Grain yield (kg/ha) of rice cultivars affected by straighthead disease under different water managements at the Rice Research and Extension Center, University of Arkansas near Stuttgart during 1999 (Wilson et al., 2001).
\r\n\tThe hope is that this book will include three main topics: threshold-based segmentation, clustering-based segmentation, and artificial neural networks based segmentation. But it is not limited to these topics in any specific way. This is a purely organizational division, seeking to present papers that describe the segmentation process through traditional, intermediate, and advanced approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-83881-906-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-113-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-907-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"687a58dfbb2e544237cda3807153ff2c",bookSignature:"Dr. Paulo Eduardo Ambrosio",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11923.jpg",keywords:"Thresholding, Binarization, Threshold Determination, Thresholding Methods and Techniques, Clustering, Similarity, Segmentation by Regions, Clustering Methods and Techniques, Artificial Neural Networks, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, AI Methods and Techniques",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"24 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Paulo E. Ambrósio is vice-director of the Center for Radiation Sciences and Technology (CPqCTR/UESC) and coordinates a Special Committee on Computing Applied to Health, Brazilian Computer Society. His research interests include applied computing, with an emphasis on health and biology, working mainly with pattern recognition, medical imaging, and computational modeling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"256064",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:"Eduardo",surname:"Ambrosio",slug:"paulo-ambrosio",fullName:"Paulo Ambrosio",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256064/images/system/256064.png",biography:"Paulo E. Ambrósio has a Ph.D. in Medical Sciences from the Medical School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (FMRP/USP), Brazil. He is currently an associate professor in the Department of Exact and Technological Sciences, State University of Santa Cruz (UESC); vice-director of the Center for Radiation Sciences and Technology (CPqCTR/UESC); and coordinator of the Special Committee on Computing Applied to Health, Brazilian Computer Society. His research interests include applied computing, with emphasis on health and biology, working mainly with pattern recognition, medical imaging, and computational modeling.",institutionString:"Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347259",firstName:"Karmen",lastName:"Daleta",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"karmen@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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As a result, heads remain upright at maturity due to lack of grain development: hence, the name ‘straighthead’. The diseased panicles may not emerge from the flag leaf sheath when the disease is severe. Either the lemma or palea or both may be lacking, even if they are present they are distorted and crescent-shaped, particularly in long grain cultivars, forming a characteristic symptom of straighthead called ‘parrot beak’ (Rasamivelona et al., 1995). Other symptoms include unusually vigorous dark green leaves in mature plants and strikingly abnormal root systems with large, shallow roots with few branches and root hairs (Atkins, 1974; Bollich et al., 1989).
Straighthead symptoms in rice field of the United States (US) (left and middle) and Argentina (right).
Straighthead can cause a complete loss of grain yield in rice when sever (Fig. 1). In a study conducted by Wilson et al. (2001), grain yield reduction due to straighthead was up to 94% for a popular cultivar Cocodrie (Table 1). Yan et al. (2005) concluded that US cultivar Cocodore, Mars, Kaybonnet and Bengal were highly susceptible to straighthead, indicated by a yield reduction from 80% for Bengal to 96% for Mars in a study conducted in 1999 and 2000 (Fig. 2). Similarly, in a study conducted in 2001, Cocodrie and Mars suffered a yield reduction of 97% and 95%, respectively from straighthead (Table 2). Cocodrie, Cypress and Wells were grown on 73% of rice hectares in the southern US in 2001 (RTWG, 2002). The susceptibility of these widely grown cultivars to straighthead represents a potentially serious threat to southern US rice production, especially for Arkansas where about 50% of the US rice is produced (Wilson et al., 2010a). Therefore, the prevention of straighthead is not only an important target in the DD50 Computerized Rice Management Program http://dd50.uaex.edu/dd50Logon.asp (Slaton, 2001), but also is reminded to rice growers each year when the time of its prevention is getting close by Cooperative Extension Agents http://www.uaex.edu (Wilson et al., 2010b; 2010c).
Bengal | \n\t\t\t1210 | \n\t\t\t5695 | \n\t\t\t3629 | \n\t\t\t4435 | \n\t\t\t79 | \n\t\t|
Cocodrie | \n\t\t\t353 | \n\t\t\t6048 | \n\t\t\t1361 | \n\t\t\t1865 | \n\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t|
Cypress | \n\t\t\t3427 | \n\t\t\t6250 | \n\t\t\t6602 | \n\t\t\t6300 | \n\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t|
Drew | \n\t\t\t4032 | \n\t\t\t6905 | \n\t\t\t5292 | \n\t\t\t6451 | \n\t\t\t42 | \n\t\t|
Jefferson | \n\t\t\t5695 | \n\t\t\t6854 | \n\t\t\t6653 | \n\t\t\t6048 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t|
Madison | \n\t\t\t3478 | \n\t\t\t6149 | \n\t\t\t4536 | \n\t\t\t4990 | \n\t\t\t43 | \n\t\t|
Priscilla | \n\t\t\t5594 | \n\t\t\t7510 | \n\t\t\t7358 | \n\t\t\t5443 | \n\t\t\t26 | \n\t\t|
Wells | \n\t\t\t5695 | \n\t\t\t7913 | \n\t\t\t6250 | \n\t\t\t7459 | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t|
LSD 0.05 | \n\t\t\t2923 for comparing water managements within a cultivar | \n\t\t|||||
LSD 0.05 | \n\t\t\t1663 for comparing cultivars within a water management | \n\t\t
Grain yield (kg/ha) of rice cultivars affected by straighthead disease under different water managements at the Rice Research and Extension Center, University of Arkansas near Stuttgart during 1999 (Wilson et al., 2001).
*Yield loss (%) for each cultivar was calculated by: [(Drain and dry yield – Continuous flood yield) / Drain and dry yield] x 100.
Comparison of grain yield between straighthead affected (MSMA Treated) and un-affected (MSMA Untreated) cultivars at the Dale Bumpers National Rice Research Center near Stuttgart, Arkansas in 1999 and 2000, where straighthead was induced by soil incorporation of 6.7 kg of monosodium methanearsonate (MSMA) per hectare (
Straighthead was first reported to dramatically affect grain yield in the US by Hewitt (1912). In the early 1900s, Collier (1912) estimated that approximately 20% of the US rice acreage suffered significant yield reductions by 12 to 15% due to straighthead. Afterwards, straighthead researches were published in Japan (Iwamoto, 1969), Portugal (called ‘branca’) (Cunha and Baptista, 1958), Australia (Dunn et al., 2006), Thailand (Weerapat, 1979), and Argentina (Yan et al., 2010a) (Fig. 1).
No pathogen has been identified to be associated with straighthead, so it is regarded as a physiological disease. The occurrence and severity of straighthead have been associated with soil organic matter (Editor’s Note, 1946), low pH and low free iron (Baba and Harada, 1954), thiol compounds (Iwamoto, 1969), sandy to silt loam soil textures (Rasamivelona et al., 1995; Slaton et al., 2000), continuous flooding (Wilson et al., 2001), high soil As (Gilmour and Wells, 1980), N fertilization (Dilday et al., 1984; Dunn et al., 2006), and soil Cu availability (Ricardo and Cunha, 1968). A recent work suggested possible roles of magnesium but not As in naturally-occurring straighthead by chemical analyses of rice plant (node, internode, stem, leaf and root) and seed (brown and milled seed and hull) (Belefant-Miller and Beaty, 2007). Soil aeration is believed to speed the decay of soil organic matter (Editor’s Note, 1946) and help oxidize arsenic (As) into arsenate, which is biologically inactive (Marin et al., 1992). Arsenic is toxic to many plant species including snap bean (
In a straighthead study conducted by Yan et al. (2008) using resistant and susceptible cultivars in 2004 and 2005, minerals in flag leaves of heading panicles were measured because the susceptible cultivars could not produce seeds and direct measurement on seeds is not feasible. Straighthead was correlated negatively with grain yield (r=-0.89), plant height (r=-0.60) and flag leaf contents of Ca (r=-0.51), Mn (r=-0.31) and S (r=-0.26) and positively with days to head (r=0.63). Leaf Ca was associated positively with grain yield (r=0.60), leaf Mn (r=0.81), Fe (r=0.42), S (r=0.40) and Cu (r=0.38) and negatively with days to 50% heading (r=-0.64). The increased Mn in the flag leaves was associated with the increased leaf Ca (r=0.81), Fe (r=0.49), Cu (r=0.48), S (r=0.40) and As (r=0.29), but with the decreased days to 50% head (r=-0.56). Flag leaf S concentration was correlated positively with plant height (r=0.37), grain yield (r=0.35) and leaf P (r=0.59), K (r=0.49) and Mn (r=0.40) and negatively with days to head (r=-0.64) and leaf Na (r=-0.41) and Zn (r=-0.41). Leaf As concentration was correlated with the leaf Cu (r=0.65), Na (r=0.58), Fe (r=0.51) and Mn (r=0.29), but negatively with leaf K (r=-0.49) and B (r=-0.42). However, the exact causal factors of naturally occurring straighthead are still unknown.
Because the symptoms of As injury are similar to straighthead of rice, incorporation of As in a form of monosodium methanearsonate (MSMA) has become the common and only practice for evaluating rice susceptibility to straighthead in research and breeding programs up to present (Horton et al., 1983; Frans et al., 1988; Wilson et al., 2001; Dunn et al., 2006; Pan et al., 2012).
A special field has been designated for straighthead research and breeding with MSMA amendment for more than 20 years (Somenahally et al., 2011) at the University of Arkansas, Division of Agriculture, Rice Research and Extension Center (RREC) jointly located with the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Dale Bumpers National Rice Research Center near Stuttgart, Arkansas. Usually, the MSMA as a solution in a spray volume of 85 L ha-1 at a rate of 6.7 kg MSMA ha-1 is directly applied to the soil surface with a calibrate CO2-backpack sprayer and incorporated into the soil before planting the seeds (Yan et al., 2008).
At maturity of growth stage R9 (Counce et al., 2000), straighthead is visually rated in the center of a plot based on floret fertility or sterility and panicle emergence from the flag leaf sheath. The rating scale ranged from 1 to 9, 1 = no apparent sterility (more than 80% grains developed) and 100% of the panicles completely emerged; 2 = 71 to 80% of the grains developed and 96 to 100% of the panicles completely emerged; 3 = 61 to 70% of the grains developed and 91 to 95% of the panicles completely emerged; 4 = 41 to 60% of the grains developed and 85 to 90% of the panicles completely emerged; 5 = 21 to 40% of the grains developed and 75 to 80% of the panicles completely emerged (at this stage distorted and parrot-beak grains initially appear); 6 = 11 to 20% of the grains developed and 65 to 70% of the panicles completely emerged; 7 = 0 to 10% of the grains developed and most of the panicles emerged but remained totally erect; 8 = no grains developed and 0 to 10% of the panicles emerged from the flag leaf sheath but erect; and 9 = short stunted plants with no panicle emergence. Indicated by Table 2, at rate 1 straighthead, cultivars have either no numerical reduction of yield or slightly numerical reductions which are far from statistical significance (p>0.60). The yield reduction is not statistically significant at the rate 4 or below, but highly significant (p<0.0001) at the rate 7 with a reduction of 95% or above.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Nineteen Chinese rice germplasm accessions had no significant yield reductions from straighthead induced by MSMA (monosodium methanearsonate) at 6.7 kg hn-1 in 2001 (Yan et al., 2005).
† PI: Plant Introduction number in the U.S. germplasm system.
‡ Subspecies: I =
§ No MSMA (monosodium methanearsonate) was applied as check conditions.
Stralghthead (SH) raling 1-9: 1 as normal and 9 as the worst SH.
# Soil was treated with 6.7 kg MSMA ha-1 to induce straighthead.
†† Yield d ifference = Treated yield - Untreated yield, and
‡‡ Lodging 1-9 scale: 1 as no plants lodged and 9 as over 80% plants lodged.
The soil to induce straighthead by application of MSMA for research purposes was studied by Yan et al. (2008) (Table 3). In the straighthead evaluation soil amended by MSMA, pH and Mehlich-3 extractable P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn and As concentrations are significantly lower, while S, Mn and As are higher than those in the native soil where MSMA has never been applied. However, soil electronic conductivity, organic matter and K, Na and Cu concentrations are not affected by the amendment of MSMA. Decreased soil pH resulted from the MSMA is significantly associated with decreased Ca (r=0.92), Mg (r=0.78), and P (r=0.41), but increased As (r=-0.87), S (r=-0.73), and Mn (r=-0.59) concentrations in the soil.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Soil properties and minerals for samples collected from the straighthead designated field before (Before MSMA) and after (After MSMA) the application of 6.7 kg MSMA ha-1 in comparison with native soil sample which never receives MSMA application (No MSMA) in 2004 and 2005. (Before MSMA soil received MSMA application previously for straighthead studies) (Yan et al., 2008).
† EC, soil electrical conductivity.
‡ SOM, soil organic matter.
§ Means in each column with the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 probability level
The sporadic nature of straighthead and the lack of a specific and definite causal factor have made straighthead difficult to be prevented. Since 1950s, rice researchers had tried to prevent straighthead using chemical application. Evatt and Atkins (1957) applied Feralum, a mixture of ferric and aluminum sulfates to soil for controlling straighthead. In Portugal, Cu deficiency was found to be associated with straighthead (Karim and Vlamis, 1962), and application of copper sulfate to the soil when seedlings were transplanted was reported to prevent or greatly reduce straighthead (Cunha and Baptista, 1958). Ricardo and Cunha (1968) studied copper sulfate as a supplier of Cu for straighthead control since soil organic matter may bind Cu and reduce its availability for uptake by plants. However, chemical prevention never reaches applicable scale because an effective chemical has never been developed, so the control effects are not stable.
A water management practice that is called ‘Draining and Drying’ was developed by farmers in the early 1900s (Atkins et al., 1957; Slaton, 2001), and is currently used as the only recommended method to prevent straighthead in rice through DD50 Computerized Program and agricultural extension system in the USA (Wilson et al., 2010b; 2010c). Rice fields are drained about 2 weeks after a permanent flood, dried thoroughly until cracks appear in the soil and rice leaves begin to curl and exhibit yellowing as drought stress symptoms, and then re-flooded for the remainder of season. The drying must be completed about 10 to 14 days before the internode elongation starts (Wells and Gilmour, 1977), and the best timing could be predicted by the online DD50 Program http://dd50.uaex.edu/dd50Logon.asp. Fields that favor straighthead are permanent, which means each time when rice is planted, straighthead will develop at some level to cause yield losses if the flood is not drained for the soil to be aerated at appropriate time (Wilson et al., 2010c). Soil aeration is believed to speed the decay of soil organic matter (Editor’s Note, 1946) and help oxidize arsenic (As) into arsenate, which is biologically inactive (Marin et al., 1992). Therefore, once straighthead occurs in a field, growers will keep using the Draining and Drying method permanently because of unaffordable consequences.
Table 1 shows cultivar variation on yield recovery of the Draining and Drying from the traditional-continuous flood. Long grain type cultivar Cocodrie and medium Bengal are high recovery cultivars with about 80% of the recovered yield. Cypress, Drew and Madison are the intermediate recovery cultivars with more than 40% of the yield to be recovered by the Draining and Drying. Jefferson, Priscilla and Wells are the low recovery cultivars because they display certain resistance to straighthead.
Currently, the Draining and Drying method is applied to more than one third of the rice acreage in Arkansas as a preventative measure (Wilson, per. Comm.). Using Arkansas rice harvested area of 723,000 hectares in 2010, K.B. Watkins, agricultural economics professor in the University of Arkansas, Rice Research and Extension Center, made the following estimates: $ 9.21/ha for additional labor cost to open levee gates for the draining, $ 20.93/ha for power cost to water the dried fields afterwards, and $ 56.77/ha for additional application of fungicide to control blast since blast disease is known to be more severe in fields or parts of fields in which the water in paddies falls below recommended levels (TeBeest et al., 2007). As a result, straighthead prevention added either $ 7.264 million for the draining and reflooding only or $ 20.945 million for the draining, reflooding and blast control to rice growers in Arkansas. Furthermore, an additional 308.4 m3 of water are required to re-flood each hectare after drying, which resulted in an extra 74.324 million m3 of water utilized for straighthead prevention in Arkansas in 2010. Wasting water is becoming a public concern because Lonoke, Prairie, Arkansas, and Jefferson counties with 150,317 hectares of rice in 2010 have been designated as having critical levels of groundwater (Riley, pers. comm.). Thus, preserving the natural resource of water is important for the long term economic viability of these counties. Therefore, the Draining and Drying method for straighthead prevention is costly for rice growers and wasteful of natural resources, and results in drought-related yield loss.
Varietal resistance is regarded as the most efficient, economical, and environmentally friendly strategy for straighthead prevention (Wilson et al., 2001; Yan et al., 2005; Dunn et al., 2006). The earliest attempt at breeding for straighthead resistance in the USA started in 1950s (Atkins et al., 1957), but little progress had been made because the inheritance of straighthead resistance had not been well understood because of limited resistant germplasm until 2002 (Yan et al., 2002).
In 2001, 124 accessions of germplasm including 109
All the resistant cultivars are
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
USDA core collection number, plant introduction (PI), cultivar name and country of origin, average rate of straighthead in 2003 (SH03) and 2004 (SH04) for resistant accessions rated 4 or less on a 1-9 scale and their positions in principal component analysis (PCA) (Agrama and Yan, 2010).
In 2002, 1002 accessions selected from 1794 accessions of the USDA Rice Core Collection (Yan et al., 2007; 2010b; Agrama et al., 2010) were evaluated for straighthead resistance in Arkansas (Agrama and Yan, 2010). These selections have proper maturities ranged from 48-110 days and plant heights ranged from 65-150 cm because the maturity and height largely affect the assessment of panicle fertility, which is essential for straighthead infestation. Those rated 4 or less in the 2003 straighthead evaluation were verified in larger plots and more replications in 2004. In total, 42 accessions (4.2%) displayed resistance (Table 4).
The 42 resistant cultivars originate from 15 countries in ten geographic regions worldwide, with the most (24 or 57%) from China, are classified into 5 clusters (Fig. 3) (Agrama and Yan, 2010). Cluster K1 includes three references, indicating none of the resistant cultivars belong to
Unrooted neighbor-joining tree based on C.S. Chord (
Because of the sporadic nature of straighthead and its unidentified causes, molecular marker assisted selection is essential for improvement of resistance in breeding programs. To take advantage of recent advances in gene-mapping technology, we executed a genome-wide association mapping study to identify genetic markers associated with straighthead using 547 accessions of germplasm from the USDA rice core collection and 75 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers covering the entire rice genome (Agrama and Yan, 2009). A mixed-model approach combining the principal component assignments with kinship estimates proved to be particularly promising for association mapping. The extent of linkage disequilibrium was described among the markers. Seven marker loci are highly-significantly associated with straighthead at a significance level of 0.0001 = 4.0 value of –log10q (Fig. 4).
The SSR markers RM263, RM105 and RM277 on chromosomes (chr) 2, 9 and 12, respectively, show very strong association with straighthead (
Marker loci significantly associated with straighthead disease with a value of - Log
We mapped the QTLs for straighthead using two recombined inbred line (RIL) F9 populations, one with 170 lines genotyped with 136 SSRs and another with 91 lines genotyped with 159 SSRs (Pan et al., 2012). These lines were evaluated for straighthead in both 2008 and 2009 with three replicates per year.
Straighthead phenotypes in parents of mapping populations,resistant parents Zhe733 and Jing185 with fully developed panicles while susceptible parents R312 and Cocodrie with severely distorted spikelets (
Four QTLs for straighthead resistance are identified from RIL F9 population of Zhe733/R312 (a) and two QTLs from RIL F9 population of Cocodrie/Jing185, are marked by black bar (
Four QTLs were identified to be associated with straighthead resistance in the Zhe733/R312 population on chr6, 7, 8 and 11 (Fig. 6a). The QTL on chr8 had the largest LOD (23.0), highest additive effect (-2.1) and smallest marker interval (1.0 cM) between RM6838 and RM72, and explained the most total variation (46%) for straighthead among the identified QTLs. From the Cocodrie/Jing185 population, two QTLs were identified (Fig. 6b), one on chr3 (LOD=3.8), and another on chr.8 (LOD= 27.0). The chr.8 QTL is within a 1.9 cM interval between RM22559 and RM 72, has a -2.1 additive effect, and explained 67% of total variation. RM72 at 6.76 Mb is the most distal marker of the chr8 QTL identified in both populations. RM6838 in Zhe733/R312 and RM22559 in Cocodrie/Jing185 are physically located very close to each other at 5.85 Mb and 5.70 Mb, respectively. The overlapping intervals on chr.8 identified in both populations indicate the presence of a major QTL at this location, designated as
Fine mapping of
Within the putative region of
Three markers, SSR AP3858-1, InDel 11 and InDel 5 are in the 290 kb interval, and should co-segregate with
We have tested 72 accessions of global germplasm for a match between straighthead phenotype and
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Association of marker InDel 11 genotype with straighthead phenotype in a global germplasm collection (Pan et al., 2012).
* Zhe733 and Jingl85 as the straighthead resistant parents for the RIL populations while
** Cocodrie and R312 as the susceptible parents.
*** Core collection accessions with PI No. and C1or No, PVP as Plant Variety Protection.
***** A total of 42 accessions display parental allele screened by In Del 11. The 32 accessions listed above are those have genotype matched with phenotype, but there are other I 0 accessions which genotypes do not match with phenotypes.
**** \'a\' as resistant, \'b\' as susceptible, and \'h\' as heterozygote genotype but still considered as resistant because straighthead is a dominant trait.
****** Straighthead rating using a 1-9 scale, with 4 or below being resistant and 6 or above being susceptible.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Association analysis between marker genotypes and straighthead phenotype (Pan et al., 2012).
*The accessions or RILs selected for marker verification were either the resistance with straighthead rating 4 or below or the susceptibility with rating 6 or above in global germplasm collection and two F9 populations.
**A total of 34 accessions were selected for verification of AP3 858-1 because remaining 3 8 had either no alleles of or different from parental Zhe733, R312, Cocodrie and Jingl85, and for the same reason, 42 accessions were applied for verification of lnDell 11.
Since the susceptible parent Cocodrie is a widely grown cultivar in the USA (Linscombe et al., 2000), it will be important to improve Cocodrie for straighthead resistance. Among 162 SSRs used for mapping and fine mapping in Cocodrie/Jing185 population, 101 are monomorphic between parent Cocodrie and resistant line RIL506 which is resistant with straighthead rating 2.3. Thus, the genetic similarity between Cocodrie and RIL506 is 62%. In other word, 62% of marker loci are same between Cocodrie and RIL506 in the whole genome. Four other resistant RIL lines 404, 407, 479 and 480 have a genetic similarity of more than 50% with Cocodrie. These resistant lines can be used for improving straighthead resistance in long grain
The authors thank everybody who has directly and indirectly contributed to this project, and every institution that has directly and indirectly supported this project.
Protein is not only significant as an energy source, but also as a component of the body, such as muscle and connective tissue, and as a physiological function substance, such as enzymes, hormones, and immune antibodies.
On the other hand, the problem of food shortage (in particular, protein) due to global population growth is becoming increasingly serious. Because of the economic development of emerging countries, people who used to consume energy from “carbohydrates” such as bread and rice are now tending to consume “proteins” such as meat and seafood as a luxury item, and there are concerns about a shortage of protein supply on a global scale. Under these circumstances, the effective use of plant proteins as a protein source has been attracting attention. Plant proteins have been considered to be less adaptable to human tastes in terms of flavor and physical properties than animal proteins, but recent superior food processing technologies have led to the marketing of “delicious” plant protein foods that are at the same level as animal protein foods.
It has been reported that plant proteins, especially soy proteins, have beneficial functions to improve and prevent lifestyle-related diseases that cannot be overcome by animal proteins, which are currently prevalent all over the world. The US Food and Drug Administration [FDA] has approved the health claim for food labelling that the consumption of 25 g of soy protein per day reduces the risk of heart disease [1]. In Japan, the Consumer Affairs Agency [formerly the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare] has allowed the health labelling of soy protein as a food for specified health use “to people who are concerned about cholesterol levels” [FOSHU].
The beneficial physiological effects of soy protein are presumed to be due to anti-inflammatory properties. The anti-inflammatory effect of soy protein is enhanced by its processing into peptides. Indeed, it has been reported that soy peptides suppress muscle inflammation pain relief in rheumatoid arthritis and ameliorate inflammatory bowel disease.
Recently, it is being reported that not only soy proteins, but also some legume-derived proteins have excellent physiological effects that are similar to, or even absent from, soy proteins. In this chapter, the author 1] introduces the beneficial physiological effects of soy protein for MetS, CKD and inflammation; 2] reports that these effects acted complementarily when used in combination with drugs; and 3] suggests other legume-derived proteins as alternatives to soy protein as novel proteins from legumes with beneficial physiological functions.
By understanding these findings, it is hoped that plant proteins will be used more actively to contribute to the improvement of human health, as well as their value as protein nutrition, which is in short supply worldwide.
The concept of MetS has been proposed by several committees. The first formalized concept of MetS was proposed by a consultation group for the definition of diabetes for the World Health Organization (WHO); it was determined to have a high-risk status with multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease. This group emphasized insulin resistance as the major underlying factor [2]. In 2001, a definition for MetS was devised by the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) [3]. The American Heart Association and the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute updated this definition in 2005 [4]. This updated definition is one of the most widely used criteria for MetS. The International Diabetes Foundation (IDF) published new criteria for MetS [5] in 2005. Although it includes the same general criteria as the other definitions, it requires that obesity, but not necessarily insulin resistance, be present. Although visceral obesity is now recognized as an important factor, the IDF definition has been criticized for its emphasis on obesity, rather than insulin resistance, in pathophysiology [6].
In Japan, in 2006, MetS was defined as a multiple risk factor clustering syndrome caused by visceral fat accumulation and insulin resistance that accompanies this accumulation [7]. In the MetS stage, it is advocated that lifestyle intervention to reduce visceral adiposity should be given priority over drug treatment. Subjects with multiple risk factor syndrome were diagnosed with MetS if their visceral fat areas determined by CT scan were over 100 cm2.
The Japanese Committee for the Definition and Diagnosis of MetS aimed to select subjects with multiple risk factors in which lifestyle modification to reduce visceral adiposity has priority over drug treatment [8]. For this purpose, the Japanese government started a new health policy that provides a specific health check-up followed by specific counseling for subjects diagnosed with MetS according to the Japanese criteria from 2008.
Soy protein exerts not only conventional nutritional value but also beneficial effects on human health. Many randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have assessed the effects of soy products on serum lipids. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have reported improvements in lipid metabolism (Table 1) [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
Title | Number of articles | Number of total subjects | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids. | 38 | 743 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓ | [9] |
Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein containing isoflavones on the lipid profiles. | 23 | 1,381 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓, HDL-C↑ | [10] |
A meta-analysis of the effect of soy protein supplementation on serum lipids. | 41 | 1,756 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓, HDL-C↑ | [11] |
Hypocholesterolaemic effects of soya proteins: result of recent studies are predictable from Anderson meta-analysis data. | 27 | 923 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓ | [12] |
Soy protein effects on serum lipoproteins: a quality assessment and meta-analysis of randomized, controlled studies. | 43 | 1,946 | LDL-C↓, TG↓, HDL-C↑ | [13] |
Effect of Plant Protein on Blood Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. | 112 (non-soy; 18) | 5,774 (non-soy; 599) | LDL-C↓, Non-HDL-C↓, Apo-B↓ | [14] |
A Meta-Analysis of 46 Studies Identified by the FDA Demonstrates that Soy Protein Decreases Circulating LDL and Total Cholesterol Concentrations in Adults. | 43 | 2,607 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓ | [15] |
The effects of isolated soy protein, isolated soy isoflavones and soy protein containing isoflavones on serum lipids in postmenopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | 46 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓, HDL-C↓, hypercholesterolemic subjects’ Apo-A1↓ | [16] |
Meta-analysis on improving lipid metabolism in soy protein.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds. Total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); triglyceride (TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C); non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C); apo-lipoprotein-B (Apo-B); apo-lipoprotein-AI (Apo-AI).
Soy protein isolate [SPI] is composed of three major components, glycinin [approx. 40%], β-conglycinin [approx. 20%], and lipophilic proteins (approx. 40%) [17]. Glycinin and β-conglycinin are storage proteins in soy, and lipophilic proteins consist primarily of membrane proteins. Among these components, β-conglycinin has the function of lowering serum triglycerides preferentially over serum cholesterol [18]. Digestive decomposition products of β-conglycinin were reported that lowering the activity of fatty acid synthase and increasing the activities of β-oxidation enzymes, and the fecal excretion of TG was high in β-conglycinin-fed mice and rats [19, 20]. Therefore, in the calculation based on the recommendation by the FDA, the same effect can be expected with 5 g of β-conglycinin. In clinical study, daily consumption of 5 g of β-conglycinin per subject significantly lowered serum TG concentrations, and the apo B and VLDL-TG concentrations were significantly decreased [21]. Hence, β-conglycinin consumption may specifically affect TG metabolism. In addition, the intake of 5 g of β-conglycinin per day decreased the body fat ratio and visceral fat [21, 22]. Additionally, serum adiponectin significantly increased with the consumption of β-conglycinin, and serum free fatty acids in the β-conglycinin group were significantly decreased. Tachibana et al. showed that β-conglycinin improves insulin sensitivity in rats [23]. β-conglycinin might be an important food component for the prevention and/or amelioration of visceral fat syndrome, which is also called MetS (Table 2) [21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27].
Study title | Design of study | Number of subjects | Duration of study | Dose of β-conglycinin | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Decrease in serum triacylglycerol and visceral fat mediated by dietary soybean β-conglycinin*1. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | Test1;138 Test2:102 | Test1:12-wk Test2:20-wk*1 | 4.4 g/day | Test1; TG↓, Apo-B↓, VLDL-TG↓ Test2; Visceral fat↓ | [21] |
Effects of soybean beta-conglycinin on body fat ratio and serum lipid levels in healthy volunteers of female university students. | Randomized, single-blinded crossover design | 41 | 8-wk | 4.4 g/day | Body fat ratio↓ | [22] |
Serum triacylglycerol-lowering effect of soybean β-conglycinin in mildly hypertriacylglycerolemic individuals. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 68 | 12-wk | 2.3 g/day | TG↓, HDL-C↑, Apo C-II↓ | [24] |
Serum lipid-improving effect of soyabean β-conglycinin in hyperlipidaemic menopausal women. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 100 | 12-wk | 2.3 g/4.6 g | TG↓, LDL-C↓, Apo-B↓, NEFA↓ | [25] |
Improvement of Triglyceride Levels through the Intake of Enriched-β-Conglycinin Soybean (Nanahomare). | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 134 | 12-wk | 38.8 g/week | TG↓ | [26] |
Effects of beta-conglycinin intake on circulating FGF21 levels and brown adipose tissue activity in Japanese young men. | Single-blinded randomized crossover trial | 21 | 2-wk | 9.2 g/day | FGF21↓, BAT act↑ | [27] |
Clinical studies for lipid metabolism improvements of β-conglycinin.
Note: *1; Test 1 is an examination of the serum triglyceride level and Test 2 is a measure of visceral fat by means of CT scanning. ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of β-conglycinin. Triglyceride (TG); apo-lipoprotein-B (Apo-B); very low-density lipoprotein triglyceride (VLDL-TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C); apo-lipoprotein-CII (Apo-CII); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA); fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21); brown adipo tissue activity (BAT act).
Chronic kidney disease [CKD] is a major public health burden, with a global prevalence of ~11% in the general adult population [28]. If left untreated, CKD slowly progresses to end-stage renal disease, which requires dialysis or kidney transplant. Worldwide, a 31.7% increase in CKD mortality was observed over the last decade [29]. Effective interventions to prevent and delay the progression of CKD are well recognized. Prevention should start at the government level with the institution of multisectoral polices supporting sustainable development goals [SDGs] and ensuring safe and healthy environments.
CKD is bidirectionally associated with MetS and cardiovascular diseases [CVDs] [30, 31], and diabetic nephropathy [DN] is a complication of diabetes [32]. Moreover, it has been reported that 40% of patients undergoing dialysis are doing so because of DN [33], and approximately 50% of type II diabetes patients exhibit urinary albumin disease, which is an early stage of DN [34].
For CKD prevention, it is important to gain insight about commonly consumed foods and beverages in relation to kidney function. A report has been published in which PubMed was comprehensively searched for papers published until August 2019 describing prospective cohort studies and was supplemented by manual searches of reference lists from appropriate studies [35]. In this report, there was convincing evidence that a healthy dietary pattern may lower CKD risk. Red (processed) meat, poultry, fish, dairy, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and fruits were recommended foods for CKD patients. Dietary patterns were recommended adherence to the Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, Mediterranean diet, and other healthy dietary patterns. As unhealthy diets, high-fat and high-sugar diets and high-acid-loaded diets were pointed out. In the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities [ARIC] study of ~12,000 US participants with 23 years of follow-up, consumption of legumes was significantly associated with lower risks of CKD, with an HR of 0.83 [95% CI, 0.72; 0.95] for high versus low intakes [36]. Soy protein, which is representative of legumes, has been reported to suppress the progression of DN [37, 38]. The effects of soy protein on DN/CKD in clinical trials are summarized in Table 3 [39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
Study title | Design of study | Number of subjects | Duration of study | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Soy protein intake, cardiorenal indices, and c-reactive protein in type 2 diabetes with nephropathy. | Longitudinal randomized clinical trial study | 41 | 4-y | FPG↓, Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓, CRP↓, Proteinuria↓, Urinary creatinine↓ | [39] |
The effects of soy protein on chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. | Meta-analysis [9 studies] | Total 197 | 6-wk~4-y | Serum creatinine↓, Phosphorus↓, TG↓ | [40] |
Soy-based renoprotection. | Single arm intervention (3 studies) Placebo-controlled chronic intervention [22 studies] | Total 634 | 4-wk~6-mo | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, Urinary creatinine↓, [Urinary albumin↓] | [41] |
Effects of soy protein containing isoflavones in patients with chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | Meta-analysis [12 studies] | Total 280 | Serum creatine↓, Phosphorus↓, CRP↓, Proteinuria↓, BUN↓ [in predialysis subgroup] | [42] | |
Soy Protein and Chronic Kidney Disease: An Updated Review. | RCT (3 studies), DBRCT, CRCT, LRCT Total 6 studies | Total 335 | 1~24-wk | Urinary urea nitrogen↓, Proteinuria↓, Blood sodium↓, Serum Creatinine↓ | [43] |
Summary of clinical studies by soy protein for CKD.
Note: ↓ sign represents decrease, after supplement of soy protein. Fasting plasma glucose [FPG]; total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); C-reactive protein [CRP], blood urea nitrogen (BUN).
Kidney disease patients are carefully monitored for protein intake, and restricted protein intake according to the progression of their condition by doctors and nutritionists. However, there are some reports showing that mild protein restriction does not suppress the progression of kidney disease [44, 45, 46]. Therefore, it is necessary to consider not only the quantity but also the quality of protein. Legumes, including soy protein, can be regarded as very significant proteins to help treat nephropathy.
Inflammation can occur when infectious microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi invade the body and circulate in the blood, and/or when they enter certain tissues [47, 48]. Inflammation can also occur during the course of pathologies such as tissue damage, cell death, cancer, ischemia, and degeneration [49, 50, 51].
There are reports of the anti-inflammatory effects of soy protein and its hydrolysate peptides [52]. Among them, lunasin is considered one of the most studied bioactive peptides. Since its discovery in soybean twenty years ago, many researchers around the world have focused their studies on demonstrating the chemo preventive and chemotherapeutic activity of lunasin [53, 54, 55]. Lunasin is a 44 amino acid peptide isolated from soy that has three domains implicated in anticancer activity: an RGD motif [Arg-Gly-Asp], a helical domain with a sequence conserved in chromatin binding proteins [Glu-Lys-His-Ile-Met-Glu-Lys-Ile], and a poly-aspartic acid tail [56]. Lunacin has been reported to have unique antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties, and to play an important role in the regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis in the body [57]. Lunacin has potential as a dietary supplement by its high bioavailability and thermal stability.
Trypsin digests of soy proteins revealed that the sequence MITLAIPVNKPGR was able to stimulate phagocytosis in leukocytes. This peptide derived from β-conglycinin was named “Soymetide”. The Met at its N-terminus was essential for its activity [58]. Four residues of the C-terminal residues of Soymetide-13 could be removed to form Soymetide-9 [MITLAIPVN], which had the highest activity. In these 9 residues [Soymetide-9], Soymetide-4 [MITL] is the minimal sequence required for its activity [58].
Soy protein with or without isoflavones was shown to reduce oxidative stress and have anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting nuclear factor-kappa B [NF-κB] and blocking the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in model rats and mouse. In clinical study by subjects with end-stage renal disease and healthy women over 70 years of age, their oxidative stress and inflammatory symptom were reduced [59]. The bioactive peptides RQRK and VIK were produced by digestion with pepsin and pancreatin from soy milk. These peptides inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in murine macrophages and the production of nitric oxide, interleukin [I])-1, nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase-2 [60].
Inflammatory bowel disease [IBD] is an intractable disease that causes inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease are the two major pathologies of IBD [61]. Ulcerative colitis is a non-specific inflammatory disorder that causes ulcers and erosion, primarily in the colonic mucosa. Young et al. revealed that soy peptides were effective in preventing dextran sulphate sodium[(DSS)-induced colitis in pigs [62]. The soy-derived tripeptide Val-Pro-Tyr [VPY] has been reported that anti-inflammatory effects in Caco-2 and THP-1 macrophages and inhibition of the secretion of IL-8 and TNF-α in a DSS-induced colitis model mouse [63]. They suggested that tripeptide VPY from soy peptides may be promising for the treatment of IBD.
Insulin resistance and diabetes has revealed to relate closely between nutrient excess and activation of the innate immune system in most organs pertinent to energy homeostasis by the research for a mechanism linking the pathogenesis of obesity over the past two decades [64, 65, 66]. Inflammation has been revealed to occur as a consequence of obesity, and to play a causative role in generating insulin resistance, defective insulin secretion [i.e., MetS), and disruption of other aspects of energy homeostasis by recent many studies. It has been reported that the suppressive effect of soy protein on the progression of CKD/DN, which is highly related to MetS, is also exerted by the anti-inflammatory effect in renal tubules [67]. From such a close relationship between MetS and inflammation, it is easy to predict that the beneficial effect of soy protein on MetS may be due to its anti-inflammatory effect.
The mechanism by which soy protein lowers cholesterol differs from that of statins and fibrates. Soy protein lowers serum cholesterol levels by acting as a bile acid sequestrant, which binds bile in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent its reabsorption by performing the same anion exchange reaction as the resin cholestyramine [68, 69].
Statins and fibrates are drugs developed to improve blood lipid levels. Statins are known as the most efficient agents for reducing plasma cholesterol. Statins target hepatocytes and inhibit 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A [HMG-CoA] reductase in cholesterol metabolism. Accordingly, statin and soy protein are expected to act additively or synergistically to decrease cholesterol levels. There are known serious side effects from statins, including muscle symptoms, rhabdomyolysis [secondary renal failure due to destruction of specific muscle tissue], peripheral neuropathy, myopathy, liver dysfunction, and thrombocytopenia [70, 71, 72, 73]. Rhabdomyolysis often induces sudden kidney failure [74]. Fibrates, which are antagonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α [PPARα], are used in adjunct therapy for hypertriglyceridemia and are usually used in combination with statins. As fibrate-related side effects, the slight gastric region discomfort and myopathy [myalgia with increased creatinine phosphokinase] have been reported. In addition, increasing of the gallstones risk has been known by fibrates because of increasing of cholesterol in the bile duct. Use in combination of statins and fibrates is reported to even more raise the risk of rhabdomyolysis. So, combination use of these two agents is contraindicated in principle.
Nabiki et al. examined the effects of SPI on weight loss, markers of diabetes, and parameters of dyslipidaemia in obese diabetic patients by treated with statins and/or fibrates because of high levels of LDL cholesterol and triglycerides [75]. As a result, body weights of these patients decreased significantly by approximately 1 kg and their waist circumferences got thinner significantly by approximately 2 cm. Total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, and glycated hemoglobin levels of these patients decreased significantly, and HDL cholesterol levels increased significantly. In addition, a lipid metabolism-improving effect was also observed in patients who did not decrease weight. Therefore, it was suggested that the improving effect of lipid metabolism-related factors in these patients was not only due to weight loss but also a direct effect of soy protein. Use of soy protein may help to reduce the drug dose for dyslipidaemia. SPI is recommended for patients with mild dyslipidaemia prior to drug therapy or for maladaptive disease patients, such as those who have side effects from medications.
Combination prescription of fibrates and statins for patients with renal dysfunction and dyslipidaemia is contraindicated. Thus, physicians are unable to adequately treat lipid abnormalities for chronic kidney disease patients. It has been reported that when chronic kidney disease patients with dyslipidaemia ingested β-conglycinin, a major component of soy protein, for 3 months, triglyceride and LDL cholesterol levels improved. Renal function during the consumption period of β-conglycinin showed a tendency to improve despite protein intake [76]. β-conglycinin may help improve lipid abnormalities in patients with renal dysfunction as a complementary medical food material without decreasing kidney function. Moreover, β-conglycinin may improve renal dysfunction as a direct and/or secondary effect of ameliorating lipid abnormalities.
Rheumatoid arthritis is due to inflammation triggered by an immune response to autoantigens. Many of these patients have swelling and pain due to polyarticular arthritis. Their pain interferes with activities of daily living [ADLs], such as cleaning, washing, dressing, and undressing. These patients are anxious for more comfortable ADLs with reduced pain. The mechanisms of onset of rheumatoid arthritis have been reported in many studies. Based on these results, numerous new therapeutic agents have been developed.
As a specific case of improved inflammation, outpatients with rheumatoid arthritis consumed soy peptide with therapeutic drugs and the levels of IL-6 and IL-1β were significantly lower in the soy peptide group than the placebo group [77]. An increase in blood IL-6 levels is associated with extra-articular symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, such as general malaise, loss of appetite, weight loss, and a slight fever. The Disease Activity Score 28 [DAS 28, objective assessment of rheumatoid arthritis disease activity by physicians] and the Clinical Disease Activity Index [CDAI, patient’s own subjective indicator of rheumatoid arthritis disease activity] were calculated from the degree of ADLs’ improvement, the severity of pain, and subjective symptoms recorded by visual analogue scale [VAS]. The DAS 28 score of the peptide group was markedly decreased, and the CDAI of the peptide group was significantly lower than that in the placebo group.
These effects on cytokines were also evident in a cell experiment using articular chondrocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis [78]. In this in vitro cell study, treatment with soy peptide significantly suppressed the mRNA levels of MMP-3 and ADAMTS-4 enhanced by IL-1β stimulation. This finding also suggests that soy peptides may prevent the degradation of articular cartilage.
Soy protein has excellent health benefits, but many soybeans grown in the world are genetically modified organisms [GMOs]. There is no problem with the safety of GMO soybeans. However, from the perspective of security, the use of soy protein in foods tends to be withheld. Recently, the use of pea and lupin proteins instead of soy protein has increased worldwide. Initially, pea protein was a substitute for soybean protein as an ingredient with physical characteristics functions, after that, its beneficial health function has been reported mainly in sports nutrition. Mung bean protein has a structure very similar to that of β-conglycinin. Mung bean protein has been reported to be responsible for the beneficial physiological functions reported for β-conglycinin.
Field pea [
Life expectancy continues to increase worldwide. In the United States, adults 65 years of age and older are projected to more than double from 600 million to 1.6 billion worldwide between 2015 and 2050 [84]. Proper body composition, physical fitness, and a healthy appetite have been reported to lead to successful aging with higher performance [85, 86]. Skeletal muscle mass and strength begin to decline at age 30, and the rate of these losses accelerates at age 60 [87]. Protein ingestion strongly increases muscle protein synthesis rates [88]. Amino acids serve as precursors for de novo muscle protein synthesis and can act as strong signaling molecules activating translation initiation via the mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin complex-1 (mTORC1) pathway [89]. It was shown that BCAA ingestion increases myofibrillar protein synthesis rates during recovery from exercise only in young males [90]. Whey protein isolate [WPI] was used as the animal protein source because of its high concentration of BCAAs and its ability to increase satiety in response to a mixed meal [91]. While whey protein supplementation is known to enhance adaptations to resistance training, not all athletes are able or willing to consume whey or animal proteins. Vegetarian athletes who want to stick to a plant-based diet or those with restrictions on other animal foods often rely on other plant proteins as an equivalent alternative to whey protein [92]. Self-identify as vegetarian in just over 5% of U.S. adults aged 18–34 years and self-awareness as vegan in more than half of these respondents are reported in a 2016 Harris Poll conducted by the Vegetarian Resource Group [93]. Meat Free Mondays’ movement and an upsurge of plant-based protein food products in the marketplace strongly reflect the recent acceptance of these lifestyles [94].
Field pea contains a well-balanced amino acid profile [95]. Because of its availability, low cost, nutritional value and health benefits, pea protein has been widely used as a substitute for soybean or animal proteins in various functional applications [96, 97, 98, 99]. Pea protein can also be used as a nutritional supplement for sports and exercises. Pea protein is an excellent source of BCAAs and has high and balanced contents of leucine, isoleucine and valine. Indeed, there are reports that pea protein is as useful as whey protein in sports nutrition (Table 4) [100, 101, 102, 103].
Study title | Design of study | Number of subjects | Duration of study | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pea proteins oral supplementation promotes muscle thickness gains during resistance training: a double-blind, randomized, Placebo-controlled clinical trial vs. Whey protein. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 161 | 12-wk | Biceps brachii muscle thickness↑ | [100] |
The Effects of Whey vs. Pea Protein on Physical Adaptations Following 8-Weeks of High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT): A Pilot Study. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 15 | 8-wk | Result of the resistance training program↑ | [101] |
Effects of Whey and Pea Protein Supplementation on Post-Eccentric Exercise Muscle Damage: A Randomized Trial. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 109 | 5-day | Creatinine kinase↓, Myoglobin↓ | [102] |
The Short-Term Effect of Whey Compared with Pea Protein on Appetite, Food Intake, and Energy Expenditure in Young and Older Men. | Randomized, single-blinded crossover design | 30 | One shot [postprandial data] | Appetite↑, Energy expenditure↑, 24-h energy intake↑ | [103] |
Clinical studies of pea protein for sports nutrition.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds [pea protein only or, pea and whey proteins].
In the future, pea protein is expected to be widely used as a sports nutritional supplement as well as a physical and functional ingredient in place of soybean protein.
Lupin (
There has been considerable interest in lupin seeds recently, and as a human health food, the seeds are very high in dietary fiber, gluten-free, and virtually starch-free, and therefore have a very low glycemic impact [107]. What makes lupins even more valuable is that there are no genetically modified (GM) bean varieties under commercial cultivation. World production of lupin seed increased quickly in the 1970s and is dominated by Australian production.
Lupin seeds are high in protein, with levels similar to soybeans. Their grains are also known to be high in total dietary fiber, ~40 g/100 g dry matter, making lupins unique among ancient grains and beans. The main category of protein in lupin grains is globulin, with albumin making up the remainder. The major globulin categories are α-conglutin [35–37 g/100 g total protein], β-conglutin [44–45 g/100 g total protein], γ-conglutin [4–5 g/100 g total protein], and δ-conglutin [10–12 g/100 g total protein] [108, 109, 110, 111]. Nutritionally, the limiting amino acids in lupin protein are the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine [112]. Compared to soy protein, which have a more complete essential amino acid profile, the lupin protein was reported to be slightly below the required level of sulfur-containing amino acids needed by adults [113]. However, Singla et al. reported that the sulfur-containing amino acid levels of lupin protein were similar to those of soy [114]. This discrepancy is probably due to differences in lupin protein varieties and production environments. Carvajal-Larenas et al. reviewed in detail the amino acid composition of whole lupin seeds and concluded that it varies slightly among species. In vitro digestibility is ~98% high for uncooked lupin protein and is similar to soybean [115].
In vitro models of Lupinus albus γ-conglutin have shown the biological activity that enhances insulin and metformin activity on intracellular glucose consumption, indicating the potential for regulation on blood glucose by γ-conglutin [116]. As a possible improvement of lipid metabolism, an increase in LDL receptor activity has been demonstrated by HepG2 cells [117]. Furthermore, isolated lupin proteins of have been reported to have hyperlipidemic, anti-atherogenic, and hypocholesterolemic effects in rabbits, rats, and chickens [118, 119]. Several clinical human studies have shown that lupin protein decreases total and LDL cholesterol, as well as triglyceride and reduce the glycaemic response (Table 5) [120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127].
Title | Design of study | Number of total subjects | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lupin protein compared to casein lowers the LDL cholesterol: HDL cholesterol-ratio of hypercholesterolemic adults | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel trial | 43 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, LDL: HDL-C ratio↓ | [120] |
Hypocholesterolaemic effects of lupin protein and pea protein/fiber combinations in moderately hypercholesterolaemic individuals | Randomized, double-blind, parallel group design | 175 | Total-C↓ | [121] |
Lupin protein positively affects plasma LDL cholesterol and LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio in hypercholesterolemic adults after four weeks of supplementation: a randomized, controlled crossover study | Randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover study | 33 hypercholesterolemic subjects | LDL-C↓, HDL-C↑, LDL:HDL-C ratio↓ | [122] |
Consuming a mixed diet enriched with lupin protein beneficiallyaffects plasma lipids in hypercholesterolemic subjects: A randomized controlled trial | Randomized, controlled, double-blind three-phase crossover study | 72 hypercholesterolemic subjects | LDL-C↓, Homocysteine↓, TG↓, Uric acid↓ | [123] |
Australian sweet lupin flour addition reduces the glycaemic index of a white bread breakfast without affecting palatability in healthy human volunteer | Randomized, single-blind, cross-over design | 11 healthy subjects | Postprandial blood glucose↓ | [124] |
Lupin and soya reduce glycaemia acutely in type 2 diabetes | Randomized, cross-over trial | 24 diabetic adults | Postprandial blood glucose↓, Insulin response↑ | [125] |
Hypoglycemic effect of lupin seed γ-conglutin in experimental animals and healthy human subjects | Randomized, double-blind, parallel group design | 15 adult healthy volunteers | Postprandial blood glucose↓ | [126] |
Short-Term Effects of Lupin vs. Whey Supplementation on Glucose and Insulin Responses to a Standardized Meal in a Randomized Cross-Over Trial | Randomized, controlled, cross-over trial | 12 healthy male and female volunteers | Postprandial blood glucose↓, Insulin response↑ | [127] |
Clinical studies of lupin protein on improving lipid and glucose metabolisms.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds. Total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); triglyceride (TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C).
In general, the anti-nutrient factor of lupins is considered to be low compared to other legumes such as soybeans. Specifically, protease inhibitors are present at very low levels and are of minor importance in lupin crops. Trypsin inhibitor activity is described as “negligible” in Lupinus species, “very strong” at 43–84 trypsin inhibitor units [TIU/mg] in soybeans, and high [17–51 TIU/mg] in common beans [128]. Bitter lupin seed varieties contain quinolizine alkaloids, which may be toxic to humans. These toxic effects were recently reviewed by Carvajal-Larenes et al. [115]. Therefore, its maximum legal level of 0.02 g/100 g lupine powder and food has been legislated in several countries. There were no differences in alkaloids in grains among commercial
Lupin protein, a legume, is a plant protein with similar attributes to soybean protein [129] and can be a substitute for soybean in the food industry [130, 131]. Further extensive research is expected due to the need for alternatives to animal proteins.
The mung bean (
Mung bean protein isolate (MuPI) dose-dependently reduced plasma lipid levels, such as total cholesterol, triglycerides, and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [non-HDL-C] in hamsters [134, 135]. The mechanism underlying the cholesterol-lowering activity of mung bean protein was speculated to increase fecal bile acid and sterol excretion and decrease cholesterol absorption and synthesis. This mechanism is the same as that reported for SPI [68, 69]. In another study, MuPI was found to lower blood triglyceride levels in normal rats by inducing adiponectin and reducing triglyceride synthesis via insulin signaling [136]. This mechanism is the same as that reported for β-conglycinin [23]. From these findings, MuPI can be expected to be more effective in improving lipid metabolism. The main component of MuPI, accounting for over 80% of the protein, is 8S globulin. 8S globulin exhibited the highest degree of sequence identity [68%] and structural similarity with β-conglycinin [137, 138]. MuPI is expected to exhibit a four times stronger beneficial function on human health than SPI, in which β-conglycinin accounts for only 20% of the total protein.
The positive effects of MuPI on glucose metabolism in pre-diabetes patients was confirmed. In recent double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, the test group subjects were instructed to consume a total of 2.5 g of MuPI twice daily for 12 weeks, with pre-diabetes [fasting plasma glucose level of 110–125 mg/dL or 2-h plasma glucose level of 140–200 mg/dL by the 75-g glucose tolerance test]. In this study, MuPI was shown to suppress to increase fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels compared to the placebo group. Triglyceride levels significantly decreased in subjects with hyperlipidaemia [139]. Another double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of 44 healthy subjects showed that after consumption of 3.0 g/d MuPI for 8 weeks, insulin levels and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance values significantly decreased, and plasma glucose levels showed a downtrend, although it was not significant [140]. The lack of a beneficial effect of MuPI on blood glucose concentrations may be attributed to the exclusion of volunteers with abnormal blood glucose concentrations in this study. In this study, the body compositions of subjects were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. As a result, a decrease in body fat mass and an increase in lean body mass in the test group were revealed. Conversely, in the control group, body fat mass increased and lean body mass decreased. The differences in body fat mass and lean body mass within each group and between the test and control groups were not statistically significant. However, the adiponectin level in the test group significantly increased, and it decreased in the control group. There was a significant difference between the net changes in the test and control groups [140]. These findings indicate that MuPI might improve insulin sensitivity by decreasing the accumulation of visceral fat.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [NAFLD] represents a spectrum of liver diseases involving hepatocyte dysfunction caused by hepatic triglyceride accumulation in these cells. The prevalence of NAFLD has increased with the increased prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome. NAFLD is now a common disease, affecting 30% of the US population and 20% of Asian and European populations [141]. Rodent studies have shown that SPI intake reduces hepatic triglyceride accumulation [142, 143]. The detailed mechanism underlying the hepatic triglyceride-reducing effect of SPI remains to be elucidated, but β-conglycinin is likely to play an important role [135]. Indeed, the administration of purified β-conglycinin results in an even stronger reduction in hepatic triglycerides than SPI administration [18, 144]. From these results, it is expected that MuPI also has a preventive effect on NAFLD by preventing hepatic triglyceride accumulation. The effect of MuPI on hepatic triglyceride accumulation elucidated the potential ability of MuPI to prevent NAFLD onset and progression in experiments using an atherogenic diet-induced NASH mouse model in mice fed a normal-fat or high-fat diet [145]. In the abovementioned clinical trial [140], Alanine aminotransferase [ALT] levels increased slightly in the control group, whereas significantly decreased in the test group. Of the blood test items, ALT is one of important indicators of the degree of liver dysfunction.
The released peptides obtained from mung bean protein hydrolysate may exhibit bioactivity as angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, antioxidants, and anti-cancer Asiatic acid carriers due to their sequence characteristics [146, 147]. A peptide [<3 kDa], with a small molecular weight isolated from MuPI hydrolysates, was reported to show high ACE inhibitory and antioxidant activities, including DPPH radical scavenging activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging ability, and metal-chelating activity [146]. Three kinds of novel peptides exerting high ACE inhibitory activity were isolated from the alcalase hydrolysate of MuPI, and the amino acid sequences of these peptides were identified to be Lys-Asp-Tyr-Arg-Leu, Val-Thr-Pro-Ala-Leu-Arg, and Lys-Leu-Pro-Ala-Gly-Thr-Leu-Phe [148].
The relationships between MuPI intake, strength, and lean body mass (LBM) in underactive vegetarians were examined, and the impact of MuPI supplementation on these indices was recorded utilizing an eight-week, randomized, controlled feeding trial. LBM significantly correlated with grams of protein consumed daily and was also significantly correlated with grip strength and lower body strength [149]. Mung beans are inadequate in threonine, tryptophan, and the sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine, but they contain high levels of essential amino acids, notably leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine [150]. Although it is necessary to consider the amino acid balance, it is expected that MuPI will be widely used in the field of sports nutrition in the future.
If the current pace of population growth continues, the global population is expected to surpass 9 billion by 2050. In addition to this increase in population, the change of dietary habits of emerging countries due to their increased GDP will require, in 2050, we will need twice as much protein as we had in 2005.
So far, we have been able to meet the increasing demand for protein by improving the productivity of agriculture. However, in the future, this growth alone will not be enough to absorb the increase, and the balance between supply and demand will begin to collapse as early as 2030. This prediction is called the “protein crisis,” and has recently begun to attract attention, especially in Europe and the United States. To solve this protein crisis, it is essential to use highly productive plant proteins as food ingredients instead of animal proteins, which are less efficient in production.
WHO has called for the need to address the double burden of malnutrition. This means that we need to look not only at nutrient deficiencies, but also at nutrient excesses. Obesity caused by over-nutrition and the resulting lifestyle-related diseases are spreading around the world. In this regard, consumer demand for plant protein-based products is high and expected to grow considerably in the next decade. A variety of soy and other plant-based functional foods have been recommended by many health organizations worldwide.
Currently, contributions to the SDGs (Sustainable Developing Goals) are being appealed around the world. There is widespread recognition that the replacement of animal protein with vegetable protein not only contributes to human health, but also to the earth health. Wider and prudent use of plant proteins in the diet can help to supply adequate high-quality protein for the population and may reduce the potential for adverse environmental consequences.
This chapter focused on the recently reported physiological functions of legumes-derived plant proteins, including soybeans. Further research is expected to lead to more widely use of the legumes introduced in this chapter and to the discovery and use of legumes with new functionalities.
Of the research results presented in this chapter, our own research results were achieved in the laboratory at Fuji Oil Co. Ltd. and/or Fuji Oil Holdings Inc. to which I belonged until March of this year from 1986. I believe that I could not have done this without the cooperation of the researchers who belonged to that laboratory. I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude.
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Pampanin and Magne O. Sydnes",authors:[{id:"139987",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sydnes",slug:"sydnes",fullName:"Sydnes"},{id:"143899",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Pampanin",slug:"daniela-pampanin",fullName:"Daniela Pampanin"}]},{id:"40697",doi:"10.5772/51040",title:"Selective Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Waters and Waste Waters Using Ion Exchange Methods",slug:"selective-removal-of-heavy-metal-ions-from-waters-and-waste-waters-using-ion-exchange-methods",totalDownloads:19274,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:93,abstract:null,book:{id:"2549",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki and Dorota Kołodyńska",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"}]},{id:"33450",doi:"10.5772/37583",title:"Measurement of the Nanoscale Roughness by Atomic Force Microscopy: Basic Principles and Applications",slug:"measurement-of-the-nanoscale-roughness-by-atomic-force-microscopy-basic-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:21229,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:88,abstract:null,book:{id:"2282",slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-imaging-measuring-and-manipulating-surfaces-at-the-atomic-scale",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy",fullTitle:"Atomic Force Microscopy - Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale"},signatures:"R.R.L. De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"63161",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80495",title:"Modelling of Adsorption Kinetic Processes—Errors, Theory and Application",slug:"modelling-of-adsorption-kinetic-processes-errors-theory-and-application",totalDownloads:3829,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:86,abstract:"Adsorption has become a competitive method in the field of wastewater and air treatment. Adsorption kinetics is one of the main factors that must be understood before the applicability of any adsorbent. In every adsorption process, linear or non-linear analysis of the kinetics is applied. The goodness of fit index (coefficient of correlation or sum of squares) is applied to access the best model. The usage of linear or non-linear from of the adsorption kinetics has an impact on the distribution of error function. Almost in every adsorption study, linear forms have been used to conclude the best kinetic model that influence the adsorption mechanism—which might be an error. Therefore, this review highlights the mistakes in the usage of linear and non-linear models. The applicability of the adsorption kinetics in wastewater treatment is also illuminated.",book:{id:"7486",slug:"advanced-sorption-process-applications",title:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications"},signatures:"George William Kajjumba, Serkan Emik, Atakan Öngen, H. Kurtulus Özcan\nand Serdar Aydın",authors:[{id:"26340",title:"Dr.",name:"Kurtulus",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"kurtulus-ozcan",fullName:"Kurtulus Ozcan"},{id:"250972",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"serdar-aydin",fullName:"Serdar Aydin"},{id:"251149",title:"Dr.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Emik",slug:"serkan-emik",fullName:"Serkan Emik"},{id:"251150",title:"Dr.",name:"Atakan",middleName:null,surname:"Öngen",slug:"atakan-ongen",fullName:"Atakan Öngen"},{id:"251152",title:"Mr.",name:"George William",middleName:null,surname:"Kajjumba",slug:"george-william-kajjumba",fullName:"George William Kajjumba"}]},{id:"62303",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79374",title:"Modified Titanium Dioxide for Photocatalytic Applications",slug:"modified-titanium-dioxide-for-photocatalytic-applications",totalDownloads:3924,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:72,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been widely used as a photocatalyst in many environmental and energy applications due to its efficient photoactivity, high stability, low cost, and safety to the environment and humans. However, its large band gap energy, ca. 3.2 eV limits its absorption of solar radiation to the UV light range which accounts for only about 5% of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is also limited by the rapid recombination of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs. When used in water treatment applications, TiO2 has a poor affinity toward organic pollutants, especially hydrophobic organic pollutants. Several strategies have been employed to reduce its band gap energy, its electron-hole recombination rates as well as enhance its absorption of organic pollutants. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent works that have employed the doping, decoration, and structural modification of TiO2 particles for applications in photocatalysis. Additionally, we discuss the effectiveness of these dopants and/or modifiers in enhancing TiO2 photoactivity as well as some perspective on the future of TiO2 photocatalysis.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"John Moma and Jeffrey Baloyi",authors:[{id:"250026",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"250963",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Baloyi",slug:"jeffrey-baloyi",fullName:"Jeffrey Baloyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68496",title:"Moisture Sorption Isotherms and Isotherm Model Performance Evaluation for Food and Agricultural Products",slug:"moisture-sorption-isotherms-and-isotherm-model-performance-evaluation-for-food-and-agricultural-prod",totalDownloads:1916,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Moisture sorption characteristics of agricultural and food products play important roles in such technological processes as drying, handling, packaging, storage, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life, glass transition and estimation of drying time and texture and prevention of deteriorative reactions. They are useful in the computation of thermodynamic energies of moisture in the products. An understanding of moisture sorption phenomena in products, moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) determination techniques and moisture sorption isotherm model evaluation procedures would be useful in the development or selection, modeling and controlling as well as optimization of appropriate processes to make for enhanced efficiency. The phenomena addressed in this chapter are equilibrium moisture content (EMC)-water activity (aw) relationships and MSI types, temperature influence on isotherms and occurrence of moisture sorption hysteresis. MSI measurement techniques highlighted are the gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric (VPM), hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic and the use of AquaLab equipment. Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models (BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Halsey, modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost and modified Oswin) were selected, and their evaluation procedures using moisture sorption data were outlined. Static gravimetric technique involving the use of saturated salt solution appears to be the most widely used and recommended method of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products. Most of the MSI models can be fitted to moisture sorption data thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation, while others can be solved using such expression as second-order polynomial. Model goodness of fit can be determined using standard (SE) error of estimate, coefficient of determination (R2), mean relative percentage deviation (P) and fraction explained variation (FEV). The acceptance of a model depends on the nature of its residual plots. A model is considered acceptable if the residual plots show uniform scatter around the horizontal value of zero showing no systemic tendency towards a clear pattern. A model is better than another model if it has lower SE, lower P, higher R2 and higher FEV. Although it appears as if a generalized MSI model is yet to exist, it is recommended that the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema (NBA) model should be given thorough going and extensive testing on the MSI of different categories of food as it could prove true to its generalized model posture due to the fundamental nature of its derivation.",book:{id:"8012",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",title:"Sorption in 2020s",fullTitle:"Sorption in 2020s"},signatures:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",authors:[{id:"303694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ndubisi",middleName:null,surname:"Aviara",slug:"ndubisi-aviara",fullName:"Ndubisi Aviara"}]},{id:"63788",title:"Disinfection Methods",slug:"disinfection-methods",totalDownloads:3159,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Water must be made safe to drink, and an important step in ensuring water safety is disinfection. Disinfectants are added to water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. Ground water sources can be disinfected by “The Water Treatment Rule,” which requires public water systems for disinfection. Chlorination, ozone, ultraviolet light, and chloramines are primary methods for disinfection. However, potassium permanganate, photocatalytic disinfection, nanofiltration, and chlorine dioxide can also be used. Organic material is naturally present in water. Certain forms of chlorine can react with these organic materials and result in the formation of harmful by-products; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has anticipated maximum levels for these contaminants.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq, Zobia Afsheen, Amjad Khan and Amjad\nKhan",authors:[{id:"228353",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-saqib-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq"},{id:"246559",title:"Dr.",name:"Zobia",middleName:null,surname:"Afsheen",slug:"zobia-afsheen",fullName:"Zobia Afsheen"},{id:"246561",title:"Mr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"},{id:"271289",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"}]},{id:"41887",title:"Microbial Techniques for Hydrocarbon Exploration",slug:"microbial-techniques-for-hydrocarbon-exploration",totalDownloads:6423,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"M.A. Rasheed, D.J. Patil and A.M. Dayal",authors:[{id:"143475",title:"Dr",name:"Mohammed Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Rasheed",slug:"mohammed-abdul-rasheed",fullName:"Mohammed Abdul Rasheed"},{id:"144630",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayal",middleName:null,surname:"Anurodh",slug:"dayal-anurodh",fullName:"Dayal Anurodh"}]},{id:"58999",title:"The DFT+U: Approaches, Accuracy, and Applications",slug:"the-dft-u-approaches-accuracy-and-applications",totalDownloads:4376,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"This chapter introduces the Hubbard model and its applicability as a corrective tool for accurate modeling of the electronic properties of various classes of systems. The attainment of a correct description of electronic structure is critical for predicting further electronic-related properties, including intermolecular interactions and formation energies. The chapter begins with an introduction to the formulation of density functional theory (DFT) functionals, while addressing the origin of bandgap problem with correlated materials. Then, the corrective approaches proposed to solve the DFT bandgap problem are reviewed, while comparing them in terms of accuracy and computational cost. The Hubbard model will then offer a simple approach to correctly describe the behavior of highly correlated materials, known as the Mott insulators. Based on Hubbard model, DFT+U scheme is built, which is computationally convenient for accurate calculations of electronic structures. Later in this chapter, the computational and semiempirical methods of optimizing the value of the Coulomb interaction potential (U) are discussed, while evaluating the conditions under which it can be most predictive. The chapter focuses on highlighting the use of U to correct the description of the physical properties, by reviewing the results of case studies presented in literature for various classes of materials.",book:{id:"6193",slug:"density-functional-calculations-recent-progresses-of-theory-and-application",title:"Density Functional Calculations",fullTitle:"Density Functional Calculations - Recent Progresses of Theory and Application"},signatures:"Sarah A. Tolba, Kareem M. Gameel, Basant A. Ali, Hossam A.\nAlmossalami and Nageh K. Allam",authors:[{id:"175824",title:"Dr.",name:"Nageh",middleName:"K.",surname:"Allam",slug:"nageh-allam",fullName:"Nageh Allam"},{id:"398157",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah A.",middleName:null,surname:"Tolba",slug:"sarah-a.-tolba",fullName:"Sarah A. Tolba"},{id:"398158",title:"Dr.",name:"Kareem M.",middleName:null,surname:"Gameel",slug:"kareem-m.-gameel",fullName:"Kareem M. Gameel"},{id:"398162",title:"Dr.",name:"Basant A.",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"basant-a.-ali",fullName:"Basant A. Ali"},{id:"398163",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossam A.",middleName:null,surname:"Almossalami",slug:"hossam-a.-almossalami",fullName:"Hossam A. Almossalami"}]},{id:"40233",title:"Ammonia as a Hydrogen Source for Fuel Cells: A Review",slug:"ammonia-as-a-hydrogen-source-for-fuel-cells-a-review",totalDownloads:9220,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"2795",slug:"hydrogen-energy-challenges-and-perspectives",title:"Hydrogen Energy",fullTitle:"Hydrogen Energy - Challenges and Perspectives"},signatures:"Denver Cheddie",authors:[{id:"141157",title:"Dr.",name:"Denver",middleName:null,surname:"Cheddie",slug:"denver-cheddie",fullName:"Denver Cheddie"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"86",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81502",title:"Investigation of Synthesis Methods for Improved Platinum-Ruthenium Nanoparticles Supported on Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Electrocatalysts for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells",slug:"investigation-of-synthesis-methods-for-improved-platinum-ruthenium-nanoparticles-supported-on-multi-",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104541",abstract:"This book chapter reports on various catalyst synthesis methods (impregnation, polyol, modified polyol, and microwave-assisted modified polyol methods) to determine which method would result in the most electrochemically active platinum-ruthenium (PtRu) electrocatalyst supported on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for methanol oxidation reaction in an acidic medium. Different techniques were used to characterize the synthesized catalysts, including the high-resolution transmission electron microscope used for morphology and calculating particle sizes, and X-ray diffraction for determining crystalline sizes. The electroactive catalyst surface area, ECSA of the electrocatalysts was determined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), while the electroactivity, electron kinetics, and stability of the electrocatalysts towards methanol oxidation were evaluated using CV, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and chronoamperometry, respectively. The microwave-assisted modified polyol method produced the PtRu/MWCNT electrocatalyst with the most enhanced electrocatalytic activity compared to other PtRu/MWCNT catalysts produced by the impregnation, polyol, and modified polyol methods.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Adebare Nurudeen Adewunmi, Sabejeje Akindeji Jerome, Su Huaneng and Khotseng Lindiwe Eudora"},{id:"79547",title:"Nickel Foam Electrode with Low Catalyst Loading and High Performance for Alkaline Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells",slug:"nickel-foam-electrode-with-low-catalyst-loading-and-high-performance-for-alkaline-direct-alcohol-fue",totalDownloads:132,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100287",abstract:"Nickel foam has a unique three-dimensional (3-D) network structure that helps to effectively utilize catalysts and is often used as an electrode support material for alkaline direct alcohol fuel cells. In this chapter, first, the effect of nickel foam thickness on cell performance is explored. The results show that the thickness affects both mass transfer and electron conduction, and there is an optimal thickness. The thinner the nickel foam is, the better the conductivity is. However, the corresponding three-dimensional space becomes narrower, which results in a partial agglomeration of the catalyst and the hindrance of mass transfer. The cell performance of 0.6 mm nickel foam electrode is better than that of 0.3 and 1.0 mm. Secondly, to fully exert the catalytic function of the catalyst even at a lower loading, a mixed acid-etched nickel foam electrode with lower Pd loading (0.35 mg cm−2) is prepared then by a spontaneous deposition method. The maximum power density of the single alkaline direct ethanol fuel cell (ADEFC) can reach 30 mW cm−2, which is twice the performance of the hydrochloric acid treated nickel foam electrode. The performance improvement is attributed to the micro-holes produced by mixed acids etching, which enhances the roughness of the skeleton and improves the catalyst electrochemical active surface area.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Qian Xu, Jiajia Zhang and Chunzhen Yang"},{id:"77862",title:"Characterization, Photoelectric Properties, Electrochemical Performances and Photocatalytic Activity of the Fe2O3/TiO2 Heteronanostructure",slug:"characterization-photoelectric-properties-electrochemical-performances-and-photocatalytic-activity-o",totalDownloads:101,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98759",abstract:"The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite was synthesized on FTO subtract via hydrothermal method. The crystal structure, morphology, band structure of the heterojunction, behaviors of charge carriers and the redox ability were characterized by XRD, HR-TEM, absorption spectra, PL, cyclic voltammetry and transient photocurrent spectra. The as-prepared Fe2O3/TiO2 photocatalysts with distinctive structure and great stability was characterized and investigated for the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye in aqueous solution. The ability of the photocatalyst for generating reactive oxygen species, including O2− and.OH was investigated. It was revealed that the combination of the two oxides (Fe2O3 and TiO2) nano-heterojunction could enhance the visible response and separate photogenerated charge carriers effectively. Therefore, the remarkable photocatalytic activity of Fe2O3/TiO2 nanostructures for MB degradation was ascribed to the enhanced visible light absorption and efficient interfacial transfer of photogenerated electrons from to Fe2O3 to TiO2 due to the lower energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 hybrid heterojunctions as evidenced by the UV–Vis and photoluminescence studies. The decrease of the energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 resulted in the inhibition of electron–hole pair recombination for effective spatial charge separation, thus enhancing the photocatalytic reactions. Based on the obtained results, a possible mechanism for the improved photocatalytic performance associated with Fe2O3/TiO2 was proposed. The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite has a specific capacity of 82 F.g−1 and shows a higher capacitance than Fe2O3.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Salah Kouass, Hassouna Dhaouadi, Abdelhak Othmani and Fathi Touati"},{id:"76150",title:"Heterogeneous Electrocatalysts for CO2 Reduction to Value Added Products",slug:"heterogeneous-electrocatalysts-for-co2-reduction-to-value-added-products",totalDownloads:206,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97274",abstract:"The CO2 that comes from the use of fossil fuels accounts for about 65% of the global greenhouse gas emission, and it plays a critical role in global climate changes. Among the different strategies that have been considered to address the storage and reutilization of CO2, the transformation of CO2 into chemicals and fuels with a high added-value has been considered a winning approach. This transformation is able to reduce the carbon emission and induce a “fuel switching” that exploits renewable energy sources. The aim of this chapter is to categorize different heterogeneous electrocatalysts which are being used for CO2 reduction, based on the desired products of the above mentioned reactions: from formic acid and carbon monoxide to methanol and ethanol and other possible by products. Moreover, a brief description of the kinetic and mechanism of the CO2 reduction reaction) and pathways toward different products have been discussed.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"M. Amin Farkhondehfal and Juqin Zeng"},{id:"74671",title:"C-H Activation/Functionalization via Metalla-Electrocatalysis",slug:"c-h-activation-functionalization-via-metalla-electrocatalysis",totalDownloads:211,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95517",abstract:"In conventional methods, C−H activations are largely involved in the use of stoichiometric amounts of toxic and expensive metal & chemical oxidants, conceding the overall sustainable nature. Meanwhile, undesired byproducts are generated, that is problematic in the scale up process. However, electrochemical C−H activation via catalyst control strategy using metals as mediators (instead electrochemical substrate control strategy) has been identified as a more efficient strategy toward selective functionalizations. Thus, indirect electrolysis makes the potential range more pleasant, and less side reactions can occur. Herein, we summarize the metalla-electrocatalysis process for activations of inert C−H bonds and functionalization. These Metalla-electrocatalyzed C−H bond functionalizations are presented in term of C−C and C−X (X = O, N, P and halogens) bonds formation. The electrooxidative C−H transformations in the presence of metal catalysts are described by better chemoselectivities with broad tolerance of sensitive functionalities. Moreover, in the future to enhance sustainability and green chemistry concerns, integration of metalla-electrocatalysis with flow and photochemistry will enable safe and efficient scale-up and may even improve reaction times, kinetics and yields.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Guilherme M. Martins, Najoua Sbei, Geórgia C. Zimmer and Nisar Ahmed"},{id:"74780",title:"Recent Trends in Development of Metal Nitride Nanocatalysts for Water Electrolysis Application",slug:"recent-trends-in-development-of-metal-nitride-nanocatalysts-for-water-electrolysis-application",totalDownloads:242,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95748",abstract:"Nanocatalysts for sustainable water electrolysis is strongly desirable to promote the commercialization of H2 as the alternate clean energy source for the future. The goal is cheaper hydrogen production from sea and low grade water by minimizing the energy consumption and using low cost cell components & non-noble metal catalysts. The conductivity of metal nitrides and their ability to carry out Hydrogen Evolution Reaction and Oxygen Evolution Reaction at relatively low overpotential render these one of the frontline candidates to be potentially utilized as the catalyst for low cost H2 production via electrolysis. In this chapter, the potential of metal nitride catalyst towards fulfilling the above objective is discussed. The synthesis of various metal nitride catalysts, their efficiency towards electrode half reactions and the effectiveness of these class of nanocatalyst for electrolysis of sea water is elaborated. A review of recent literature with special reference to the catalyst systems based on non-noble metals will be provided to assess the likelihood of these nanocatalyst to serve as a commercial grade electrode material for sea water electrolysis.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Akhoury Sudhir Kumar Sinha and Umaprasana Ojha"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:289,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. 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She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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