin protein degradation occurs and a large amount of heme is released. Heme is a molecule known to increase the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and is able to alter membrane selectivity and permeability [19, 20]. These reactive species can also be generated as a by-product of aerobic metabolism of the parasite [7, 21]. Therefore, the former region of the midgut represents an environment rich in nutrients, but it is potentially an oxidative environment as well. Then, Trypanosoma cruzi needs to deal with high concentrations of heme and ROS while inhabiting the midgut of the vector. The epimastigote form, present in this environment, is the replicative and non-infective form that is able to increase its rate of proliferation in the presence of heme in a dose-dependent manner [22], and this heme-induced T. cruzi growth is associated with calcium-calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) activity [23].
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Besides heme, ROS have been shown to trigger proliferation of the epimastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi [10]. According to these authors, the growth of the parasites in the presence of these molecules is regulated by a cellular signaling mechanism involving CaMKII and the redox status, since the antioxidants, such as urate and GSH, inhibited heme-induced ROS and parasite proliferation. In addition, Myr-AIP, a specific CaMKII inhibitor, extinguishes heme-induced ROS in epimastigotes, decreasing parasite growth. To exclude the possibility of other molecules similar to heme being able to induce a potent proliferative effect on T. cruzi, tests were carried out with protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), mesoporphyrin IX (MPIX), Fe mesoporphyrin IX (Fe-MPIX), Sn protoporphyrin IX (SnPPIX), and Zn protoporphyrin IX (ZnPPIX), and only heme showed a potent proliferative effect [10]. These data show that the parasite had to adapt to high concentrations of ROS in order to establish itself in such an oxidizing environment.
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Heme and two classical oxidants, H2O2 and the well-known superoxide generator, paraquat, are able to promote the growth of epimastigotes in vitro [24]. This effect was reversed in the presence of other reductive molecules (GSH, a thiol-based antioxidant found in the hemolymph of triatomines; urate, an important antioxidant rich in the urine of these insects [25], and n-acetylcysteine (NAC), a classic antioxidant) suggesting a competition between these molecules of antagonistic redox status. An important physiological molecule present in the midgut is hemozoin, a crystal composed of heme dimers [26, 27] that Rhodnius prolixus, a Chagas disease vector, uses as an efficient detoxification pathway of heme. The addition of this crystal to an epimastigote culture does not produce an increase in the proliferation of these cells [24].
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Thus, the redox environment is considered to be very important for Trypanosoma cruzi. Furthermore, the parasite needs ROS for growth inside the vector. If this hypothesis is correct, the disturbance of ROS levels in vivo would lead to differences in the levels of epimastigote proliferation within the intestine. In fact, the heme molecule and ROS are examples of important relationships between parasite and vector because they are capable of promoting the proliferation of the epimastigote forms, but when the insect is fed with blood and antioxidants, such as NAC and urate, the proliferation in vivo decreases as demonstrated in vitro [10, 24]. Observing the effect of the physiological molecules (heme, hemozoin, and urate), it is possible to confirm that there is a modulation between molecules of antagonistic redox status, indicating an inhibitory role of reductive molecules on epimastigote proliferation and confirming the requirement of an oxidant signal to promote the growth of these parasites. Furthermore, in 2017, Nogueira and collaborators showed that heme affects the mitochondrial function of T. cruzi epimastigotes and, as a consequence, mitochondrial ROS production is increased, triggering parasite proliferation [28].
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2.1.2 Differentiation of epimastigotes into metacyclic trypomastigotes
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Still on its journey inside the vector, Trypanosoma cruzi reaches the rectum of the bug. This region greatly favors metacyclogenesis, and one important factor is the reductive environment promoted by the high concentration of urate. The levels of metacyclic trypomastigotes are increased in the presence of urate and other antioxidants both in vitro and in vivo. On the other hand, the proliferation of epimastigotes decreases in reductive environments [10, 24].
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When the blood meal is supplemented with antioxidants, there is a shift in the redox status of the gut compartments (anterior midgut, posterior midgut, and rectum), increasing differentiation of the parasites in an unusual midgut region and greatly favoring metacyclogenesis in the bug rectum. Notably, contrary to proliferation, the differentiation process appears to be favored by reductive environments [24].
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A Trypanosoma cruzi eIF2α kinase (TcK2) was characterized by Augusto and collaborators [29] as a transmembrane protein located in organelles that accumulate nutrients in the proliferative forms. The heme molecule has been shown to bind specifically to the catalytic domain of the kinase, inhibiting its activity. On the other hand, in the absence of heme, TcK2 is activated, preventing cell growth and inducing the differentiation of epimastigote forms into infectious and nonproliferative forms. Parasites without TcK2 lose this differentiation ability, and heme is not stored in reserve organelles, as demonstrated by Lara and collaborators [21], remaining in the cytosol. Furthermore, if ROS levels are not controlled in TcK2 null, they cause damage to the parasite, including death. Thus, in wild cells, heme has been shown to be a key factor for growth control and differentiation by regulating an unusual type of eIF2α kinase in T. cruzi [29].
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As demonstrated by science, the coevolution between parasites and their insect vectors has promoted an elegant strategy for the development and maintenance of the protozoa in the invertebrate vector.
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2.2 The transmission of the disease: metacyclic trypomastigotes infect the vertebrate hosts—a new journey
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2.2.1 The participation of NADPH oxidase in the infection
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The immune system of the higher vertebrates is able to recognize pathogens and respond through their innate immune responses. ROS is an important component of this response produced by phagocytes and can be highly toxic. Macrophages are one of the first lines of defense in mammals, especially against pathogens [30], and become activated facing such challenges.
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The O2•− production after NADPH oxidase activation in macrophages is converted inside the phagosome to H2O2 (spontaneously or via superoxide dismutase), and this ROS production, termed the “oxidative burst” of activated phagocytic cells, usually kills the pathogens. In order to infect the vertebrate host, T. cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes invade macrophages and overcome the highly oxidative conditions generated inside the phagosome. Then, biochemical changes occur [9, 31, 32] including antioxidant enzyme activities [33], and, curiously, Trypanosoma cruzi depends on ROS involved in this activation process to establish the infection in the vertebrate host [8]. The NADPH oxidase (Phox) activation and this O2•− production are directly involved in increased infection of macrophages by T. cruzi since mice deficient in the gp91phox (Phox KO), subunit of NADPH oxidase, macrophages present reduced parasitism [8, 34].
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Peroxynitrite is also highly lethal and used by phagocytes against pathogens. It is formed when nitric oxide (NO) and O2•− react with each other. Thus, the production of peroxynitrite is decreased by the inhibition of ROS or NO production [35]. Paiva and collaborators, in 2012, showed that macrophages infected with T. cruzi and activated with the burst inducer phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) have stimulated the parasite load [36]. In conclusion, the generation and the regulation of the ROS level can help these parasites thrive in an oxidative environment [8, 35, 36, 37].
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2.2.2 Murine models of Chagas disease and ROS
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After the infective metacyclic forms invade host cells, macrophages, or cardiac cells, for example, they are transformed into the replicative intracellular amastigote form [6]. In response to infection, Chagas hearts present increased mitochondrial ROS [38, 39] because during T. cruzi infection an inefficient electron transport for ATP synthesis occurs in mitochondria [39]. Also, when deficient superoxide dismutase (SOD2 or MnSOD) mice are infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, the loss of the mitochondrial function increases the oxidative damage of the myocardium in Chagas cardiomyopathy and shows the importance of ROS-level regulations [40]. Moreover, ROS mobilizes intracellular iron which is essential as a cellular factor for amastigote division [30, 36]. ROS, including mitochondrial ROS, contribute to oxidative damage that persists during the chronic stage of infection and is involved in the functional impairment of the heart [40, 41, 42]. Some studies show that cardiac parasite load may vary after treatment with antioxidants but depend on the animal model and the strain used [42, 43, 44]. In fact, Gupta and collaborators [45] demonstrated that T. cruzi infection increases ROS production in cardiomyocytes and this effect is augmented by the pro-inflammatory cytokines. The authors argue that the ROS production by cardiomyocytes is not a defense response against T. cruzi. Instead, the infection promotes a mitochondrial dysfunction, including ROS production. Thus, ROS also participates in the successful infection in mammals.
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3. Conclusion
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Several groups have carried out research on the influence of the oxidative environment on the growth and differentiation of Trypanosoma cruzi in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. As we have learned in this chapter, the epimastigote, the non-infective and proliferative form, has its growth stimulated in the presence of oxidative compounds. Conversely, in the presence of antioxidants, or in a reductive environment, its proliferation becomes compromised. The regulated ROS levels also influence, in an orchestrated way, the differentiation of epimastigotes into metacyclic trypomastigotes (the infective form). The reductive environment increases differentiation, while ROS dramatically decreases its transformation into the infective forms. These same metacyclic forms that are formed in the rectum of the vector insect invade the vertebrate host by subverting the logic of the phagocytes that, by activation of NADPH oxidase, exacerbate the concentration of ROS in the intention to kill the pathogens. In fact, the trypomastigote forms of T. cruziresist ROS and establish themselves in the cells of the vertebrate host differing into amastigotes that in cardiomyocytes coexist with increased levels of ROS when compared to uninfected hearts. However, these levels of ROS cannot decrease or increase indiscriminately.
\n
Thus, we have followed the journey of the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, both in the invertebrate and in the vertebrate hosts, that occurs under adverse redox conditions, as if in an orchestra of ROS and antioxidants, and furthermore we can observe that its journey through the intestine of the insect, along the mammalian bloodstream, and its entry and lodging in mammalian cells are finely and elegantly ruled by a redox baton.
\n
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
\n
There is no conflict of interest.
\n
\n
Funding
\n
This work was supported by grants from the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq), Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES), and Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia-Entomologia Molecular (INCT-EM).
\n
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Catalase expression impairs oxidative stress-mediated signaling in Trypanosoma cruzi. Parasitology. 2017;144(11):1498-1510. DOI: 10.1017/S0031182017001044'},{id:"B34",body:'Melo RC, Fabrino DL, D’Avila H, Teixeira HC, Ferreira AP. Production of hydrogen peroxide by peripheral blood monocytes and specific macrophages during experimental infection with Trypanosoma cruzi in vivo. Cell Biology International. 2003;27:853-861'},{id:"B35",body:'Alvarez MN, Peluffo G, Piacenza L, Radi R. Intraphagosomal peroxynitrite as a macrophage-derived cytotoxin against internalized Trypanosoma cruzi: Consequences for oxidative killing and role of microbial peroxiredoxins in infectivity. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2011;286:6627-6640. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M110.167247'},{id:"B36",body:'Paiva CN et al. Oxidative stress fuels Trypanosoma cruzi infection in mice. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2012;122(7):2531-2542'},{id:"B37",body:'Andrews NW. Oxidative stress and intracellular infections: More iron to the fire. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2012;122(7):2352-2354. DOI: 10.1172/JCI64239'},{id:"B38",body:'Wen JJ, Garg NJ. Manganese superoxide dismutase deficiency exacerbates the mitochondrial ROS production and oxidative damage in Chagas disease. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2018;12(7):e0006687. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006687'},{id:"B39",body:'Wen J-J, Garg NJ. Mitochondrial complex III defects contribute to inefficient respiration and ATP synthesis in the myocardium of Trypanosoma cruzi-infected mice. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling. 2010;12:27, 10.1089/ARS.2008.2418-37'},{id:"B40",body:'Wen JJ, Garg NJ. Mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species is enhanced at the Q(o) site of the complex III in the myocardium of Trypanosoma cruzi-infected mice: Beneficial effects of an antioxidant. Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes. 2008;40:587-598. DOI: 10.1007/s10863-008-9184-4'},{id:"B41",body:'Machado-Silva A, Cerqueira PG, Grazielle-Silva V, Gadelha FR, Peloso EF, Teixeira SMR, et al. How Trypanosoma cruzi deals with oxidative stress: Antioxidant defence and DNA repair pathways. Mutation Research. 2016;767:8-22'},{id:"B42",body:'Paiva CN, Medei E, Bozza MT. ROS and Trypanosoma cruzi: Fuel to infection, poison to the heart. PLoS Pathogens. 2018;14(4):e1006928. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006928'},{id:"B43",body:'Dias PP, Capila RF, do Couto NF, Estrada D, Gadelha FR, Radi R, et al. Cardiomyocyte oxidants production may signal to T. cruzi intracellular development. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2017;11(8):e0005852. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005852'},{id:"B44",body:'Dhiman M, Garg NJ. P47phox−/− mice are compromised in expansion and activation of CD8+ T cells and susceptible to Trypanosoma cruzi infection. PLoS Pathogens. 2014;10(12):e1004516. 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Departamento de Bioquímica, Laboratório de Interação de Tripanosomatídeos e Vetores, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Brazil
Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia, Entomologia Molecular (INCT-EM), Brazil
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