\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6927",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Intellectual Property Rights - Patent",title:"Intellectual Property Rights",subtitle:"Patent",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This edited volume, Intellectual Property Rights – Patent, is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters, offering a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the field of patents and its issues. The book comprises chapters authored by various researchers and edited by experts active in the pharmaceutical research area. All chapters are complete in itself but united under a common research study topic. This publication aims to provide a thorough overview of the latest research efforts on patenting and the related issues for legal experts and the scientific community and open new possible research paths for further novel developments.",isbn:"978-1-78985-714-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-713-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-788-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73458",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"intellectual-property-rights-patent",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9fd5884b3bce2ec6f77a8356ea384a37",bookSignature:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu, Suriyaprakash Tnk, Eduardo Jacob-Lopes and Leila Queiroz Zepka",publishedDate:"September 30th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6927.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7545,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 11th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 10th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 29th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 28th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",middleName:null,surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/91590/images/system/91590.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sakthivel Lakshman Prabu obtained a Ph.D. from Manipal University, India. He pursued a post-graduate diploma in Intellectual Property Law from the National Law School of India University, Bangalore. He has been working at Anna University, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Tiruchirappalli, India since 2009. Dr. Prabu has more than 20 years of experience both in reputed pharmaceutical industries and academic institutions. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed publications in international and national journals, authored 22 book chapters, and edited 6 books. He also has four patents to his credit. Dr. Prabu serves as a reviewer and editorial board member for various journals and he has organized various national and international conferences, trainings, workshops, and symposiums. He has received funding for several projects from various government funding agencies in India.",institutionString:"Anna University, Chennai",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Anna University, Chennai",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"295389",title:"Dr.",name:"Timmakkondu Narasimman Kuppusami",middleName:null,surname:"Suriyaprakash",slug:"timmakkondu-narasimman-kuppusami-suriyaprakash",fullName:"Timmakkondu Narasimman Kuppusami Suriyaprakash",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/295389/images/system/295389.jpg",biography:"Dr. TNK Suriyaprakash is a proud alumnus of Madurai Medical College, India, and Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India. He obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Technology from the Tamil Nadu Dr. MGR Medical University, Chennai, India. Dr. Suriyaprakash has published more than fifty original research and review papers in reputed journals, authored two books and thirteen book chapters, as well as edited three books. Two of his research works have been published by Indian Patent Office, Chennai. To date, he has received the equivalent of $50,000 USD in research grants from various funding agencies. During his tenure as principal there, the Al Shifa College of Pharmacy, Kerala, India has been recognized as a top-ranked college for the past five years by the Ministry of Human Resource Department (MHRD), New Delhi, and as one of the best colleges by the Institution Innovative Council, MHRD.",institutionString:"Al Shifa College of Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kerala University of Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"171980",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Jacob-Lopes",slug:"eduardo-jacob-lopes",fullName:"Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171980/images/system/171980.jfif",biography:"Prof. Dr. Eduardo Jacob-Lopes is currently an associate professor at the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. He has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. He has coordinated and is coordinating more than fifty research projects and/or technological developments financed by public funding agencies and private initiatives. He has published more than 600 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 60 book chapters, 120 original research papers, 400 research communications in national and international conferences, and 13 patents. He is a member of the editorial board of ten journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. His research interests include bioprocess engineering and sustainable engineering with an emphasis on microalgal biotechnology.",institutionString:"Federal University of Santa Maria",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"281",title:"Sociology",slug:"sociology"}],chapters:[{id:"67211",title:"Prologue One: Drafting of Patent Specification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86467",slug:"prologue-one-drafting-of-patent-specification",totalDownloads:677,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and T.N.K. Suriyaprakash",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67211",authors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],corrections:null},{id:"68553",title:"Technological Trajectories Studies of Sugarcane Ethanol Production Using Patent Citation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88428",slug:"technological-trajectories-studies-of-sugarcane-ethanol-production-using-patent-citation",totalDownloads:681,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The production of ethanol from sugarcane has migrated from the first to the second-generation thanks to the biotechnological advancement in the production process. From the survey of patent documents in the area, it is possible to highlight the most relevant patents according to the impact index, measured by the number of citations, and to evaluate the technological trajectories involved in the production of ethanol using a patent citation as a methodology. In addition, it is possible to identify the main actors involved in the technological field, as well as the network of international collaborators. In this context, the study of patent citations will help better understand the main technological advances and global geopolitics in an environment of globalization of technological innovations.",signatures:"Cecilia Häsner, Douglas Alves Santos and Araken Alves de Lima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68553",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68553",authors:[{id:"297520",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Hasner",slug:"cecilia-hasner",fullName:"Cecilia Hasner"},{id:"307441",title:"Dr.",name:"Douglas",surname:"Alves Santos",slug:"douglas-alves-santos",fullName:"Douglas Alves Santos"},{id:"307442",title:"Dr.",name:"Araken",surname:"Lima",slug:"araken-lima",fullName:"Araken Lima"}],corrections:null},{id:"72054",title:"Case Study on Rejected Patents in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92356",slug:"case-study-on-rejected-patents-in-india",totalDownloads:1216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"India is a country that has understood the importance of strong patent systems for the growth of industry and commerce to bring it at par with the modern world. As per WIPO statistical database September 2018, 45,379 patent applications were filed in India. Out of which, 12,387 applications were granted and 29,789 applications were withdrawn or abandoned by the applicants. About 3203 patents were rejected on the ground of non-fulfillment of patentability criteria by the invention, that is, Novelty, non-obviousness and Industrial applicability or non-patentability criteria mentioned under Sections 3 and 4 of Indian Patent Act. In this chapter, the authors have discussed few of the cases of rejection under the Indian Patent Act.",signatures:"Hetal Patel and Sandesh Lodha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72054",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72054",authors:[{id:"299888",title:"Dr.",name:"Hetal",surname:"Patel",slug:"hetal-patel",fullName:"Hetal Patel"},{id:"301468",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandesh",surname:"Lodha",slug:"sandesh-lodha",fullName:"Sandesh Lodha"}],corrections:null},{id:"70642",title:"Patent Application Preparation and Filing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88377",slug:"patent-application-preparation-and-filing",totalDownloads:742,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The issuance of a patent by the government office is basically done by a patent application record that is an agreement between the inventor and the government office. Correspondingly, a patent application is in many ways like a contract. Preparation of a standard patent application is curious because it sets out in a transparent way, the terms and condition by which the patent owner and others will be bound. These criteria of the patent application make it different from writing a scientific paper. The technical subject matter that is available in the patent application have bear some similarities to a scientific or technical paper, although it does not usually need to rise to the level of a blueprint for making the invention protected by the patent. Public officials of government take a long time to review the patent as examiners and judges and business partners. Therefore it is necessary that a patent application should be drafted with these important audiences in mind. The parts of the patent application typically include the Background, Summary, Detailed Description and Drawings, Claims, and Abstract. The patent agent is unlikely to draft the patent application in this order and should ordinarily draft the claims first.",signatures:"Mohamad Taleuzzaman and Iqra Rahat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70642",authors:[{id:"300034",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohamad",surname:"Taleuzzaman",slug:"mohamad-taleuzzaman",fullName:"Mohamad Taleuzzaman"},{id:"308709",title:"Ms.",name:"Iqra",surname:"Rahat",slug:"iqra-rahat",fullName:"Iqra Rahat"}],corrections:null},{id:"69123",title:"The Patenting of Products and Processes Used for the Treatment of Smoke Inhalation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88408",slug:"the-patenting-of-products-and-processes-used-for-the-treatment-of-smoke-inhalation",totalDownloads:604,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Intellectual property enables the transformation of knowledge in principle and the link between knowledge and the market. The right of exclusivity guaranteed by the patent refers to the right to interfere with other products and use and sell a patented invention. On the other hand, access to the public is made available on the knowledge of the essential points and as those that characterize a novelty does not exist. Patent registries, because they are available in open access databases, are great bases of technological knowledge, which can be used in research in several areas, among them smoke inhalation treatments. Inhalation injury is the leading cause of death in burn patients and is usually caused by the uninhibited absorption of smoke, which has an extremely toxic effect on the respiratory system. The physiopathology of inhalation injury covers multiple factors, and the injured respiratory system may present deterioration in a few hours. Respiratory distress is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in patients affected by fire incidents. The search for suitable treatments for inhalation injury is continuing, and the treatments used for smoke inhalation are discussed.",signatures:"Fernanda Oliveira de Carvalho, Érika Ramos Silva, Paula Santos Nunes, Karen Perez Pereira Ramos and Nayara Gomes Lima Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69123",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69123",authors:[{id:"300789",title:"M.D.",name:"Fernanda",surname:"De Carvalho",slug:"fernanda-de-carvalho",fullName:"Fernanda De Carvalho"},{id:"302063",title:"Prof.",name:"Érika",surname:"Silva",slug:"erika-silva",fullName:"Érika Silva"},{id:"302064",title:"Prof.",name:"Paula",surname:"Nunes",slug:"paula-nunes",fullName:"Paula Nunes"},{id:"307919",title:"Mrs.",name:"Karen",surname:"Ramos",slug:"karen-ramos",fullName:"Karen Ramos"},{id:"307921",title:"MSc.",name:"Nayara",surname:"Santos",slug:"nayara-santos",fullName:"Nayara Santos"}],corrections:null},{id:"69868",title:"Prologue Two: Transfer of Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89923",slug:"prologue-two-transfer-of-technology",totalDownloads:361,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Aline Meireles dos Santos, Leila Queiroz Zepka and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69868",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69868",authors:[{id:"171980",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Jacob-Lopes",slug:"eduardo-jacob-lopes",fullName:"Eduardo Jacob-Lopes"},{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka"},{id:"277625",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Aline",surname:"Meireles Dos Santos",slug:"aline-meireles-dos-santos",fullName:"Aline Meireles Dos Santos"}],corrections:null},{id:"72591",title:"Patents as a Yardstick for Economic Growth: Case of Indian R&D System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92605",slug:"patents-as-a-yardstick-for-economic-growth-case-of-indian-r-d-system",totalDownloads:570,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The novel creations by humans were well appreciated and acknowledged, but there exist several lacunae such as illegal copying. These malpractices were high and went on without restrictions. Moreover, with the passage of time, the significance of innovations and applications and their protection, both, increased. The fast-changing pace of global trades and business practices has given rise to a global cutting-edge competition and short product cycle with rapid changes in technology. This competition has laid a great responsibility on Research and Development (R&D) to build new ideas—creating an Intellectual property (IP). It is also said that that is an idea “owned” by an individual or company and is therefore protectable under the law. IP law aims at encouraging innovation by giving the creators of new ideas ample time to profit from their ideas and recuperates their development costs.",signatures:"Abhishek Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72591",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72591",authors:[{id:"300860",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhishek",surname:"Kumar",slug:"abhishek-kumar",fullName:"Abhishek Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70841",title:"Internal Relationship and Impact Path between Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Based on China’s High-Tech Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90869",slug:"internal-relationship-and-impact-path-between-innovation-and-entrepreneurship-based-on-china-s-high-",totalDownloads:431,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Innovation is the source of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship is the value embodiment of innovation, and the two are inseparable. At a time when dividends such as population, reform and opening up, and resources and environment are gradually disappearing, China urgently needs to accelerate scientific and technological innovation to support economic development, incubate scientific and technological enterprises, and ease labor market pressure with technological progress and efficiency improvement. This chapter focuses on China’s high-tech industry, which is dominated by scientific and technological innovation. Starting from the overall, local, and regional perspectives, it organically integrates the traditional DEA, similar SFA, Malmquist index decomposition, chain multiple intermediary effect, and other multilevel research through cross-level analysis. Based on the research foundation of innovation efficiency after eliminating environmental and random factors, it deeply discusses the action path and impact mechanism of “double innovation” and provides targeted policy recommendations for the government and relevant local departments. The research confirms that the total effect of innovation on entrepreneurship is always positive, i.e., promoting “people-to-people innovation” is conducive to promoting “mass entrepreneurship” whether it is analyzed from the whole or from the part.",signatures:"Kai Zhao and Lixiang Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70841",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70841",authors:[{id:"315917",title:"Prof.",name:"Kai",surname:"Zhao",slug:"kai-zhao",fullName:"Kai Zhao"},{id:"315918",title:"Ms.",name:"Lixiang",surname:"Wang",slug:"lixiang-wang",fullName:"Lixiang Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"71459",title:"Activities Pivotal for the Sustainability of Newly Established Technology Transfer Offices: A Case Study of Publicly Financed South African Universities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90852",slug:"activities-pivotal-for-the-sustainability-of-newly-established-technology-transfer-offices-a-case-st",totalDownloads:634,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The activities with potential to sustain new technology transfer offices (TTOs) within the publicly financed South African universities (PFSAU) and elsewhere are poorly examined. The current chapter thus aims to lay out a series of simple strategic activities which the referred universities can execute to ensure the sustainability of their newly formed TTOs. Data were collected via strategic conversations with intellectual property (IP) experts, and active academic researchers from PFSAU. The activities considered vital for the sustainability of newly formed TTOs in this study encompass extensive training of TTOs staff, IP awareness within and outside the universities, compliance with relevant legislations, learning from well-established TTOs, establishment of IP and innovation policy as well as IP and innovation modules, collaboration with formal and informal sectors outside the universities, execution of applied and industry-driven research by academics and finally, protection and commercialisation of IP. Overall, efficacious executions and implementations of these activities as discussed in the present study will not only contribute towards the sustainability of newly established TTOs within PFSAU but also aid in achieving some of this universities’ shared goals such as community engagement, research with economic impact, teaching and learning. However, some of the referred activities can be achieved either over a short or medium periods, but together are crucial stepping stones to continual achievements of long-term goals of TTOs in PFSAU.",signatures:"Sebua S. Semenya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71459",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71459",authors:[{id:"306706",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebua",surname:"Semenya",slug:"sebua-semenya",fullName:"Sebua Semenya"}],corrections:null},{id:"68670",title:"Dissemination of Distributed Energy Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88604",slug:"dissemination-of-distributed-energy-technologies",totalDownloads:584,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"At present, the electric power industry is undergoing a cardinal transformation all over the world, the main driver of which is technological innovations, which determine the possibilities for the transition of this sphere to a fundamentally new stage of development. The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the amplification of distributed power generation technologies among industrial companies, as well as the factors for the adoption of new technologies by industrial companies in Russia. The following steps were taken for the analysis of the most significant factors of the adoption of distributed power generation technology by industrial companies: in-depth semi-structured interviews with large industrial company representatives (8 companies) and survey of industrial companies (69 companies). The results obtained allow us to conclude that for analyzed companies, technical feasibility, the cost of electricity, and perceived benefits are critical factors in deciding on the use of distributed power generation technologies. Obtaining cheap electric and thermal energy, a gradual increase in energy capacities and evenness of investment with fast energy generation for industrial and household needs are possible today due to the use of energy-efficient solutions based on distributed power generation technologies.",signatures:"Arkady Trachuk and Natalia Linder",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68670",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68670",authors:[{id:"294783",title:"Dr.",name:"Arkady",surname:"Trachuk",slug:"arkady-trachuk",fullName:"Arkady Trachuk"},{id:"294784",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Linder",slug:"natalia-linder",fullName:"Natalia Linder"}],corrections:null},{id:"68603",title:"Business Incubator and Economic Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88562",slug:"business-incubator-and-economic-development",totalDownloads:1047,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter aims to (i) understand the functioning and importance of incubators in supporting the creation of new business and local economic development, as they help locally engage young entrepreneurs and thus retain expertise, for example, in regions farthest from large urban centers, (ii) realize the importance of incubators and science parks in the development of start-ups, (iii) understand the role of education in promoting entrepreneurship, and (iv) understand the competitive environment as it becomes more complex and dynamic, as there are opportunities to serve customers who are dissatisfied; thus the threats that large companies experience offer small business opportunities.",signatures:"José Moleiro Martins, António Abreu and João M.F. 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She is currently engaged as a researcher for the Scientific-Disciplinary Sector BIO/16 Human Anatomy at the Anatomy and Pathophysiology Division, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia (Italy).\r\nDr. Favero focuses on aging-related morphological dysfunctions as the prelude to various pathophysiological processes in her research programs. The central hypothesis is that natural antioxidants and, in particular, melatonin may act as molecular "switches" that modulate cells and tissues by suppressing, at various levels, oxidative stress and inflammatory signalling cascades. These research approaches represent powerful tools for developing innovative preventive strategies and identifying novel prognostic biomarkers for several diseases. 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Experimentation and observation are central activities within the water cycle process research. The range of measuring and monitoring instrumentation and techniques for defining water cycle process variables is immense. Hence, this chapter is not intended to be a comprehensive overview of such instrumentation and techniques, but to present the specific instruments and techniques developed during the long-term monitoring phase of field experimental stations and the establishment phase of indoor experimental laboratory in the Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes (KLWCRLSP), Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research (IGSNRR), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).
\nTo investigate the dynamic changes in land surface water cycle and the related geographic processes, the KLWCRLSP established two field experimental stations and one indoor experimental laboratory. One station is Dongtaigou Field Station and the other is Chongling Field Station. The experimental laboratory is experimental hall of water and soil process. To clearly demonstrate the water cycle principle, we present a chapter introducing experimental approaches. This chapter is valuable for studying mechanism of water cycle processes
Dongtaigou Field Experimental Station is one of the field stations of IGSNRR, CAS, in Dongtaigou catchment (Figure 1). It was established in 2003 and designed for the long-term observation of water cycle processes impacted by soil and water conservation projects.
\nLayout of the Dongtaigou experiment catchment, showing measurement instrumentation and structures.
Dongtaigou catchment is a part of the Baihe watershed in the northern part of Yanshan Mountain in Northern China (40° 45′N, 116° 37′E). A detailed water cycle experiment has been initiated in a 0.64 km2 research catchment [1].
\nThe slopes in the catchment are steep, with an average of 30° and altitude of 290–530 m. The south-north oriented catchment is in the temperate zone and a semi-humid monsoon climate, with average annual temperature of 9–9.5°C and precipitation of 511 mm. The precipitation occurs mainly in June–September with the type of storms which take up 81.2% of the total amount of the year. The bedrock of the region is mainly andesite, covered with meager cinnamonic soil. Constrained by the natural conditions, the catchment has a single and simple vegetation with the coverage of 70%. It is covered with perennial shrubs and herbs such as twigs of the chaste tree, axillaries, and apricot and a small amount of other economic trees such as hawthorn and pear.
\nDetailed observations of surface and subsurface water dynamics have been made at the catchment. The instruments hydrometrically observing the dynamics of soil water, groundwater, and stream flow response to rainfall and evaporation are described as follows:
\nThe Atmospheric Weather Observing System is located at the center of meteorological field at outlet of catchment (Figure 1). It is made by monitor sensor company (www.monitorsensors.com) to make observations of atmospheric conditions [2]. The measurements taken include air temperature, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, barometric pressure, solar radiation, net radiation, precipitation, evaporation, photoactive radiation, soil temperature, soil moisture, and soil heat flux. The data are automatically recorded every 5 min except the rain gauge (every 1 min) and evaporation sensor (every 30 min). The evaporation is measured as the depth of water (in mm) from the Class A Pan. For the accurate measurement of soil profiles, soil moisture sensors are installed at 10, 15, 30, and 40 cm depths, temperature sensors at 0, 10, 20, and 40 cm depths, and soil heat flux sensors at 15 cm depth.
\nThere are six HOBO Logging Rain Gauges (Onset Computer Corporation) monitoring the precipitation of catchment (Figure 1). The rain gauge is a self-contained device that includes a high-quality tipping-bucket with an integrated data logger. The tipping-bucket mechanism is designed such that one tip of the bucket occurs for each 0.2 mm of rainfall. Each bucket tip is detected when a magnet attached to the tipping bucket actuates a magnetic switch as the bucket tips, thus effecting a momentary switch closure for each tip. The switch is connected to a HOBO Event Data Logger, which records the time of each tip.
\nIn the catchment, precipitation is sampled for hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes and main ions analysis. A rain collector consisting of a polyethylene bottle and funnel is placed outside and a ping pong ball is positioned at the funnel mouth to prevent evaporation during rainfall. After each rainfall event, rainwater is collected and immediately transferred to a bottle and sealed and stored [3].
\nAlong the channel region, four observing pots are arranged namely 1#, 2#, 3#, and 4#. The DataTaker DT50 (Thermo Fisher Scientific Australia Pty Ltd, http://www.datataker.com/) is employed to sample the Time-domain reflectometer (TDR) probes and groundwater level sensor (DS30, SEBA Hydrometrie GmbH & Co. KG). The frequencies of data collection are 10-min interval in the flood season and 30-min interval in non-flood period. A total of four TDR probes are installed horizontally at depths of 20, 40, 70, and 100 cm to continuously monitor soil moisture throughout the 110 cm soil profile. The groundwater level sensor is fixed in a depth in which all possible water levels are within the measuring range. The pressure sensor always measures the water above the sensor. To measure the distance between the ground and the water table or the height of water table above sea level, the parameters of the recording device must be changed correspondingly.
\nSoil water samples are collected after rainfall. Soil water is sampled at the depth same as that of sensor, using a suction lysimeter designed by IGSNRR, which was composed of a Teflon pipe and porous ceramic tube. A vacuum pump of about −0.8 MPa is applied to the suction lysimeter for 12 h of equilibrium to collect soil water [4]. The ground water sample is collected directly from pump discharge.
\nTwo small catchments are carefully selected as the contrastive study site. One is named Donggou in which 22 stonemasonry dams were constructed (R1), and the other is Xigou with conservation of the natural environment (R2). There are also two little similar branches in Donggou (R3 and R4). Four V-notch weirs mounted into the concrete are built at the outlet (Figure 1). Odyssey Capacitance Water Level Logger (Dataflow Systems PTY Ltd, New Zealand) is used to monitor the surface water level. The logger automatically records the water level at a 1-min interval. The surface water is sampled from the stream when flooding. The sampling container is completely filled and then capped and properly stored.
\nTwo experimental runoff plots (5 × 10 m) have been established on mid-slopes as indicated in Figure 2. The two plots are covered with shrubs mainly consisting of Vitex negundo var. heterophylla, wild jujube, wild grass, and two cypresses [5]. The plot borders are made of concrete. The edges of the runoff plots are about 50 cm above the soil surface to prevent input from splashes entering the plot from the surrounding areas and are sufficiently embedded into the bedrock so that the water insides and outsides will not exchange. In order to examine water horizontal processes on the overland, in the shallow soil, and the soil bedrock interface, three layers of water movement are monitored at the down slope end of the plot. A pipe is positioned at very layers, and a V-Notch (Triangular) Weir tank (410 mm long, 210 mm wide, and 305 mm deep) was installed to collect the runoff which would then be piped into a collecting cylinder [6]. The weirs from top to bottom are 210 mm high with 30, 20, and 20° V-notch thin-plate, respectively. The collecting cylinder is made of a metal sheet and covered with a sheet metal to prevent direct entry of rainfall. Runoff volume is calculated by measuring the head of water over the V-notch crest. The total volume of runoff is measured by volumetric method to calibrate the runoff calculated from the wire [7].
\nSchematic representation of two experimental runoff plots.
Meanwhile, a few measurements are also made to observe rainfall, soil water content, and soil water potential dynamics. An automatic recording tipping bucket rain gauge is installed some 3 m from side plot. In assessing the relationship between water content and capillary pressure head (tension), a comparison is made between the prevailing capillary pressure heads recorded by the automatic tension meters at the time of the TDR probe automatic measurements. The probes are installed at 10, 20, and 30 cm depths in two separate profiles up and down of plot. Campbell Scientific CR10X data loggers (Campbell Scientific Inc., USA) are employed to sample the TDR probes (20-min step), tension meter sensors (20-min step), and water level sensors of wires (1-min step).
\nChongling Field Experimental Station was constructed in 2004 by Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes (KLWCRLSP), cooperated with Baoding Soil and Water Conservation Station. It is also one of the field stations of IGSNRR, CAS and has been developed into a prime research location involving many institutions.
\nIt is located in Chongling catchment in Yixian County, Hebei province of China (115° 21′E, 39° 23′N). Chongling catchment is in the north of Taihang mountainous region, which is a tributary of north Yishui River. It covers a total area of approximately 6 km2, with a length of 4.4 km and a width of 1.5 km at an altitude of approximately 70–300 m above the sea level. The research catchment was chosen for studying on hydrological process affected by typical vegetation in North China.
\nThe area has a temperate climate with average annual air temperature of 11.6°C, and the maximum and minimum temperature is observed in July and January with extreme values of 40 and −23.4°C. There are dry season (from September to May) and rainy season (from June to August). The annual precipitation ranges from 217.0 to 1004.3, on an average of 641.2 mm. The mean annual evaporation is 1906 mm by E601B Evaporator. The soil type in the catchment is predominantly sandy loam soil and loess, which is mainly cumulated in the valley, with depth of 1–2 m. The vegetation coverage in this area is diversified, including woody plants (Acacia, Arborvitae, Poplar, Pine), shrubs (
The catchment drains in a southeasterly direction and the contributing hillslopes are each divided into five gully channels from east to west of the watershed, that is, Yangshugou, Wanmulingou, Yanghuaigou, Langweibagou, and Huyaogou. There are also two little gully channels (Chenglingou and Langyaogou) in the southeast of the watershed.
\nA summary of the instruments observing the precipitation, surface water, soil water, groundwater, and so on is presented in Figure 3.
\nLayout of Chongling catchment showing the location of instruments.
A meteorological field (25 × 2 5 m) has been made at Chongling catchment since 2004, providing a continuous, very high-quality record as shown in Figure 3. The instruments include Vantage Pro2 Weather Station (Davis Instruments Corp., USA), E601B evaporation pan (China), Φ20 cm evaporation pan (China), eddy covariance (EC), and flux observation system.
\nThe Vantage Pro2 station includes a console and a versatile integrated sensor suite. The console displays and records the station’s weather data every 10 min, provides graph and alarm functions, and interfaces to a computer using the WeatherLink software. The sensor suite to the console is used to monitor wind speed and direction, temperature and humidity, wind chill, dew point, barometric pressure, ultraviolet radiation, heat index, temperature humidity sun wind (THSW) index, rain rate, and solar radiation.
\nEvaporation is determined by the water levels, which are monitored by automatic logger (E601B pan) and by manual measurement (Φ20 cm pan). For automatic measurement of the evaporation, use is made of an Odyssey Capacitance Water Level Logger (Dataflow Systems PTY Ltd, New Zealand). The sensor is supplied with Teflon-covered measuring element and the logger stores measurements at 1-min interval. Manual evaporation pan measurements are made by measuring the volume of water in the evaporation pan. Manual measurements are made twice a day, at 8:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., to see the difference between day evaporation and night evaporation.
\nThere is an eddy covariance and flux observation system in the northeast corner of the field [9]. The measurements of eddy covariance (EC) are made from the tower at 20 m height, and the setup consists of three-dimensional sonic anemometer (CSAT3, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA), an open-path CO2/H2O analyzer (Li-7500A, LI-COR, Inc., USA). The frequency of data acquisition is 10 Hz. In addition to the EC measurements, several meteorological variables, such as air temperature/relative humidity (HMP155A-L, Vaisala Oyj, Finland) and wind speed (010C-1, Met One Instruments, Inc. USA), are measured at about 2, 6, 12, and 20 m heights above the ground. Furthermore, incoming and outgoing short- and long-wave radiation (CNR4 Net Radiometer, Kipp & Zonen B.V., The Netherlands), photosynthetically active radiation (LI190SB, LI-COR, Inc., USA), and wind direction (020C-1, Met One Instruments, Inc., USA) are measured from the tower at 20 m height. To deal with water movement in soils, the soil profiles are selected to measure the soil water content (CS616, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA), temperature (109-L, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA) at 10, 20, 40, and 80 cm depths, and heat flux (HFP01, Hukseflux Thermal Sensors B.V., The Netherlands) at 5 cm depth. The data are automatically recorded in the CR3000 data logger (Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA) at a 30-min interval.
\nThere are six rain gauges monitoring the precipitation of catchment (Figure 3). The rain gauge is the tipping bucket rain gauge type (SL3-1) made by Shanghai Meteorological Instrument Factory Co., Ltd. The two buckets in a tipping bucket rain gauge rest on a pivot so that when one bucket has received 0.1 mm of rain, it tips by gravity, empties the rainwater, and allows the other bucket to start collection. During the tip, an electrical switch is closed and triggers the HOBO Event Data Logger (Onset Computer Corporation, USA) to register each “tilt,” thus giving a fairly continuous record of precipitation.
\nSix rain collectors are placed near the rain gauges to sample the rain water. After each rainfall event, rainwater is collected and immediately transferred to a bottle and then sealed and stored.
\nSoil water potential has been monitored at four deferent sites consisting mainly of grassland, one under acacia and two under old arborvitae. Soil water potential is observed by automated tensiometer in the catchment [10]. Each site has one profile, and the depths of observation are 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, and 100 cm. The data are automatically recorded at 2-min intervals and averaged every 30 min by data logger (CR800, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA).
\nSuction lysimeters designed by IGSNRR are used to collect pore water from unsaturated soil at four sites. After installation below ground level, vacuum is applied to the porous ceramic tube through Teflon pipe from bottle. The negative air pressure created inside the tube draws pore water into the tube through the porous ceramic tub. The pore water is transported to the bottle through Teflon pipe. Suction lysimeters perform best in moist soil and below the water table and work as long as the soil water potential is in the 0/-800 mbar range.
\nRunoff is monitored at Youlingou (R1) and Langyaogou (R2) by the V-notch weir and outlet of catchment (R3) by the compound weirs (Figure 3). The compound weirs (Figure 4) are composed of V-notch weir (up), Flat V weir (middle), and Parshall flume (down) [11]. The weirs are instrumented with Odyssey Capacitance Water Level Logger (Dataflow Systems PTY Ltd, New Zealand). Water level-discharge relationships can be applied and meet accuracy requirements for the weirs. The runoff can be calculated according to water level-discharge relationship.
\nSchematic representation of the compound weirs.
Existing wells are selected and used for long-term water level monitoring. It currently includes 10 active observation wells located across the catchment. The locations of the wells are shown in Figure 3. Six wells (G1–G6) are manually monitored in the dry season (from November to April) every 10 days and in wet season (from May to October) every 5 days. The rest four wells are equipped with electronic data loggers that record water levels every 30 min. To date, a multi-parameter groundwater data logger (CTD-Diver, Eijkelkamp Soil & Water, The Netherlands) has been installed to monitor water level, conductivity, and temperature at G7. The KADEC-MIZU II groundwater monitoring data loggers (North One Co., LTD, Japan) are used to monitor the groundwater level at G8, G9, and G10. The wells are visited approximately every 1 month for field verification, and water samples are collected periodically to test groundwater chemistry. The ground water is directly pumped from the well and stored.
\nTo investigate the effect of different types of tree (Acacia, Arborvitae, and Pine) on the spatial variability of throughfall, throughfall collectors are partitioned into three zones as shown in Figure 3 [12]. In each zone, one collector 1 m long, 1 m wide, and 20 cm high is made of a metal sheet and located at a fixed position. The collector is connected by polyethylene hose into the tipping-bucket flow gauge designed by IGSNRR (Figure 3). The gauge had been previously calibrated and recorded the by HOBO Event Data Logger (Onset Computer Corporation, USA).
\nThe stemflow is measured simultaneously with throughfall. Three sets of stemflow collars are fitted to trees in each zone. The rubber collar is encircled at the trunk at an angle of approximately 45° to the horizontal at the level of the breast height (about 1.3 m above ground) and tightened closely with silicone sealant to avoid the leaching of water, as shown in Figure 3. The stemflow is diverted from the rubber collars to tipping bucket gauge similar to that used for gross rainfall via a PVC suction hose, 3 cm in diameter. The outputs from that are accumulated on HOBO Event Data Logger (Onset Computer Corporation, USA).
\nGross rainfall amounts are measured in the neighboring open area, outside the forest, using the tipping bucket rain gauges (SL3-1, Shanghai Meteorological Instrument Factory Co., Ltd., China).
\nTwo experimental runoff plots (5 × 15 m) have been set up on 15° slopes consisting mainly of pine and shrub, respectively. The plot borders 20 cm above the soil surface are made of concrete to prevent water loss and input from splash and are sealed with the bedrock to prevent the water exchange inside and outside of the plot (Figure 5). A pipe, connecting the collecting trough at two layers, is positioned at the downslope end of the plot to monitor the overland flow and base flow at soil-bedrock interface. From this pipe, the runoff flows into the collecting tanks (400 mm long, 200 mm wide, and 300 mm deep). The tanks are performed with a 210 mm high 30 and 20° V-notch thin-plate weir to measure the overland flow and base flow, respectively. The flow from collecting tank is piped into a collecting cylinder which is made of a metal sheet and covered with a sheet metal to prevent direct entry of rainfall. The water level sensor (L304S-3-B-F, Beijing Hua Yi Ao Feng Automation Equipment Co., Ltd, China) is installed in the tank. Runoff volume is calculated by weir equation. The total volume in collecting cylinder is measured by volumetric method to calibrate the runoff calculated from the wire.
\nLayout of experimental runoff plot.
The measurements, including soil water tension [10] and volumetric water content (EC5, Decagon Devices, Inc., USA), are also conducted at upper and lower sites in every plot. The probes are installed at 10, 20, 30, and 40 cm depths in two separate profiles. A Campbell Scientific CR1000 data logger is developed to record signals from soil water tension and volumetric water content sensors at a common 30-min time step and from water level sensor at 1-min time step. Suction lysimeters designed by IGSNRR are placed at the same depth of water potential sensors to collect pore water from unsaturated soil. The pore water is transported to the bottle through Teflon pipe.
\nIn the catchment, a total of 13 water runoff and erosion plots were set up at both sides of the channel representing different type of vegetation. Eight plots (5 × 20 m) from P1 to P8 are located at southern hill slope of the channel. The plots are characterized by different vegetations, which are corns/wheat, bare, grasses, shrubs, paper mulberries, peanuts, peaches, apricots,
In addition, a rainfall simulation system designed by IGSNRR is set up on the P1 and P2 plots. The system includes a submersible pump, electromagnetic flowmeters, sprinkler nozzles, and spray pipes (Figure 6). The sprinkler nozzle is installed at a height of 6.0 m so that the drops could reach a horizontal distance of at least 10 m to cover the whole 2 plots. Three rain gauges are positioned at every plot to monitor the simulated and natural rainfalls. A turbidimeter (Ananlite NEP180, Mcvan Instruments PTY Ltd., Australia) and two water level sensors (L304S-3-B-F, Beijing Hua Yi Ao Feng Automation Equipment Co., Ltd, China) are installed in transferring pipe and collecting tanks, respectively, in plots 1 and 2. Volume of surface runoff was calculated by measuring the height of the water in the first and second collecting tanks. The sediment concentration is also calculated from the correlation and relationship between sediment concentration and turbidity. A Campbell Scientific CR1000 data logger (Campbell Scientific Inc., USA) is employed to automatically monitor the precipitation, pipe flow, runoff, and sediment concentration in plots 1 and 2 each min. Runoff collected from plots 3 to plot 8 is manually measured within a day after each runoff event. Meanwhile, a sediment sample is collected. Afterward, samples are dried and weighed to estimate their sediment concentration.
\nSchematic layout of water runoff and erosion plots.
Five plots are located at northern hill slope of the channel. The size of the runoff plot is different due to the difficulty in finding the location with 20 m slope length. A collecting trough is positioned at the downslope end of the plot. Sediment and surface runoff from this collecting trough enter the first collecting tank, which splits overflow into five equal parts and passes one part, as a sample, into the second collecting tank. For each rainfall event, runoff volume and sediment loss from the plot are calculated.
\nExperimental Hall of Water and Soil Process is located in the geographical museum of IGSNRR. It is 80 m long, 18 m wide, and 22 m high. It is a new integrated water cycle experiment platform, based on the new technology integrated control, measurement, sensors, information processing, developed from China\'s first artificial rainfall runoff laboratory, slope erosion laboratory, and fluvial geomorphology laboratory in the 1950s. It includes artificial rainfall system, experimental sink of runoff and erosion, river simulation system, and transformation dynamical processes experimental device among precipitation, vegetation water, surface water, soil water, and groundwater.
\nThe artificial rainfall system finished in December 2015 is set up at the height of 18 m in the hall. It includes three rainfall zones: Z1, Z2, and Z3 (Figure 7). The total area is 370 m2. The rainfall can be achieved in each separate zone or in all three zones at the same time. The system consists of variable speed pumps, stainless pipes, control center, laser rainfall monitor, and sets of solenoid valves and spraying nozzles (Figure 7). Every set of solenoid valves and spraying includes three valves and three nozzles which can be combined to produce 12–300 mm/h rain and mobile storm. A pressure-compensated flow control valve and a pressure gauge are located at the same altitude of the nozzle allowing a precise control of water pressure and consequently the constancy of rain kinetic energy. The artificial rainfall system is automatically regulated in the control center. The calibration tests showed that the uniformity of the rainfall intensities was greater than 85%.
\nSchematic layout of artificial rainfall system: (a) three zones, (b) laser rainfall intensity monitor, and (c) four component sections.
Laser rainfall intensity monitor is installed at the mid-height of nozzles. It is composed of an array of laser transmitters and receivers (Figure 7). It achieves the rain non-touch measurement using orthogonally multiplexed laser beams according to the light attenuation law. The measurement error is less than 2%.
\nThe river simulation system is 38 long, 6 m wide, and 1 m high (Figure 8). The borders are made of concrete and sealed with the ground to prevent water leaching from them. The crustal lifting simulation system is installed in the middle [13]. It is composed of 12 square steel blocks (2 × 2 m). Each block is supported by four stainless steel-threaded rods, which can be adjusted up and down. The 12 square blocks can be automatically motioned to form 82 types of crustal shape. The rate of motion is as slow as 30–70 mm/day. The multi-function automatic measuring bridge is placed above the system to move from the upstream to the downstream. It can automatically measure water flow, water depth, and cross-section of the modeled river. At the end, there is a big tank where the recycled water can be pumped to the upstream.
\nSchematic layout of the river simulation system (top) and one type of crustal shape (bottom).
It consists of two metal rectangular boxes, 10 m long, 3 m wide, and 0.8 m high, and each one is located under artificial rainfall zone 1 and zone 2 (Figure 9). The interval area, 1 m wide, is kept between the two boxes in order to easily assemble them into a bigger one. The slope of the experimental sink could be adjusted automatically from 0 to 35°. One 5 cm hole is cut into the downslope end of each plot. A short metal stub pipe is welded on to the hole to form an outlet. Two water flow monitors [14] are horizontally set up in front of the each box for the measurement of the runoff. The box outlet and flow monitor are fitted together with a flexible PVC pipe. The monitor should have lids to prevent direct rainfall from entering them. For simulated rainfalls, runoff volume measurements and sediment sample collection are performed every 5 s and 5 min, respectively.
\nSchematic layout of experimental sink of runoff and erosion.
The transformation dynamical processes experimental device among precipitation, vegetation water, surface water, soil water, and groundwater (TDPEDPVSSG) finished in July 2014 is a complex equipment to study the water process among the five different types of water (Figure 10). It is hermetically sealed in the house (7 m long, 5 m wide, and 7.5 m high) and consists of two sections joined together, the up section and the down section.
\nSchematic layout of the transformation dynamical processes experimental device among precipitation, vegetation water, surface water, soil water, and groundwater.
The down section has two weighable lysimeters. Each lysimeter has a rectangle stainless steel tank with a surface area of 6 m2 (3 m long, 2 m wide) and a depth of 3 m. It is designed to have enough depth to accommodate the rooting depth of most plants and control the groundwater level. A drainage discharge and water supply system at the bottom is designed to facilitate the fluctuation of groundwater level. The gap between the concrete wall and the stainless container is less than 2 cm to avoid alteration of the energy balance of the system. This gap has been covered with a flexible and impermeable rubber film in the surface. Each lysimeter tank rests on a base frame that transmits the weight through a lever system with a counterweight to an electronic load cell. The lever arm reduces the majority of the total mass of tank and soil to a small fraction of some kilograms that are measured by load cell. It measures those soil mass with an accuracy of 60 g which corresponds to a precipitation or water column of 0.01 mm. The output signal of the sensor is transmitted to a computer located in the control room. The frequency of data collection is 30-min interval.
\nIn the northern lysimeter, the silt loam is homogeneously placed. However, in the southern lysimeter, three horizons of soil (silt loam and silty sandy loam) are placed, and each horizon depth is 1 m. The type of soil structure is prevalent in this region of North China. Fourteen sets of soil moisture, temperature, and electrical conductivity sensor (5TE, Decagon Devices, Inc., USA), dielectric water potential (MPS-2, Decagon Devices, Inc., USA), and suction lysimeter designed by IGSNRR are installed in side of the tank at the depths of 20, 43, 53, 63, 73, 83, 92.5, 110.5, 130.5, 150.5, 180.5, 210.5, 240.5, and 275.5 cm.
\nThe up section is a phytotron where the temperature, humidity, light, and CO2 can be automatically controlled. The temperature and humidity are generally controlled by air conditioner and humidifier. The light (0–30,000 LUX) is produced by 12 high-pressure sodium lamps above the lysimeter, which can be adjusted up and down manually. CO2 is emitted from the steel CO2 cylinder tank. The precision of controlling temperature, humidity, and CO2 are ±1°C, ±5%, and ±100 ppm, respectively.
\nThe instruments and techniques developed during the long-term monitoring phase of field experimental stations and the establishment phase of indoor experimental laboratory have been specifically described. The methods in the filed observations will enhance the quantitative research about the hydrology process. The new integrated water cycle experimental hall can be used to characterize the water movement among precipitation, vegetation water, surface water, soil water, and groundwater. These characterizations will improve the parameterization in numerical models. In addition, the continued instrumentation development and various techniques are recommended. It is particularly important to develop measurement and predictive techniques for
This work was financially supported by Key Program of National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.41730749), CAS Key Technology Talent and Key Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. KJZD-EW-TZ-G10). The authors like to thank the personnel of the Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, for providing important ideas in construction of field experimental stations and indoor experimental laboratory.
\nThe chromatographic separation is based on the differences in the retention of the components of a sample dissolved in a mobile phase when passing through a stationary phase typically contained in a chromatographic column. In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid and the characteristics of high performance (of the separation) and high pressure (used for the mobile phase) lead to the acronym HPLC. Although cartridges and micro-fluidic chips can be used to contain the stationary phase, a column is much more frequently utilized for this purpose [1, 2]. The external body of the column is a tube made from stainless steel or a strong polymer (e.g., polyether ether ketone or PEEK). This tube is filled with the stationary phase. Stationary phase can be in the form of particles or as monoliths. Both particles and the monoliths usually have a rigid porous support that may also act as the active phase, but more frequently the support has on the surface a chemically bonded or physically coated active phase used for the separation. The progress in the making of chromatographic columns is very important for the development of HPLC. A large body of information describes the progress in column construction including peer reviewed papers, books, and information on the Internet [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Present chapter describes some of the more recent progress in column construction and indicates potential for new developments. This progress takes place into two main directions: 1) the improvement of mainstream-type columns that are widely used in everyday work for practical analyses and 2) the development of exploratory new materials for the stationary phase and miniaturization.
In a chromatographic separation, the components of a mixture are eluting from the column, then are detected, and the detection electric signal is converted into a graphic output as
In formula (1),
The separation in a chromatographic process between two compounds
In formula (2) parameter
Parameter
For achieving a good separation, the value of
In formula (4),
In addition to
In formula (5),
The column physical dimensions are its length and internal diameter (i.d.). The common column lengths are between 30 mm and 250 mm with typical lengths of 50, 100, 150, 250 mm. The i.d. of the column is used to classify the columns as standard (3.0–4.6 mm i.d.), minibore (2.0–3.0 mm i.d.), microbore (0.5–2.0 mm i.d.), capillary (0.2–0.5 mm i.d.), and nanoscale (0.05–0.2 mm i.d.). The tendency of modern columns is to have them shorter and narrower leading to shorter run times and the use of less solvent. However, for a given
The use of narrower columns leads to higher linear flow rate
The tendency to use shorter and narrower column in order to achieve shorter run times and use of less volume of mobile phase will continue in the future [15]. The production of columns with smaller
The most common type of stationary phase in HPLC and UPLC is made from small particles (typically 1.7–10.0 μm in diameter), which are packed in the body of the column. Monolithic columns are also utilized and are made from a single rod of a solid porous material. Because hydrated porous silica can have a very large surface and can be derivatized to bind an active phase, it is the most common material used as solid support to make the particles and also some monoliths for HPLC. This silica usually has a bonded, grafted, or coated layer of organic material. This organic layer is the active part of stationary phase involved in the separation process, but the silanol groups from the uncovered surface of silica also participate in the separation. In case of hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and in normal phase chromatography (NPC), bare silica can be used as active phase without additional coverage due to its polar character.
Not only silica can be used as support for the active stationary phase. Materials such as hybrid organic–inorganic still based on a hydrated silica but containing organic groups such as -CH2-CH2- in its structure can be used as support. Also hydrated zirconia, titania, ceramic hydroxyapatite, or organic polymers can be used as solid support. The progress regarding the solid support is made in two directions, one being the physical characteristics of the support and the other its chemical properties. These characteristics are further discussed separately.
For particles used as solid support, one first characteristic is the physical type, which can be fully porous, core-shell, or pellicular. Porous particles (1.7–10 μm in diameter) have a porous structure for the entire particle, core-shell have a solid nonporous core 1.5–3 μm in diameter surrounded by a porous outer shell 0.3–0.5 μm in depth. Pellicular particles are solid nonporous spheres covered with a thin layer of stationary phase. Fully porous and core-shell particles are widely utilized in common HPLC practice, while pellicular particles are less common because of their reduced loading capacity. Core-shell particles offer better peak shape (lower
The particles are also characterized by (average) diameter
In formula (6),
At the same time with increasing
Regarding particle shape, spherical particles show lower
Another physical characteristic of the stationary phase is its surface area [18]. For silica, common values for surface area are between 100 m2/g and 300 m2/g. The trend for modern stationary phases is to have particles with larger surface area since they can be coated with more active phase (increased
The pore size of the porous solid support is commonly characterized as small pores (with diameter below 60 Å), medium (in the range 60–150 Å), and large (of about 300 Å or larger). Common silica pore size is around 100 Å. However, the selection of the pose size depends on the type of molecules to be separated on the stationary phase. For small molecules (with
Monoliths have a porous structure characterized by mesopores (pores between 2 and 50 nm in diameter) and macropores (about 4000–20,000 nm in diameter). For silica monoliths, the silica skeleton is 1–2 μm thick and has a void volume of almost 80% of the entire column volume. Polymeric monoliths have similar void volume. Since monolithic columns produce a lower pressure drop as compared with columns containing particles with similar characteristics, the monoliths are a promising material to be used as support for chromatographic columns. Monoliths are also successfully utilized in the construction of capillary and nano-LC columns [20].
The two main aspects of the chemical characteristics of solid support, which are of interest, include: 1) its internal chemical composition and 2) the chemical functionalities allowing the binding of the active phase (in cases when the solid support does not act itself as the active phase). Regarding the internal chemical composition, the solid support can be made from silica, ethylene or propylene bridged silica, hydrated zirconia, hydrated alumina, aluminosilicates, porous graphitic carbon, zeolites, or various organic polymers such as polystyrene cross-linked with divinylbenzene (PS-DVB) [21], methacrylates, etc. More recently, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) were experimentally evaluated as support for HPLC stationary phases [22].
The most common support material is hydrated silica, which is obtained in principle from a chemical reaction that generates silicic acids followed by condensation reaction of the type:
The resulting material contains numerous silanol groups that are further used for bonding the active phase. The purity of resulting hydrated silica is very important since the presence of metal ions in its structure leads to undesired effects such as peak tailing in chromatography. Very high purity silica (indicated as
Ethylene bridge silica is an excellent material to be used as solid support for the stationary phase in HPLC, and its use will continue probably becoming even more common.
Regarding the other materials, columns based on hydrated zirconia are commercially available, but in general, they have lower chromatographic performance compared with those based on silica mainly due to numerous Lewis acid sites present on the stationary phase. Commercially available are also porous graphitic carbon columns. In order to achieve a large surface area, graphitic stationary phases are made using silica as template on which a layer of an organic material is applied followed by pyrolysis in an inert atmosphere to generate graphite. This is followed by the dissolution of silica template [24]. This type of column has a strong hydrophobic character, but some problems with surface homogeneity remain to be solved.
For the organic polymers, various procedures are used to obtain porous materials [21]. In some cases, these porous polymers may also act as the active phase, and in other cases they contain reactive groups on which an active phase is further bound. Among the problems with organic polymers as support material are the limitation of their structural rigidity and propensity to swelling in certain mobile phase compositions. Although for some types of HPLC (e.g., reversed phase or HILIC), the use of silica-based support is by far more common, organic polymers are frequently used in ion exchange chromatography and in size exclusion chromatography. Also, organic polymers are frequently used for making monolith-type columns [25].
The second important property of the stationary phase support is its capacity to react with a derivatization reagent with the goal of attaching a desired type of functionality such as aliphatic chains of 8 or 18 carbon atoms (C8 or C18) typically used in reversed phase (RP) type of HPLC. For silica support, the reacting capacity is assured by the presence of numerous silanol groups on the silica surface. The number of OH groups per unit mass of silica is characterized by silanol density
In formula (9),
A different type of phase support still based on silica but with different active groups is hydride-based silica (known as type C silica [26]). This material is obtained using a reaction of the type indicated below:
This type of silica can be used as normal phase without further derivatization or can react to attaching further organic groups that will operate as active phase.
Reactive groups used for further derivatization can also be present in various organic polymers. For example, many acrylate-type polymers are synthesized to contain glycidyl groups. These act as reactive sites on the porous polymer surface on which the desired functionalities can be bound. The use of organic polymers as solid support is an attractive alternative in particular related to the efforts toward miniaturization of HPLC columns, where 3D printing technology can be applied to make capillary and nano columns [27].
As described in this section, the most common stationary phase support is based on silica. Although numerous other types of support are continuously evaluated, significant progress is also being made in generating silica with better properties. One of the most promising directions is the preparation of ethylene-bridge silica, which offers an excellent stationary phase support, with good reactivity for binding the desired functional groups and with high resilience to the mobile-phase extreme pH values or composition. The use of ethylene-bridge silica in combination with core-shell type phase will continue to expand, and further progress is likely to continue for this type of phases.
In many types of chromatographic columns, the active phase intended to be involved in the separation is bound or coated on a porous solid support with a large surface area. In some types of HPLC/UPLC, the solid support acts as the active phase without being further chemically modified, and some details about this type of phases will also be further presented, but this section is dedicated to bonded active phases. The bonded phase on a solid support is a key part of the type of chromatography for which the phase is made. For example, for RP-HPLC, which is the most common type of chromatography, the bonded phase is made to have a hydrophobic character. For this purpose, hydrocarbon moieties with different number of carbon atoms are attached to the porous support. The most common such groups contain 18 aliphatic linear carbon chains (C18) or eight carbons chains (C8), but other hydrophobic groups can be bound. For HILIC-type columns, organic fragments containing diol groups, amide, amino, sulfonylethyl, etc., can be bound. For ion-exchange-type chromatography, the bonded groups can be -COO−, -SO3−, or -NH3+,- N(CH3)3+, etc.
Various chemical reactions are utilized for derivatizing the solid porous support of a stationary phase. The active phase can be directly attached to the silica surface, but variants of this procedure including the use of a pre-derivatization followed by a second one are also used. A typical derivatization reaction can be written as follows:
The reactive substituent X can be Cl, but also OCH3, OC2H5, etc. The substituent
As the sensitivity of detection in HPLC/UPLC is becoming higher and higher in particular with the development of mass spectrometric (MS) and MS/MS detectors, one important quality of the chromatographic columns is to have a very low background that may be caused by small molecule “leaking” into the mobile phase left from the manufacturing process of the stationary phase. The use of trifunctional reagents and new procedures to achieve the derivatization of the solid support (usually of silica) led to chromatographic columns with very low bleed, higher resilience to a wide range of composition for the mobile phase and good reproducibility of the separation.
After derivatization, silica surface (and also the surface of hydrated zirconia or alumina) still remains with a considerable number of underivatized OH groups (silanols in case of silica). These silanol groups interact with the analytes from the mobile phase such that not only the
The process of silica surface derivatization offers numerous possibilities to generate stationary phases with different properties [31]. A large variety of columns is commercially available, and they are tailored for specific utilization. Derivatization and endcapping are used to obtain stationary phases with higher resistance to extreme pH of the mobile phase (e.g., controlled surface charge or CSH type columns), with extra dense bonding (XDB) of the active phase, with different degrees of hydrophobicity, with polar endcapping groups (e.g., CH2OH), or with embedded polar groups in the hydrophobic chain of the active phase [32, 33]. Besides the procedures summarily indicated above to derivatize the solid support, various other derivatization procedures are reported in the literature [34]. Also, alternative procedures to obtain the active phase such as direct synthesis of silica materials with an active bonded phase surface [35] can be used. Progress in the synthesis of monoliths, as well as of stationary phases based on organic polymers, is also being made [36]. One such example is the production of latex-agglomerated ion exchangers.
A variety of other procedures are available for producing the active phase for HPLC and UPLC columns (e.g., [37]). Some of these procedures are kept undisclosed by the column manufacturers and some are reported in the literature. Also, a variety of novel procedures for attaching the active phase on the solid support are developed, such as grafting of pre-synthesized polymers [38, 39], or direct synthesis of the stationary phase containing the desired functionalities [40, 41].
Stationary phases with better performance including better resolution
The modern columns have various benefits from the improvements in the synthesis of the active phase. For example, from the derivatization with trifunctional reagents, the active phase is more homogeneous and stable, with reduced access of the analytes to the free silanols and more reproducible chromatography. The horizontal polymerization (derivatization) has the advantage of higher homogeneity and reduced presence of free silanols, while vertical polymerization leads to phases with a higher mass of active phase (larger
Besides the making of columns with improved characteristics, the increased variety of available columns is another direction in which considerable progress is being made. This variety of columns allows a better selection for a specific task, and also, as bidimensional HPLC is sometimes needed for the separation of complex samples, the column variety offers choices for orthogonal separations [42].
Under the acronyms HPLC or UPLC are included a number of similar techniques that have significant differences regarding the mechanism involved in the separation. According to the separation mechanism, a specific type of chromatographic column is used. Some of HPLC techniques are common, and some are more special having lower utilization. One main type of common HPLC/UPLC is RP-HPLC, which is used for the separation of molecules having in their structure hydrophobic moieties but frequently additional polar groups. Other common HPLC types are HILIC used for the separation of strongly polar molecules, ion exchange HPLC used for the separation of molecules capable to ionize, chiral HPLC used for the separation of enantiomeric molecules, size exclusion HPLC used for the separation of molecules based on their molecular size (more precisely hydrodynamic volume), and affinity/immunoaffinity HPLC. Various other techniques less frequently utilized are derived from the main types, and examples of such techniques are ion pair chromatography, hydrophobic interaction, normal phase, ion moderated, etc. The active stationary phase for each of those techniques has specific structures. Regardless of the column type, all modern columns benefit from the progress in the solid support in particular by using high-purity silica and ethylene bridge silica, from the use of core-shell particle construction and the advances in the making of monoliths. Some specific aspects for different types of HPLC/UPLC are further discussed.
Frequently used for the analysis of a large range of compounds, from small molecules to proteins and from highly hydrophobic to rather polar ones, RP-HPLC is the most commonly applied HPLC technique. To this extensive use is associated a significant number of RP type columns many of them commercially available. For RP-HPLC the active stationary phase contains hydrophobic groups, the most common being C18 and C8 phases. The hydrophobic character of the stationary phase in RP-HPLC can be modified by using the active phase with specific groups. Besides C18 and C8 that are very common, aliphatic C2, C4, C12, C14, C20, C22, C27, C30, cyclohexyl, phenyl, diphenyl, C6-linked phenyl, pentafluorophenyl, cyanopropyl, etc., can be used to create a hydrophobic surface. The hydrophobic character of these phases represents one criterion to differentiate them. However, even for columns containing the same type of phase, such as C18, many variations in the active phase structure are possible. The variations may include the type of bonding (mono, di, or trifunctional), the type of polymerization (horizontal or vertical), the carbon load, the density and uniformity of the coverage of solid support (e.g. of silica), and the variations in endcapping. Some hydrophobic stationary phase may contain polar imbedded groups [43]. Various imbedded groups in aliphatic chains were reported in the literature [32], and some are present in commercially available columns. Some of these groups include ether, amide, urea, carbamate, sulfone, thiocarbamate, etc. These groups are used to modulate separation of many types of organic compounds that have in their molecule polar groups. In addition, the imbedded polar groups “shield” the silica residual silanols for interacting with the analytes (in particular with highly basic ones) leading to a reduced silanol activity of the stationary phase (as in Symmetry Shield type columns) and also to better resilience to extreme pH values of the mobile phase.
Evolution of stationary phases in RP-HPLC (and RP-UPLC) took place in two directions: 1) perfecting common columns such as C18 or C8 columns and 2) exploring the binding of various less common groups on the solid support. Perfection of common columns is being done by working with either fully porous or core-shell particles, using special substrates usually high-purity silica or ethylene bridged silica, controlling the derivatization to be very homogeneous, and using special endcapping. By endcapping with TMS groups, the polarity of the silanols is reduced, but the extent of this process can vary from column type to column type, and some C18 columns are intentionally left with some silanol activity for interacting with polar molecules. The use of endcapping with small polar groups also brings distinctive properties to the RP-type columns. Adding special procedures such as CSH or XDB technologies, the variety of RP columns becomes even larger. CSH technology takes advantage that the silica surface is usually slightly negatively charged due to the dissociation of silanols. This charge can be neutralized by adding specific reagents such that the surface reactivity is decreased. The technology is applied to ethylene bridge particles by incorporating a low level of surface charges on stationary phase particles. Also, the construction of phases with C18 or C8 active phase but based on silica with specifically larger pores (e.g., 250 Å) is a promising path for the separation of large molecules such as proteins.
Regarding the binding of various less common groups on the solid support, special phases with bonded cholesterol or fullerene moieties were made, as well as columns with aliphatic chains having an unusual number of carbons (e.g., C3 or C4 for lower hydrophobicity or C30 for intended higher hydrophobicity) [44]. However, these types of experimental bonded phases did not generate columns with much different hydrophobic properties. The intimate mechanism of hydrophobic interactions caused by the “rejection” of the molecules containing hydrophobic moieties from a polar solvent and their “acceptance” in a hydrophobic stationary phase leads to a non-unique process of separation, as long as the accepting phase is less polar than the mobile phase (e.g., [12]). As a result, the choice of mobile phase composition in RP-HPLC plays an important role in the separation, and the differences in the properties of columns used in RP-HPLC are basically obtained by modulating the ratio of hydrophobicity and residual polar interactions and less by changing the phase hydrophobicity.
The use of hydrated zirconia as solid support, the use of coating of a silica base and not binding it, the use of organic polymers to make phases for RP-HPLC, or the use of porous graphitic carbon as stationary phase, although leading to a variety of columns to be used in RP-HPLC remained with a relatively limited utilization. Both trends of improving columns with common stationary phase such as C18, C8, phenyl, cyanopropyl, and experimenting with new active phases are likely to continue in the future. However, a considerably more impact for the progress is still expected from the improvements of common stationary phases.
Important progress has been made in the construction of columns dedicated to HILIC separation. The active phase for these columns must be polar, and it is used with a mobile phase less polar than the stationary phase and containing water plus an organic solvent. Similar phases are used for NPC, but in this case the mobile phase is non-aqueous. Bare silica can be used as stationary phase in HILIC, and the improvements in the silica purity and homogeneity of silanol coverage made these columns rather common. Bonded phases with groups such as diol, ether embedded+diol, amide terminal, polyamide, cyano (also used in RP HPLC) are common. Propylamine, diethylamine, or triazole groups are used to generate weak anionic active phases, sulfonylethyl groups are used to generate weak cationic active phase, and amino+sulfonic, amino+carboxylic groups are used to generate zwitterionic phases. Various other types of phases for HILIC applications were synthesized [45]. These phases have various polarities, but the spacer (handle) molecular fragment connecting the polar group with the silica base plays an important role in the separation. The same features as for RP-HPLC columns, including the coverage of support with the bonded phase, the pH resilience, the preparation procedure using mono-, bi-, or tri-functional reagents, the phase ratio are important for the column quality. Since in the HILIC separations not only the polar interactions are important in the separation, but also the hydrophobic interactions play a role, the carbon load (caused by the spacer) also influences the separation characteristics. Some HILIC columns are also endcapped, and this process changes the stationary phase characteristics in a similar manner as for the RP-HPLC. Besides common phases used in HILIC separations, special stationary phases were also known. Such phases were made with bonded cyclodextrin, bonded perhydroxyl-cucurbit[6]uril, polyhydroxyethyl-aspatamide, polysuccinimide [46], etc. One example of a structure of a zwitterionic stationary phase containing sulfonylalkylbetaine groups used in HILIC separations is indicated below:
Because of the proximity of the positive and negative charged groups in the structure, the phase is not used as a zwitterionic ion exchanger.
Stationary phases based on organic polymers are also used for HILIC separations [47]. However, more common are still the silica-based columns.
Ion exchange (IC) stationary phases are classified as cation exchange phases (weak, medium, and strong), anion exchange phases (also weak, medium, and strong), zwitterionic, and amphoteric. The phases contain groups attached through a handle on silica or on an organic polymeric support. Specific groups such as -COO−, -PO3H−, -SO3−, etc., generate cationic phases, groups such as -NH3+, -NH2(CH3)]+, -N(CH3)3]+, −[N(CH3)2(CH2CH2OH)]+, −[N(C2H5)(CH3)2]+ generate anionic phases, and groups such as -N(CH3)2+-(CH2)n-SO3− or -CH(SO3−)-(CH2)n-N(CH3)3+ generate zwitterionic phases. While for RP-HPLC and HILIC phases, the use of organic polymeric support is less common, for ion exchange phases the use of polymeric support is more common. A specific type of polymeric support is the latex agglomerated type. The latex agglomerated ion exchange particles contain an internal core that has ionic groups on its surface. On this surface is attached a monolayer of small diameter particles that carry functional groups having bonded ions with an opposite charge with those of the support. The groups of the outer particles have the double role of attaching the small particles to the support and also to act as an ion exchanger for the ions in the mobile phase. The advantages of this type of phase include its stability to a wide range of pH of mobile phase and resilience to higher column backpressure compared with common polymeric columns. This is possible because the cross-linking of the polymer from the core particles can be very high.
Because the loading capacity for the same amount of stationary phase is typically larger for IC columns compared with RP or HILIC columns, and because the separation mechanism is based on ionic interactions, which is different from that in RP-HPLC and HILIC, the capillary columns in IC are more successfully utilized. Such columns are used with a low flow rate (e.g., 0.01–0.02 mL/min) that increases the sensitivity of the conductivity detector used frequently in IC separations [48, 49].
Ion chromatography is extensively used in the separations of proteins and nucleic acids [50], and continuous progress is being made with new phases of IC type. Many such new phases are commercially available [10].
Special ion chromatographic columns are also applied in ion-moderated and ligand exchange chromatography. These types of columns are used for the separation of carbohydrates, sugar acids, as well as lipids. For example, difficult separation such as those between cis and trans lipids and fatty acids can be achieved using an ion-moderated columns containing Ag+ ions [51]. In spite of the need for ion-moderated chromatography for the separation of important types of analytes, some of the existent columns dedicated for ion-moderated chromatography require relatively long run times for the separation. For this reason, development of new ion-moderated type columns would be highly desirable.
The ion exchange stationary phases and columns are in continuous development, and in particular mixed mode phases containing ion exchange type moieties are demonstrated to be very useful in separations. A discussion dedicated to mixed mode phases is also included in this chapter.
The increased demand of analysis of a variety of pharmaceutical drugs, many of them with chiral character, required constant development of chiral columns. Other fields of chemical analysis also required chiral separation. For example, the increased use of vaping and the proliferation of companies producing synthetic nicotine required the development of sensitive methods for the analysis of nicotine enantiomers [52]. Active stationary phase for chiral separation can be of different types, which include: brush or “Pirkle” type, cellulose based, cyclodextrin or cyclofructan-based, amylose-based, crown-ether-based, macrocyclic antibiotic type, protein based, ligand exchange type, chiral synthetic polymer type [53, 54], etc. All these phases contain various types of chiral centers. In spite of the existence of such a variety of columns, the need for stationary phases offering better enantioresolution is still actual. Many chiral columns must be used in non-aqueous mobile phase (NPC type chromatography), and fewer phases allow the use of water in the mobile phase for RP, HILIC, or IC-type utilization. However, many chiral compounds are highly polar and some are even insoluble in non-aqueous media. In addition, the widespread electrospray type of MS detection (ESI-MS) generates weak or no response when a mobile phase with no water is used for the separation. For these reasons, continuous effort is made to develop chiral columns that work in RP, HILIC, or IC mode.
The improvements of stationary phases for chiral separations follow the same lines as the one utilized for other types of columns. The use of core-shell type particles (e.g., [55]), smaller particle size, monoliths, various types of phases containing chiral centers such as glicopeptides, and macrocyclic antibiotics, as well as more common ones such as derivatized polysaccharides [56, 57] is providing important tools for obtaining better, more efficient types of chiral chromatographic columns [58].
Size exclusion HPLC (SEC) is a technique used for the separation of analytes according to their molecular size (hydrodynamic volume), and it is applied for the separation of macromolecules of different sizes and of macromolecules from small molecules. Ideally, only the size of the molecule should contribute to the separation, but it is common that some energetic interactions (e.g., of polar type) also take place between the stationary phase and the analytes. These energetic effects can modify the intended purpose in which only the size affects the separation. As the molecular size is usually proportional with the molecular weight
Among the requirements for a good stationary phase in SEC is to have homogeneous pores, to be as inert as possible and have minimal energetic interactions with the analytes, and to be resilient to high HPLC-type backpressure. These requirements are not very simple to achieve. The control of pose size such that they are as uniform as possible can pose difficulties during manufacturing. Silica-based SEC columns can be made using bare silica, but also bonded phases containing, for example, diol groups on silica are produced. The use of silica with large pores leads to lower resilience to the backpressure. In addition, the reduction of energetic interactions with the silanol groups on silica is not simple. For the polymeric phases, the problem of resilience to higher backpressure is even more stringent than it is for the silica-based phases. The use of special cross-linked polymers alleviates this problem. Also, SEC columns usually require long run times for separations, but new developments such as making core-shell type stationary phases shorten the separation time. Also, as the pressure resistance of the used materials is better, the reduction in the particle size of the phase contributes to improvements in SEC chromatography [60]. New stationary phases use all those procedures to improve the chromatographic columns for SEC.
In affinity/immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC), the stationary phase contains on its surface an immobilized biological complement of the analytes from the mobile phase [61]. Examples of pairs of biological complement and the analytes are antigens and their antibody, lectins and glycoproteins, metal ions and proteins containing amino acid residues that have affinity for the ion (e.g. histidine), biotin and avidin, etc. The solid support for the stationary phase can be silica, synthetic organic polymers, agarose (the neutral gelling fraction of the complex natural polysaccharide agar), cross-linked agarose, cross-linked dextrans (sepharose, sephacryl), cellulose, etc. It is typical for the solid support in affinity chromatography to have large pores, between 300 Å and 500 Å because the technique is used for the separation of large molecules (e.g., proteins and nucleic acids). The stationary phase particles can be porous] or nonporous [62] and also can be monolithic [63]. A variety of techniques are used to make stationary phases for IAC, using different procedures for the immobilization of biological complement ranging from covalent attachment to adsorption-based methods. For example, the immobilization of antibodies can be done through their amine groups by using a support that has been activated with reagents such as N,N′-carbonyldiimidazole, cyanogen bromide, N-hydroxysuccinimide, or tresyl chloride/tosyl chloride [64]. New phases are continuously reported for this technique, with a variety of active phases including different types of proteins, aptamers [65], and dye ligands [66]. Continuous progress is also made regarding stationary phases for biomimetic LC that mimic the interactions in natural biological systems [67, 68].
Preparation of stationary phases with mixed-mode active groups in which the separation is based on two or more types of main interactions is currently an important direction of development in HPLC [11]. Mixed-mode phases offer special separation capabilities and could be a simpler alternative to bidimensional separations that use orthogonal columns [69]. These phases may have reversed-phase and HILIC capabilities, reversed-phase and ion exchange capability, HILIC and ion exchange, or even more than two types of capability allowing for example reversed-phase/hydrophilic interaction/ion-exchange-type separations [70]. Some of the mixed mode phases also have chiral centers such that can be used for special chiral separations [71]. Porous or core-shell silica can be used for the preparation of mixed mode phases, and common functionalities such as C18, NH2, diol, SO3−, etc., that are specific for one type of phase are used to obtain the mixed-mode phases. The main difference from single type of phase is that multiple functionalities are simultaneously present on the solid support. Synthesis of such phases frequently requires a sequence of derivatizations and strict control of the quality of the final product [72, 73]. The preparation of mixed-mode phases with organic polymers support, in the form of monoliths or using covalent organic frameworks, has also been described in the literature [74, 75]. Mixed-mode stationary phases can also be made as having the active functionality based on ionic liquids moieties [71, 76].
The chromatographic column is a key component of HPLC instrumentation, and the extensive use of HPLC promoted the effort for obtaining better columns. These columns provide better separations in a shorter time, generating reproducible chromatography, have minimal bleed avoiding background for the detectors, are resilient to a wide pH range of the mobile phase, can be used with the mobile phase having 100% water, and have a longer utilization life. Progress in making the chromatographic columns has been achieved by various procedures such as the optimizing the chromatographic column dimensions, the use of smaller particles for the stationary phase, the use of monoliths, the use of core-shell type particles. Significant progress was also made in chemistry of stationary phase, both regarding the solid support and the active phase bonded on it. Future progress is expected on the same lines of development for columns used in routine analyses. At the same time, experimental columns for HPLC miniaturization and enhanced efficiency are experimented and reported in the literature (e.g., [20, 77]). The parallel progress regarding the pumping system of HPLC instrumentation that can provide higher backpressure and well-controlled low flow rates, the precision of injecting systems (autosamplers), as well as the unprecedent increased sensitivity of detection in particular of MS and MS/MS type, were key for making possible some of the improvements in chromatographic column construction.
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Abdelaal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/832.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106431",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelaal",slug:"mohamed-a.-abdelaal",fullName:"Mohamed A. Abdelaal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1830",title:"Hematology",subtitle:"Science and Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bcd8875467e51b02e0ea4aec429ad51",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",bookSignature:"Charles H. Lawrie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103158",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Lawrie",slug:"charles-lawrie",fullName:"Charles Lawrie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:9,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"31178",doi:"10.5772/38961",title:"Physiological Factors in the Interpretation of Equine Hematological Profile",slug:"haematological-profile-of-the-horse-phisiological-factors-influencing-equine-haematology",totalDownloads:10779,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"1830",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",title:"Hematology",fullTitle:"Hematology - Science and Practice"},signatures:"K. Satué, A. Hernández and A. Muñoz",authors:[{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo"}]},{id:"37047",doi:"10.5772/32080",title:"Microparticles: Role in Haemostasis and Venous Thromboembolism",slug:"microparticles-role-in-haemostasis-and-venous-thromboembolism",totalDownloads:2455,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"832",slug:"pathophysiology-and-clinical-aspects-of-venous-thromboembolism-in-neonates-renal-disease-and-cancer-patients",title:"Pathophysiology and Clinical Aspects of Venous Thromboembolism in Neonates, Renal Disease and Cancer Patients",fullTitle:"Pathophysiology and Clinical Aspects of Venous Thromboembolism in Neonates, Renal Disease and Cancer Patients"},signatures:"Anoop K. Enjeti and Michael Seldon",authors:[{id:"90071",title:"Dr.",name:"Anoop",middleName:null,surname:"Enjeti",slug:"anoop-enjeti",fullName:"Anoop Enjeti"},{id:"151786",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Seldon",slug:"michael-seldon",fullName:"Michael Seldon"}]},{id:"59051",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70937",title:"Acute Myeloid Leukemia in Pediatric Patients: A Review About Current Diagnostic and Treatment Approaches",slug:"acute-myeloid-leukemia-in-pediatric-patients-a-review-about-current-diagnostic-and-treatment-approac",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Acute leukemia is the most common childhood malignancy, accounting for almost 35% of all childhood cancers. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) represents 15–20% of pediatric acute leukemia. Majority of AML cases appear de novo, however a minority of cases can present as a secondary malignancy. AML is a highly heterogeneous disease and its diagnosis involves a combination of diagnostic analyses including morphology, immunophenotyping, cytochemistry, and leukemic blasts derived from peripheral blood or bone marrow demonstrating cytogenic and molecular characteristics. Through the identification of recurrent genetic mutations, it has been made possible to refine individual prognosis and guide therapeutic management. The current survival rate of children with AML is approximately 70%. The standard therapeutic regimen is a combination of cytarabine- and anthracycline-based regimens with allogenic stem cell transplantation in appropriate patients. Relapse in pediatric patients suffering from AML occurs in approximately 30% of cases, whereas death occurs in 5–10% of patients as a result of disease complications or chemotherapeutic side effects. In understanding the genetic basis of AML, targeted therapies will have the ability to reduce treatment-related morbidity and mortality. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of AML, its biology, diagnosis and therapeutic management in pediatric patients.",book:{id:"6261",slug:"myeloid-leukemia",title:"Myeloid Leukemia",fullTitle:"Myeloid Leukemia"},signatures:"Katarzyna Derwich, Dorothy Mitkowski and Jolanta Skalska-\nSadowska",authors:[{id:"205540",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Derwich",slug:"katarzyna-derwich",fullName:"Katarzyna Derwich"},{id:"214057",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorothy",middleName:null,surname:"Mitkowski",slug:"dorothy-mitkowski",fullName:"Dorothy Mitkowski"},{id:"214058",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Skalska-Sadowska",slug:"jolanta-skalska-sadowska",fullName:"Jolanta Skalska-Sadowska"}]},{id:"61695",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76931",title:"Angiogenesis and Antiangiogenesis in Multiple Myeloma",slug:"angiogenesis-and-antiangiogenesis-in-multiple-myeloma",totalDownloads:1183,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Multiple myeloma progression is characterized by a dense interaction between cancer cells and bone marrow microenvironment. The interactions of myeloma cells with various stromal cells and extracellular matrix components are the main regulator of the biological processes that underlie the progression of the disease and of the classic symptomatology correlated. The bone marrow of myeloma patients has recognized autocrine and paracrine loops that regulate multiple signaling pathways and the malignant phenotype of plasma cells. One of the pivotal biological processes which are responsible for myeloma progression is the formation of new vessels from existing ones, known as angiogenesis. It represents a constant hallmark of disease progression and a characteristic feature of the active phase of the disease. Near angiogenesis, other two ancestral processes were active in the bone marrow: vasculogenesis and vasculogenic mimicry. These processes are mediated by the angiogenic cytokines, interleukins, and inflammatory cytokines directly secreted by plasma cells and stromal cells. Neovascularization is also mediated by direct interaction between plasma cells and the various components of bone marrow microenvironment. The observation of the increased bone marrow angiogenesis in multiple myeloma and its correlation with disease activity and overall survival led to consider angiogenesis as a new target in the treatment of multiple myeloma.",book:{id:"6710",slug:"update-on-multiple-myeloma",title:"Update on Multiple Myeloma",fullTitle:"Update on Multiple Myeloma"},signatures:"Roberto Ria, Antonio Solimando, Assunta Melaccio, Azzurra\nSportelli and Angelo Vacca",authors:null},{id:"31163",doi:"10.5772/35840",title:"Intravascular Leukocyte Chemotaxis: The Rules of Attraction",slug:"intravascular-leukocyte-chemotaxis-the-rules-of-attraction",totalDownloads:2342,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1830",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",title:"Hematology",fullTitle:"Hematology - Science and Practice"},signatures:"Sara Massena and Mia Phillipson",authors:[{id:"106058",title:"Dr.",name:"Mia",middleName:null,surname:"Phillipson",slug:"mia-phillipson",fullName:"Mia Phillipson"},{id:"106366",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Massena",slug:"sara-massena",fullName:"Sara Massena"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64871",title:"Diagnosis and Classification of Myelodysplastic Syndrome",slug:"diagnosis-and-classification-of-myelodysplastic-syndrome",totalDownloads:3255,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is a clonal hematopoietic stem cell disorder characterized by morphological dysplastic changes in one or more of the major hematopoietic cell lines. MDS can present with varying degrees of single or multiple cytopenias including neutropenia, anemia and thrombocytopenia. Presentation of MDS can range from asymptomatic to life threatening. MDS diagnosis and classification present important challenges, particularly in the distinction from benign conditions. French-American-British (FAB) classification proposed a classification based on easily obtainable laboratory information and was recommended in early and as modified by guidelines of new classification of World Health Organization (WHO). The strategy of diagnostic laboratory in MDS depends on morphological changes and is based on existence of dysplastic changes in the peripheral blood and bone marrow including peripheral blood smear, bone marrow aspirate smear and bone marrow trephine biopsy. The correct morphological interpretation and the use of cytogenetics, immunophenotyping, immunohistochemistry and molecular analysis will give valuable information on diagnosis and prognosis.",book:{id:"7138",slug:"recent-developments-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Gamal Abdul Hamid, Abdul Wahab Al-Nehmi and Safa Shukry",authors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"},{id:"273724",title:"Dr.",name:"Safa",middleName:null,surname:"Shukry",slug:"safa-shukry",fullName:"Safa Shukry"},{id:"277511",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulwahab",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Nehmi",slug:"abdulwahab-al-nehmi",fullName:"Abdulwahab Al-Nehmi"}]},{id:"60442",title:"Invasive and Noninvasive Approaches in Prenatal Diagnosis of Thalassemias",slug:"invasive-and-noninvasive-approaches-in-prenatal-diagnosis-of-thalassemias",totalDownloads:1778,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Thalassemia is a significant health problem worldwide. There are two main classifications, α- and β-thalassemias, which are usually caused by the defective synthesis of the α-globin, and which are commonly caused by different mutations of the β-globin chain. Different hemoglobin mutations have been identified to date. Thalassemias can result in profound anemia from early life and, if not treated with regular blood transfusions, can lead to death in the first year. Prenatal diagnosis of thalassemia is the essential part of preventive medicine and is currently dependent on the use of invasive diagnostic tests within the first 2 months of pregnancy. These diagnostic techniques carry a small but significant risk of fetal loss up to 1%. Molecular diagnostic methods have been developed for genotyping thalassemias based on PCR techniques and high-throughput technologies. Noninvasive tests using cell-free DNA (cfDNA) from a maternal blood sample is also an alternative method, thus eliminating the risk of miscarriage. This chapter summarizes the current invasive approaches and the noninvasive methods using cell-free fetal DNA as new molecular diagnostic methods for genotypic diagnosis of thalassemia in clinical practice. Prevention strategies that encompass carrier screening, genetic counseling, and prenatal diagnosis are discussed.",book:{id:"6210",slug:"thalassemia-and-other-hemolytic-anemias",title:"Thalassemia and Other Hemolytic Anemias",fullTitle:"Thalassemia and Other Hemolytic Anemias"},signatures:"Abdullah Tuli and Ebru Dündar Yenilmez",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"215677",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"62044",title:"Sickle Cell Disease: A Genetic Disorder of Beta-Globin",slug:"sickle-cell-disease-a-genetic-disorder-of-beta-globin",totalDownloads:1816,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a structural and monogenetic genetic disorder due to a mutation that occurs in the globin β-chain, resulting in the formation of hemoglobin S (Hb S), a protein composed of two normal, and two β-type mutant chains. Estimates indicate that the prevalence among live births is 4.4% in the world. The difficulty in circulating the sickle cell, its interaction with endothelial cells, leukocytes, platelets, endothelial dysfunction, and the abnormal expression of adhesion molecules permeate the beginning of the blood vessel occlusion process as well as pathophysiological aspects of SCD. Among the secondary complications are the stroke, pulmonary hypertension, leg ulcer, renal disorders, and all complications associated with vascular dysfunction. Clinical and biochemical markers of disease severity can be used to predict risk, prevent complications, and increase the expectation and quality of life of the SCD population. The entire scenario generated by Hb S has implications for the health and social inclusion of patients, so the treatment of the person with SCD needs an approach focused on the prevention of these complications in an individualized way.",book:{id:"6210",slug:"thalassemia-and-other-hemolytic-anemias",title:"Thalassemia and Other Hemolytic Anemias",fullTitle:"Thalassemia and Other Hemolytic Anemias"},signatures:"Karen Cordovil",authors:[{id:"228575",title:"M.D.",name:"Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Cordovil",slug:"karen-cordovil",fullName:"Karen Cordovil"}]},{id:"66394",title:"Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma",slug:"diffuse-large-b-cell-lymphoma",totalDownloads:2482,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a heterogenous class of aggressive lymphoma and is considered as the most common subtype of non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL). Several genetic anomalies such as point mutations, numerical alterations, and, more rarely, translocations and gene amplifications play a role in the pathogenesis of this class of B-cell lymphoma and have been related to specific histological and immunophenotypic subtypes. On the other hand, the treatment protocol in DLBCL did not witness significant changes during the last two decades. The widespread adoption of rituximab as an important adjuvant to standard chemotherapy protocol in CD20+ cases was a notable exception, which provided significant improvement in disease-free survival and overall survival, with limited toxicity. However, no less than 20% of patients diagnosed with DLBCL exhibit relapse after the initial response to R-CHOP regimen, while more than 15% of the patients exhibit primary refractory disease. This is the reason why a review of all the morphological, clinical, and therapeutic particularities of DLBCL is required.",book:{id:"8316",slug:"normal-and-malignant-b-cell",title:"Normal and Malignant B-Cell",fullTitle:"Normal and Malignant B-Cell"},signatures:"Patrascu Ana Maria, Ionela Rotaru, Valeriu Surlin and Stefan Patrascu",authors:[{id:"158096",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Valeriu",middleName:null,surname:"Surlin",slug:"valeriu-surlin",fullName:"Valeriu Surlin"},{id:"194539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Patrascu",slug:"stefan-patrascu",fullName:"Stefan Patrascu"},{id:"290810",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Patrascu",slug:"ana-maria-patrascu",fullName:"Ana Maria Patrascu"},{id:"292959",title:"Dr.",name:"Ionela",middleName:null,surname:"Rotaru",slug:"ionela-rotaru",fullName:"Ionela Rotaru"}]},{id:"61929",title:"Idiosyncratic Drug-Induced Severe Neutropenia and Agranulocytosis: State of the Art",slug:"idiosyncratic-drug-induced-severe-neutropenia-and-agranulocytosis-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:1621,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, we report and discuss the diagnosis and management of idiosyncratic drug-induced, or drug-associated, severe neutropenia, and agranulocytosis (neutrophil count of <0.5 × 109/L). In this setting, neutropenia remains a potentially serious adverse event due to the frequency of severe sepsis, with severe deep tissue infections (e.g., pneumonia), life-threatening infections, septicemia, and septic shock in two-thirds of all hospitalized patients. Recently, several poor prognostic factors, impacting the hematological recovery, the duration of hospitalization, and the outcome have been identified that may be helpful when identifying “frailty” patients. These factors include: old age, poor performance status, septicemia or shock, comorbidities such as renal failure, and a neutrophil count below 0.1 × 109/L. recovery. In this situation, modern management, with broad-spectrum antibiotics in case of any sepsis sign and hematopoietic growth factors (HGF) (particularly G-CSF), is likely to improve the prognosis, with a current mortality rate around 5%.",book:{id:"6439",slug:"hematology-latest-research-and-clinical-advances",title:"Hematology",fullTitle:"Hematology - Latest Research and Clinical Advances"},signatures:"Emmanuel Andrès and Rachel Mourot-Cottet",authors:[{id:"143493",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Andrès",slug:"emmanuel-andres",fullName:"Emmanuel Andrès"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1026",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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