",isbn:"978-1-80356-273-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-272-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-274-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e1d9662c334dd78ab35bfb57c3bf106e",bookSignature:"Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11675.jpg",keywords:"Skeletal Muscle Diseases, Rare Skeletal Muscle Diseases, Basic Research, Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, Translational Research, Diagnostic Technologies, Functional Tests, Disease Models, Innovative Therapies, Drug Repositioning, Drug Discovery, Emerging Technologies",numberOfDownloads:24,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti received his Bachelor's Degree in Biotechnology Science at the University of Naples “Federico II” in 2006 with the highest degree. In 2010, he graduated with a Ph.D. in Neuroscience at the University of Naples “Federico II”. He published many papers on his areas of research in international peer-reviewed journals and for his pioneering studies has received awards from both national and international scientific societies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"281317",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Arturo",surname:"Iannotti",slug:"fabio-iannotti",fullName:"Fabio Iannotti",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdOdQAK/Profile_Picture_1644820016099",biography:"Currently researcher at the CNR-ICB Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry of Pozzuoli, Napoli (Italy), Fabio Arturo Iannotti has as major focus of his research activity the role of the endocannabinoid system and TRP in epilepsy and muscle development. Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti received his Bachelor Degree in Biotecnology Science (Medical curricula) at University of Naples \\'Federico II\\' in 2006 (with 110/110 cum laude). In 2010, Dr. Iannotti graduated with a PhD in Neuroscience at University of Naples \\'Federico II\\'. The focus of his thesis was on the role of voltage-gated potassium channels Kv7 during the neuronal excitoxicity as well as skeletal muscle cell differentiation. During the three years of the PhD program, Dr. Iannotti has been introduced to the field of ion channels, particularly voltage-gated ion channels; he has been instrumental in setting up RT-PCR and quantitative RT-PCR techniques in our lab, focusing onto research themes which would allow to combine both molecular and functional approaches in the study of ion channels during muscle cell differentiation. 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1. Introduction
In recent years, the value that society places on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and better stewardship of soil, water and wildlife is leading to consumer demand for climate-friendly production methods and supply chain. In addition there has become a greater level of the world’s appreciation of the impact of climate change and environmental sustainability. There is also society’s general consciousness of personal and public health in relation to products that they use. And then there is an increase awareness of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) especially the SDG12 – sustainable consumption and production. Day in and out people are becoming more concern of environmental issues, consumers thus ask a lot of questions these days about the authenticity of products that they buy. And we question how green producers manufacturing processes are, how big their carbon footprints are and how they recycle [1]. Various supply activities can have a significant threat to the environment. These threats vary but in terms of carbon monoxide emissions, discarded packaging materials, scrapped toxic materials, traffic congestion and other forms of industrial pollution [2, 3].
This means that we are heading towards a near future where, people are becoming so conscious of their health and the ecology that, if your production or ecological service does not have anything to do with protection of the earth’s resource, along its supply chain, you will not survive on both international and local markets. Undoubtedly, across all sectors of the economy, we see that companies are being influence to reformulate their environmental and supply chain models due to increases in environmental problems caused by products. Therefore, the requirement to extend companies’ environmental activities to include the whole supply chain has been instrumental in the concept of green supply chain management (GSCM) [4]. It is therefore, reasonable to say that the requirement to extend companies’ environmental activities to include the whole supply chain has been driving force of the development of the GSCM concept.
Green supply chain management is basically the integration of environmental thinking into various supply chain management (SCM) models. In the broader sense, GSCM can be considered an environmental innovation [2]. This is because, it’s ultimate goal is to eliminate wastages including hazardous chemical, emissions, energy and solid waste along supply chain such as product design, material resourcing and selection, manufacturing process, delivery of final product and end-of-life management of the product [5, 6]. Also, because GSCM has become a multidisciplinary concept by constructing environmental management practices in the context of various supply chains [7], whether they directly provided environmental services or not. And finally, because GSCM plays a vital role in influencing the total environment impact of any firm involved in supply chain activities and thus contributing to sustainability performance enhancement [2]. Therefore, with the environmental issues becoming an integral part of the supply chain management concept, we see the context being extended so that each step from organization’s materials management and transportation functions to the end customer can be structured to include environmental awareness [8].
It is against this backdrop that green supply chain becomes very important when designing environmental impact initiatives especially within environment organization such as waste management companies, or any social enterprise that works at the national, regional or community level to impact the triple bottom line from a green economy context. And this disposition spurs the authors of this chapter to do a review of literature in relation to the theme while reflecting on their work on waste, at their organizational level, to establish or reestablish the gains in waste value chains to inform policy makers to rethink the current waste management practices to accelerate the socioeconomic development of the country.
This chapter therefore, analyses the waste management services as key green initiatives in Ghana; siting the case of how EcoCare Waste Initiative an environmental startup in Goaso, Ghana, achieves green supply chain in its attempt to offer community waste collection service, the lessons that could be drawn.
2. Problems associated with unhealthy environments
It is noted that poor water, sanitation and hygiene, and indoor air pollution from burning wood for cooking and heating were as well as unconventional burning of wastes have been the cause of pneumonia and other common environmental related disease over and over again. In order to prevent these diseases, the environment needed to change [9]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that, 24% of all global deaths – roughly 13.7 million deaths a year – are linked to environment risks such as air, water and soil pollution, chemical exposures, climate change and ultraviolet radiation. Beyond pneumonia and diarrheal diseases, these risks may contribute to more than 100 diseases and injuries [9, 10]. In sub-Saharan African region the 2.5 million deaths a year are attributable to environmental risks. Generally, the fraction of the global burden of disease due to the environment is 22% if we are accounting for both death and disability. And in children under 5 years especially, up to 26% of all deaths could be prevented, if environmental risks were removed [10]. These facts, show us the importance of ensuring that whatever product or service that impacts the environment is sustainable to give us healthy environments which will help prevent the greatest percentage if not all environmental related diseases.
Figure 1 below, adopted from [10] gives a nice patristic illustration of (i) the ratio of deaths attributable to environment to deaths by other facts, and (ii) ration of disability-adjusted life year (DALY) attributable to environment to DALY non-attributable to environment; globally in 2012.
Figure 1.
Imagery illustration of the global deaths attributed to environmental factors (adopted from [10]).
3. Challenges with solid waste management
3.1 Problems with solid waste in developing countries
In the developing world, the private sector and various actors have been keenly involved in solid waste management over the past decades, yet there are still problems with solid waste delivery services [11]. The problems with solid waste in most urban cities of some countries have really become burdensome despite efforts being made by city authorities and governments. The problems of solid waste common in developing countries include the following but not limited to:
inadequate service coverage,
irregular waste collection,
waste spill over from bins and storage containers, and
lax attitude of people towards indiscriminate disposal at unauthorized places
waste littering on streets and in gutters/drains
indiscriminate burning of waste and
pressure on dump sites (locally created landfills).
These solid waste problems are what consequently lead to environmental health problems, such as discussed in the previous section above. And not only do they impact environmental health, they also lead to esthetic nuisance, and environmental pollution in general [12, 13].
3.2 Challenges in solid waste value chains
One major challenge in handling solid waste problems is that these problems impact on each other and on the environment in a circular manner – which makes it difficult to only tackle only a single aspect of the solid waste value chain. For example, in Ghana, due to inadequate service coverage in many cities, rural settlements and slums, insufficient service coverage; the public dump uncollected solid waste into drains, rivers and surrounding areas, or it is locally burnt or buried. These practices lead to considerable environmental pollution and degradation, and pose serious health risk to the population. These problems impair, in the long run, not only the quality of life of the urban poorer communities but also affect the welfare of the entire urban population. These complexities are what make cities still faced with urban environmental health issues related to solid waste management [14].
On the other hand the main causes of these waste problems in developing parts are not feasible to tackle in isolation because they are enormous, and complex interconnected social, environmental and economic factors. First, rapid urbanization poses a big problem to urban solid waste management. The rapid and unregulated urban growth and development in urban areas lead to a situation where solid waste services infrastructure lag behind the growth in population, or simply overpowers government strengths to fund municipal solid waste management.
Second, low cost of solid waste recovery as well as limited funds from central government is another constraint to solving the challenges in the waste management value chaing in developing economies. Local authorities have difficulties in keeping pace with solid waste facilities development and in meeting the growing demand for solid waste services due to financial constraints.
Third, there is very low political will and priority given to solid waste service, Meanwhile most governments acknowledge immediacy and seriousness of solid waste problems to their countries. The lack of priority, political will, and public sector commitment limit rapid and sustainable improvements in the solid waste sector in developing countries like Ghana.
Fourth, there is also the factor of the enforcement solid waste management. This contributes to the lax attitude of the people towards indiscriminate disposal at unauthorized places, waste littering, and burning in open space. The enforcement of regulation by government officials appears to be weak and this may be due to lack of capacity, lack of resources and political will, and problems with the institutional set-up.
Finally, we have also noticed that there are problems with physical and human capacity for solid waste collection and technology operations in some countries. The human capacity of the public and private sector organizations may not be adequate and most of the few waste collection businesses that step in to contribute are usually not designed to be green, scalable and sustainable enough [14].
4. How green can waste collection be?
The root causes of solid waste problems have causal relationships with the various environmental and socio-economic factors that are already impacting the lives of populations living in these cities that are the most affected by the solid waste management challenge. That is why for our solid waste collection services to be sustainable enough, it must integrate social, environmental and economic impact models. If a waste collection service provider is able to consider the impact of their services on the triple bottom line – that is addressing social, environmental and economic variables – then we can say that the service is sustainable. Figure 2 illustrates the intersessions of the social, environmental and economic variables that affect populations which when address makes a service sustainable.
Figure 2.
The interconnection of the elements of the triple bottom line concept (adopted from [15]).
First of all, the service must have measurable impacts on the social variables faced by the affected people and communities – that is to cause social change and improvement. This means for a waste collection services to be green it must address some social variables that deals with the community, education (e.g. increased awareness about effects of waste etc.), equity (e.g. reduction in child labor, increase in girl child education etc.), health, well-being and quality of life of the people.
Secondly, a green service must bring economic benefits to the populations involved. This means, not only must the service make some profits for its sustainable cash flow (to remain in business), the service provider must also factor the economic dynamics of the users when pricing its services, and the activities in the service must create jobs and employment opportunities. Thus they must offer a service that is available and affordable to all classes of the population.
Finally a green waste collection service must integrate protection of the environment at the core of serving the people and the economy. It must have considerations for saving natural resources, water, air quality, energy conservation and land use across all of its supply chains. If all aspects of a solid waste collection service – from procurement of logistics, collection of wastes and transport to disposal, are able to respect protection of the environments, reduce pollution and carbon emission, then we can say that such a waste collection service is green – it respects green supply chain management (GSCM).
5. Greening the waste supply chains: national to local contexts
Within the waste management industry a generalized broader way of defining waste would be: wastes are materials that are not prime products for which the generator has no further use in terms of his or her own purposes of production, transformation, or consumption and of which he or she wants to dispose [16]. And from national to local contexts we identify that:
the extraction of raw materials,
processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products,
the consumption of final products, and
other human activities are ways through which waste may be generated [17].
In Ghana particularly it is estimated that an average city generates about four thousand (4000) tons waste daily. To this end, the rate of waste generation in Ghana stands at 0.47 kg/person/day, which translates into about 12,710 tons of waste per day averagely [5].
The conventional methods of dealing with these waste in Ghana have included throwing into open dumps, wetlands, landfills, and uncontrolled dumps or in some cases are incinerated in the open air. Due to our current conventional approaches to dealing with waste, it is difficult to get a significant quantity of waste generated to go into recycling, composting or reuse to tap the potential end use value of solid wastes. However, if waste is properly managed – from generation to disposal – there are enormous untapped potentials that could be fully exploited. And this also have a consequential potential of improving greatly the quality of life for Ghanaians through energy generation, employment generation, income acquisition, and resource for goods production among others.
Therefore, the municipal solid waste (MSW) collection model ran by the government and city authorities where waste is collected and simply dumped at landfills by only one government agent or contractor, could be remodeled to make it more green and sustainable. We can decentralize the entire municipal waste management value chain – using a zonation approach. Government in an effort to rid the respective metropolis of the mountain of filths, these metropolises contract private waste management companies in a joint venture termed public-private partnerships (PPP) which over the years have witnessed a considerable increase particularly as witnessed in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, to assist in the collection and disposal of MSW at landfill sites [16, 17]. This PPP for waste management could be replicated at local levels in peri-urban centers where we are witnessing an exponential growth of startups and youth organizations committed to social entrepreneurship [18, 19, 20].
When the waste management value chain is decentralized, what it also means is that we will have many actors – even SMEs and startups – on the various points of the waste value chain. Some will specialize on the collection to ensure that communities achieve 100 percentage recovery of waste from homes and the public. Which will also make waste collection service relatively affordable for every household to subscribe. More people subscribed to waste collection means little or no more indiscriminate disposal of waste at unauthorized places like drains, bushes and water bodies; and no burying or burning of wastes by households. Secondly, at local (zonal) levels, waste management companies could partner, together with government initiative, and build one major community owned state-of-the-art landfill system or incinerator. This will ensure that waste disposal in each community is not scattered to claim more arable lands that could be used for farming. Finally, while some waste service providers focus on collection and disposal, some others could only invest in treatment and recycling. The waste collected by company A from the same city could be sold to company B as raw material to be converted into various end-user resources like upcycling plastic wastes into bricks, tiles and ceramics or processing to produce energy like combustion chambers, gasification systems, liquefaction etc. [16, 21, 22].
Here, the authors propose a conceptual framework for turning wastes back into production chains in a circular economy manner – to make national and local wastes supply chains green. From the triple bottom line modeling, we considered EcoCare activities that result in economic gains, those that impact the environment and those that lead to social change. For a given community as an entity if a waste initiative is able to link all of its solutions to economic and environment holistically, that service will indirectly take care of its social impact variables (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Conceptual framework for green waste supply chains (from EcoCare pitch deck [23]).
6. Factors affecting waste management supply chains in Ghana
6.1 Actors and elements of solid waste management (SWM)
Solid Waste Management (SWM) could be defined as managing the processes involved in solid waste collection, treatment and disposal of waste generated in households, commercial and business establishments, institutions, and non-hazardous industrial process wastes. Solid waste collection has evolved over the years from collection of unsegregated waste and disposal on dumping grounds to collection of source separated waste streams through formal and informal service providers. The management of the processes involved which was traditionally public has now become public-private-community provision and partnerships arrangements [24].
The direct activities in solid waste management could be grouped into six functional elements basically:
waste generation and characterization,
on-site storage and handling,
collection,
transfer and transport,
separation processing, treatment and resource recovery, and
final disposal.
These functional elements require planning and management in order to achieve high quality of service. Unfortunately, however, the waste management value chain has not contributed to greening cities because most cities’ agencies responsible for SWM often pay too little attention to integrated management approaches based on adequate information systems, management approaches, methods, and techniques. The activities of service provision may be concentrated in one organization or fragmented over multiple organizations.
As mentioned in Section 5 above, if solid waste management in cities is decentralized whereby various actors of waste management initiatives (private and public) were contracted to work on different activities of the waste value chains, it would be easy for cities to achieve green waste management supply chains. It is noted by [11] that these activities of the waste supply chain could best be regrouped into four fragmented stages, and it is best if different actors worked on different fragments in the process of making solid waste management green. A diagrammatic representation of the four fragmented process of waste management is shown by Figure 4 below.
Figure 4.
Elements and actors in the solid waste management supply chain (adopted from [11]).
From Figure 4, we discover that at least 4 groups of elements and 4 groups of actors run through 4 stages of the waste management supply chain. Again we can see that a waste management supply chain can take a linear pathway (as is being done in most cities) and a circular pathway (which has only been promoted recently to be the most eco-friendly and green approach).
The linear waste management supply chain will take a path in which waste moves straight away from stage 1 (primary storage points) through stage 2 (collection and transport) to stage 4 (final disposal). In some typical rural communities in Ghana, the linear model could even involve just stage 1 (waste generators store long piles of waste in their houses for a long time) and then move it straight away to stage 4 (a local community dump site, call “borla so” in local dialect). This means that in the linear model, most actors may be left out. In the Stage 1–4 linear approach for example, you notice that households, institutions etc. who generate their waste at stage 1, store the waste, and then later send it to dump site by themselves – cutting off public and private waste collectors in stage 2, and even recyclers in stage 3.
On the other hand, the circular waste management supply chain is one that progress from Stage 1 through 2 and 3 to 4, then back to 3. What happens here is that, after the waste reaches the final stage they are not disposed completely into permanent landfills, but all or some percentage of the waste is recovered back for reuse, recycling and other purposes of getting the waste material back into a production cycle again. These waste recovered could be repurpose into other end user goods and products through various means of treatment and processing – such as organic compositing, plastic recycling and upcycling, plastic extrusion, reuse etc. With this circular model of solid waste management, all the actors across the 4 stages on the waste supply chain get some work to do, and contribute to making the city’s waste management green and sustainable.
Table 1 gives an idea of how different types of solid waste could be repurposed in the circular economy waste management model.
Types of solid waste
Typical sources
Potential products
Methods (processes)
Agro waste (organic)
Rice, wheat, straw and husk, cotton stalk, saw mill waste, vegetable residues, nut, shells etc.
Types of waste and their repurpose potential in a circular waste supply chain.
We could not separate recycle and non-recyclable plastics as it is done commonly, so take these to be only plastics that could directly be recycled/or repurposed easily.
[Source: authors’ construct based on synthesis of various prototypes and recycled products in literature].
6.2 Modes of solid waste collection services
According to 11 we can identify four modes of solid waste collection service1 depending on the income levels of the people, housing types and the level of service required. They include:
Communal2collection mode is rendered in low income areas. The householders discharge their waste into communal storage containers at transfer stations or designated locations and collection vehicles pick up the containers full of waste at frequent intervals.
Block collection mode is used where there are large apartment residential buildings. For this service, collection vehicle travels along a predetermined route at specific intervals (every 2–3 days) and stops at selected locations. The householders bring their waste bins upon hearing a bell sound and hand them to the crew who empties the bins and gives them back to the householders [11].
Kerbside collection mode is rendered in middle and high income areas. The collection crew collects bins and bags of waste which are deposited at the kerbside on fixed days (e.g. 2 specific days in a week) when collection takes place. The householders leave their bins at the kerbside and collect them later in the day [11].
Door-to-door or house-to-house3collection mode is rendered in middle and high income areas. The collection crew enters each premise, takes out the bin and sends it back after emptying the waste into collection vehicles. No bins are left out-side household premises.
The residents served by the kerbside and house-to-house collection use standard bins to store waste. And this is what is practiced in the EcoCare H2H Waste Collection model.
7. The case of EcoCare waste initiative
7.1 The EcoCare story
A brief capture of the story of the EcoCare team and initiative could help paint a picture of how an environmental company could be born out of a passion to protect lives by cleaning and greening our environments. We capture this from an unpublished executive document of the EcoCare Waste Initiative [25]:
Jackson Nyarko the visionary of EcoCare had a friend who was part of the victims that lost their lives to the June 3, 2015 flood disaster in Accra, Ghana. One of the major cause of this disaster was later linked to a major drain that was choked by filth (plastic wastes especially) due to indiscriminate waste disposal. A year later, 2016, Jackson had the opportunity to participate in an Eco-enterprises development incubator. He was touched by his lost due to the indiscriminate problem to build a concept around Waste Management. In search of his first team members, Jackson first brought on board his Friend, Frank Yeboah, who also related to the loss of lives in that June 3rd disaster. So the 2 united their passion, loss and expertise to design EcoCare Waste Initiative. With the mission to challenge Ghanaians wasteful paradigm and throwaway culture. Then from there, their need to fill up the expertise gap brought in Felix Ankamah Yeboah (an environmental engineer), then later Isaac Sarfo Larbi, Maxwell Osei-Bonsu and the late Acheamponmaa Duffour.
7.2 The EcoCare business model
EcoCare Waste Initiative was set up with the sustainable development goal (SDG) 12 in mind first, then later partnerships (SDG 17) with other actors to integrate other goals – SDG 6 and 13 started running through the model. Figure 5 below shows a non-updated business model of EcoCare developed by the co-founders which is used in modeling all the services and programs initiated by EcoCare since 2017.
Figure 5.
Business model of EcoCare waste initiative (from EcoCare pitch deck for TEDxAccra, 2017).
7.3 Milestones towards a greening cities of Ahafo
Since the conception in 2016, the EcoCare team has been challenged by the daunting vision “to become a world class environmental company solving global sustainability and ecological problems and inspiring African excellence.” And driven by the mission “develop innovative technologies for managing wastes and protecting environments for people and communities,” EcoCare has moved through 3 growth stages:
Through 2017–2018: EcoCare first focused on social campaigns against plastics pollution and indiscriminate waste disposal – mainly on social media (virtual) and talk shows in and around Goaso. At this point it was quite difficult to identify on which of the four stages (illustrated in Figure 4) that the EcoCare was acting. But it served as a foundation process.
Through 2019: EcoCare added EcoEvents Cleanup to its business model – where we did waste Collection and segregation at source (people’s events like wedding receptions and funerals) - for revenue generation. Now it becomes clear to identify EcoCare as an actor at the Stage 2 and 4 – in a linear model of waste management.
In May 2020, we rolled out the House to House Waste Collection Service (called H2H Waste Collection) in 4 “elite communities” in Goaso. This business model though currently on a small scale, has elements of primary storage (with segregation at source), collection, and recovery of recyclables before disposal at authorized landfill sites. Now you can see EcoCare acting across the 4 major stages of green waste supply green chain – in a circular mode. The next subsection (7.3) describes some details of how the H2H Waste Collection makes EcoCare contribute to greening the waste management supply chain of Goaso.
7.4 The EcoCare H2H waste collection model
The EcoCare House to House Waste Collection was designed to achieve six (6) goals, but which will cut across the social, economic and environment triple bottom line and have a tremendous impact in setting a new pace for green waste management supply chain models in Goaso. The six goals are:
support municipal waste collection to reach all neighborhoods in Goaso – Social
help every household to adopt the behavior of segregating their wastes – Social
ease families of monthly sanitation bills by cheap and easy payment plans – Economic
create direct and indirect jobs for waste supply chain in Goaso – Economic
ensure prompt collection and odor free neighborhoods – Environment
make Goaso the cleanest district capital in Ghana – Environment
So moving from the conventional linear approach to solid waste management, the EcoCare H2H Waste Collection has introduced a circular model by:
supplying waste bins for storage of waste in households,
supplying recycling bags for segregation of recyclable wastes at the homes (source),
prompt collection of wastes on weekly basis,
recovering and storing recyclables waste (e.g. plastics, glass, paper etc.) at our warehouse,
transporting disposable waste to authorized community landfills and
Distributing recovered recyclable wastes to partner recycling companies.
Without capacity to recycle, EcoCare is currently creating a distribution model for connecting with plastic recycling companies within Ahafo who will receive our recovered wastes as raw materials for the recycling plants. This will ensure that even while we do not have the capacity to complete our circular model, by partnership with other actors in the sector we could still make a complete green waste supply chain.
8. Results and lessons learned from EcoCare and the green initiatives
Most cities in Ghana continue to spend on solid waste management whereas others in other parts of the world persistently generate clean energy, income and raw materials and social development through the solid waste value chains. The common practice of waste management in Ghana since independence, which has been the linear supply chain approach – where we just collect and dispose – has not been very much beneficial until the last decade.
In recent years, some actors in the waste management industry have made efforts to transform Ghana’s sanitation services into a more sustainable development (circular economy) model – where different actors partner to work on different aspects of the waste value chain. By so doing, today, not only do we see collect and dump waste management services, but also there are being a crop of recycling initiatives coming in.
There are large scale companies like Zoomlion, Surfisana, and CleanTeam etc. contributing to this new revolution to transform Ghana’s linear waste management supply chain into a more circular sector. And interestingly, the efforts of environmental SMEs which are even at startup stages but are more passionate about circular economy, are inspiring green initiatives in Ghana, and EcoCare Waste Initiative is the number on of such inspirations for the Asunafo North Municipality and almost the entire Ahafo region of Ghana.
Since 2017, EcoCare has been into advocacy and contributed a voice to speaking out for a change in Ghanaians behavior towards indiscriminate disposal of waste, plastic pollution, environmental depletion and a call for circular economy in the environment industry. And EcoCare Waste Initiative was the first the startup to inspire the small scale local green waste supply chain model in Goaso, which few other startups and youth groups are to replicating today in the Asunafo North Municipality.
Table 2 below shows the four (4) main initiatives that had been rolled out by EcoCare since incorporation in 2017; and the impacts that these activities have made across the social, environmental and economic development variables of Goaso and other.
Active in 2017–2019; No current active challenge in 2020
Impacting and influencing climate action and responsible consumption and production in 70 members
Saved 21,900 L of water in 2018–2019 by our community of 70 environmental lovers through the challenge
Several indirect jobs and revenue created for partners and suppliers – e.g. media houses, graphic designers, web/app designers
EcoEvent cleanup service
Operated in 2019; Not operated yet in 2020
Influenced the way event organizers manage their waste in Goaso
Reduced amount of waste that ended up at dump site in Goaso during weekends; Expected to save up to 6516 tons of CO2-eq emission from waste burning by 2022
Created 11 direct jobs within, 2 outside; several indirect jobs
EcoCare DIY recycling training
Active 2018–2019
Influenced 600+ youth and students to consider waste as a resource for artifact creation
Prevented indiscriminate throwing of plastic wastes;
Provided skills for youth and women in plastic craft work
Rolled out in May 2020; Operated for about 10 weeks now
Served and impacted 16 households to choose paid waste collection service, learn to practice segregation of waste and control their waste generation
1800 kg of wastes collected and properly disposed in 8 weeks of active operation; 11.25 kg waste per household per week; Generation is fairly constant
Created 3 different direct jobs for transporters, collectors and recyclers; 1/3 of waste generated go into recycling for revenue creation etc.
Table 2.
Social, environmental and economic impacts of EcoCare’s green initiatives.
Plastic Free Campaign is global remote community (across 7 African countries) so impact are more global than local.
Find highlights of impacts discussed in Sec 9 below, since H2H Collection is the main model discussed for this chapter.
Some values are estimates from our unpublished Impact Assessment.
9. Summary and way forward
From a careful review of the results and lessons learned from EcoCare and other solid waste management companies that incorporate circularity into their services, we found that incorporation of a recovery and recycling channel at some point makes them contribute greatly to greening their environments. And such services are setting a pace for understanding, adoption and replication of green supply chain management (GSCM) into waste management in the country.
Waste generation among the user communities of EcoCare’s H2H Waste Collection, has been fairly constant. Meaning users are influenced to keep their waste generate at a moderation (in check) since the bin provided them is not the usual larger bins that public services provide. Also, the weekly collection and pay per pickup plan of the H2H Collection service influence users to not exceed their thresholds between weekly pickups.
Customer feedback tells us that the people prefer this service to the conventional collect and dump model. Feedback also suggests that a flexible and affordable payment plan has a potential to motivate more households to subscribe to paid waste collection services, rather than resort to their indiscriminate disposal of wastes.
A green supply chain model like the H2H Waste Collection also makes users (the people) feel a part of contributing to keeping their cities clean and green. This could be true because customers generally accepted the responsibility for the environmental pollution in their neighborhoods caused by the dumping of wastes at unauthorized places or long term storage of piles of wastes in their backyards.
The H2H Waste Collection model is highly commended for the fact that it connects multiple actors in the waste service, and opens door for more jobs and economic activities to be created in the city if the public municipal solid waste department adopts this model too.
Over all, if successful, we are optimistic that these four (4) green initiatives provided by EcoCare Waste Initiative could create 1000+ decent direct employment activities and 1000 change agents for the global goals on sustainable consumption and production (SDG 12) by 2022 from recycling model alone.4
The authors recommend that private-public-partnerships for waste management in Goaso and other cities would be greener if they replicated the circular economy model implemented by EcoCare Waste Initiative and its H2H Waste Collection model.
10. Conclusion
One key factor that affects green supply chain management (GSCM) is the integration of environmental value proposition. Environmental companies thus have little to do to achieve a green supply chain model, since their business models start with providing solutions to environmental problems, with consequential impacts on social and economic variables. EcoCare, a waste management startup in Goaso, Ghana, has proved that incorporating the triple bottom line, in municipal solid waste management – according to a circular economy model – is very possible, and that more cities have the potential to respecting the green supply chain management. Four main activities of EcoCare Waste Initiative – Plastic Free Campaigs, EcoEvent CleanUps Service, DIY Recycling Training and H2H Was Collection service – have been found to contribute to the greening the waste collection supply chain in Goaso, the capital of Asunafo North Municipality and the Ahafo region of Ghana. The House-to-house waste collection service (EcoCare H2H) ran by EcoCare is setting a pace for green supply chain management in Goaso.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"supply chain, environment, circular economy, sustainability, solid wastes, EcoCare, TBL, sanitation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73926.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73926.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73926",totalDownloads:435,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:36,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 27th 2020",dateReviewed:"August 24th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2020",datePublished:"September 22nd 2021",dateFinished:"November 5th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Today, Green supply chain management (GSCM) has become a multidisciplinary concept by constructing environmental management practices in the context of various supply chains including waste management services. Environmental issues have become an important integration into the supply chain management, so that each step from organization’s materials management and transportation functions to the end customer can be structured to include environmental awareness. The authors analyze the levels of application of GSCM in waste management value chain of Ghana and use our house-to-house waste collection model as case. Review of the social, environmental and economic impacts made by waste EcoCare and other solid waste management companies that incorporate circularity – at least a recovery and recycling channel at some point – into their service shows are setting a pace for understanding, adoption and replication of green supply chain management (GSCM) into waste management in the country. The authors recommend that private-public-partnerships for waste management in Goaso and other cities would be greener if they replicated the circular economy model implemented by EcoCare Waste Initiative and its H2H Waste Collection model.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73926",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73926",book:{id:"9555",slug:"green-supply-chain-competitiveness-and-sustainability"},signatures:"Jackson Nyarko, Frank A. Yeboah, Felix A. Yeboah, Isaac S. Larbi and Maxwell Osei-Bonsu",authors:[{id:"320888",title:"Mr.",name:"Jackson",middleName:null,surname:"Nyarko",fullName:"Jackson Nyarko",slug:"jackson-nyarko",email:"nyarkojackson@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"326906",title:"Mr.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Amponsah Yeboah",fullName:"Frank Amponsah Yeboah",slug:"frank-amponsah-yeboah",email:"frankyeb@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"326948",title:"Mr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Ankamah Yeboah",fullName:"Felix Ankamah Yeboah",slug:"felix-ankamah-yeboah",email:"fayeb9400@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"326949",title:"Mr.",name:"Isaac",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfo Larbi",fullName:"Isaac Sarfo Larbi",slug:"isaac-sarfo-larbi",email:"sarfo.larbi@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"326950",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Osei-Bonsu",fullName:"Maxwell Osei-Bonsu",slug:"maxwell-osei-bonsu",email:"maxipriest2u@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Problems associated with unhealthy environments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Challenges with solid waste management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Problems with solid waste in developing countries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Challenges in solid waste value chains",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. How green can waste collection be?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Greening the waste supply chains: national to local contexts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Factors affecting waste management supply chains in Ghana",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.1 Actors and elements of solid waste management (SWM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.2 Modes of solid waste collection services",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. The case of EcoCare waste initiative",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"7.1 The EcoCare story",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.2 The EcoCare business model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.3 Milestones towards a greening cities of Ahafo",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"7.4 The EcoCare H2H waste collection model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Results and lessons learned from EcoCare and the green initiatives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"9. Summary and way forward",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Murray M. Introduction to the green supply chain: Starting to create a green supply chain can add to the bottom line [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https://www.thebalancesmb.com/introduction-to-the-green-supply-chain-2221084 [Accessed: January 21, 2019]'},{id:"B2",body:'Chin TA, Tat HH, Sulaiman Z. 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Critical issues of municipal solid waste Management in Ghana. Journal of Energy and Natural Resource Management. 2015;2(1):30-36'},{id:"B22",body:'Schubeler P, Wehrle K, Christen J. Conceptual Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Management in low-Income Countries. St. Gallen: Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in Technology and Management; 1996'},{id:"B23",body:'“Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly composite budget for the 2016 fiscal year, Republic of Ghana” [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/budget/2016/Composite/AR/KMA.pdf [Accessed: June 29, 2020]'},{id:"B24",body:'Tchobanoglous G, Theisen H, Vigil S. Integrated Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1993'},{id:"B25",body:'Nyarko J. Note to EcoCare Shareholders [Unpublished]; 2020. Source: http://www.ecocaregh.com'},{id:"B26",body:'Enayetullah I, Sinha M. Breaking Barriers. Dhaka: Oral Presentation at TEDxDhaka Conference; 2014'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Take Collection service in general as the collection of solid waste from households in the municipality or from communal storage point."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Communal collection: A system for solid waste collection in which individuals bring their municipal solid waste directly to a central point, from where it is collected."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"House-to-house collection- Method of collecting domestic solid waste in which the house-holder is responsible for putting the waste (in a container) outside his property at the curb- or roadside at specified times for collection. The container should generally be kept within the property (definitions are adopted from [11])."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Enayetullah and Sinha [26], TEDxDhaka estimates recycling 1ton of waste creates 2 new jobs for waste pickers etc."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jackson Nyarko",address:"nyarkojackson@gmail.com",affiliation:'
EcoCare Waste Initiative, Ghana
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Frank A. Yeboah",address:null,affiliation:'
EcoCare Waste Initiative, Ghana
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Felix A. Yeboah",address:null,affiliation:'
EcoCare Waste Initiative, Ghana
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Energy and Natural Resource, Ghana
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Isaac S. Larbi",address:null,affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
The experiences of children in early stages of life contribute to establish the foundations for future learning and development [1]. Great amount of experiences is related to those interactions with adults and peers in the natural environments were children growth [2]. Research findings support the positive impact of warm and sensitive interpersonal relationships with adults and peers in natural environments, highlighting the positive outcomes at social, emotional, and cognitive levels [3]. Moreover, caregiver-closeness and autonomy support from the caregiver predicts the vocabulary acquisition and emotion regulation of the child [4]. Therefore, it is crucial to understand which are the styles of interaction and environmental characteristics that will support positive interpersonal interactions. This chapter aims to discuss (a) the theoretical foundations that underline the promotion of positive interpersonal interactions, (b) the functional domains of development that serve as a guide to understand the development of children from a holistic perspective and the importance of child interactions with peers and adults, and (c) the considerations to ensure positive interpersonal interactions of children with peers and adults in different natural environments.
2. Theoretical foundations
From the developmental science of normative development perspective, three types of family patterns of interaction are crucial for influencing children’s development (i.e., (1) parent-child interactions, (2) family-orchestrated child experiences and (3) health and safety provided by the family) [5]. The first one emphasizes as key aspects of effective parent-child interactions: reciprocal, sensitive, and affectively warm social exchanges, discourse-based interactions and avoidance of intrusiveness. The second pattern of interaction focuses on providing the child with developmentally appropriate materials, organizing activities compatible with the child’s interests and needs, choosing quality child care, making the child part of family routines and organizing activities that facilitate child interactions with peers. The third pattern of interaction addresses the parents’ responsibility for ensuring the child’s well-being (e.g., immunizations, adequate nutrition, protection form harm) to promote child developmental outcomes [5]. These types of family patterns of interaction promote learning and development through positive children’s experiences and by surrounding children with loving, secure and rich contexts. Nevertheless, to understand the link between development and experiences for positive developmental trajectories, the results of studies on epigenetics and development, and the bioecological model, can contribute to enlighten the reader about this linkage.
2.1 Epigenetics
The results of research efforts to better understand brain development, its functioning and linkage to behavior have pointed at the importance of the first years of life, which will support current and future development of brain structures and learning [6]. It is well documented how the size of the brain increases at a speedy rate in the firsts years of life. By age 7, the brain reaches 95% of the size of the adult brain in males and 93% in females [7]. In fact, once the child is born not all structures that support all senses and functions are fully developed and the experiences of the child during this early years can determine the outcome of this development [8]. Experiences can act as facilitators or inhibitors of positive expression of genes [9]. Also, interactions with the environment can contribute to minimize the effects of gene expression related to developmental difficulties or delates. Therefore, the environment can have an impact on the phenotypical expression of genes. Epigenetics represents the bridge between genome and environment, it is the chemical code through which the environment communicates with genes and the phenotype of the individual is modified [10].
Greater levels of brain neuroplasticity have been found in the first years of life [11, 12]. Interactions with family members and adults and peers in early childhood education and social contexts influence the way cognitive abilities and even personality is developed. By three years of life, the basic structure of the brain is fully developed, but other areas such as the prefrontal cortex (key structure for the recognition and expression of affection) or the visual cortex continue to develop [13]. Findings of studies with humans and animal models supported the influence of the environment in the development of the brain and the future behavior of individuals. The results of studies with monkey cubs provided evidence on the importance of the interaction with the mother after birth and the detrimental effects of isolation at this stage of life [14]. Monkey cubs which were deprived of the interaction with their mothers experienced significant negative effects such as malnutrition and alterations of the cognitive, affective and physical development, and such negative effects were irreversible [15].
The limbic system and the neocortex are responsible for the control of our emotions, which is directly related to the child’s ability to establish and maintain social interactions. The development of the connections among these brain areas occurs in the late early childhood period and continues through adolescence. The experiences children have in those early stages of development will contribute to the strengthening of synaptic connections between these areas facilitating a better functioning at the socioemotional level [16] and in other areas [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Interactions with adults who are responsive and procure emotional secure environments for children’s learning and development have a huge impact in the formation of such connections from an epigenetic standpoint.
Positive interpersonal relations in early years, especially with main caregivers, are crucial. When the caregiver repeatedly pampers, feeds, cleans, talks, rocks, and cares for the child in a loving way, the developing brain is stimulated. These interactions modulate the behavioral patterns related to the early stimulation of brain areas (hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and nucleus accumbens) and neurohormonal substances (oxytocin, vasopressin and dopamine) directly related to early parental care [13]. Consistency in the interactions between the child and caregivers is most needed for optimal child development [16].
The Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University pointed at serve and return interactions as fundamental for nurturing child development. Serve and return interactions are understood as back-and-forth interactions between the child and the caregiver [17]. The child initiates an interaction by pointing at something, babbling, getting the adult’s attention or crying. Then, the adult responds to the child in a sensitive and encouraging manner (i.e., through eye contact, words, or a hug). These responsive and contingent feedback from the adult contributes to the building of the child’s brain structure. Serve and return interactions consist of 5-steps: (a) noticing the child’s serve and sharing the child’s focus of attention, (b) returning the serve by supporting and encouraging the child, (c) naming it, (d) taking turns and waiting keeping the interaction going back-and-forth, and (e) practicing endings and beginnings. For example, while being at the park, a child may point at a bird on a three (i.e., a serve), the adult smiles and says: “Yeah! That’s a beautiful bird!”. The adult waits for the child’s response. The child bounces looking at the adult and looking back at the bird. The adult, then, responds by picking the child up so the child can have a better view of the bird on the three while saying: “Look Thomas, the bird is eating some of those red fruits”. The adult observes the child’s reaction and waits. The child losses interest on the bird and starts looking at some children climbing a slide steps. Then, the adult says: “Would you like to go to the slide?” This responsive, contingent, and encouraging interaction contributes to the child’s learning of language and provides a secure and loving space for the child to explore his surroundings. Such a rich experience would contribute to the strengthening of brain structures, therefore, impacting the child’s development.
When adults fail to respond to the child’s serve in a reliable and appropriate manner, or when there is a lack of interaction the child development may be negatively compromise. Toxic stress due to neglect or abuse is related to detrimental effects on healthy brain development. As neglect or abuse continue over time, the alert system of the child states on, activating the release of the hormone cortisol [17, 18]. High levels of cortisol and stress are negatively related to child learning and development. Thus, for healthy children, who will be prepare for future learning, adults must ensure that the experiences and interactions of children are responsive and encouraging and stress is not prolonged for long periods of time.
2.2 Bioecological model
As Dr. Robin McWilliam, professor of The University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, USA, and an expert on child development and developer of the Routines-Based Model [19], would say “When children are busy, children are learning!”. Being busy is related to interactions with adults, peers, and materials [20, 21]. This idea of children’s learning and development occurring through interactions with the environment has been also supported by Bronfenbrenner [22]. Bronfenbrenner contributed to deepen the understanding of the influence of the context on the development of children through the development of the bioecological model [23]. This author describes development as a process of interaction between the person and his or her context [23, 24, 25]. Thus, child development is affected by four interacting elements, which are described in his Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model.
According to Urie Bronfenbrenner, the engines of development are the proximal processes (first element of the PPCT model). Proximal processes represent the interactions of the person with the context [23]. The interactions a person has with peers and adults in the environment are determinants for the child’s development.
The characteristics of the person (second element of the PPCT model) influence the proximal processes [23]. For example, the characteristics of the mother and the child can be related to the frequency and responsiveness of the mother in the dialectic interaction. If a child cries frequently or does no respond to the mother’s attempts to gain his attention, the frequency of interactions between mother and child may decrease. As pointed by Hinde and Stevenson-Hinde [26] interpersonal relationships between caregivers and children are affected by the characteristics of the child and the caregiver and previous interactions can predict the frequency and quality of future interactions. In addition, the temperament of the child predicts the quality of social relationships in early childhood [27]. The findings of these authors suggested that child temperament accounted for 41% of the variance in Peer Relations, 40% of the variance in Self-Management, and 49% of the variance in Academic Behavior beyond the contribution of emotion regulation.
The best-known element of the bioecological model is the context [28], and how factors at different context levels interact and affect the proximal processes and, thus, the development course of the child [23, 25]. Bronfenbrenner described the context using the following levels: microsystem, mesosystem, macrosystem, and exosystem.
The first one, the microsystem represents the immediate context of the child. The child belongs to different microsystems such as the home, the school classroom, or the grandparents\' house. In this microsystems, the majority of proximal processes or interpersonal relationships will take place. Second, the mesosystem results of the interaction of microsystems. For example, when the parents (home microsystem) and the classroom teacher (school microsystem) interact, this interaction creates a mesosystem. Third, the exosystem refers to the situations that occur in the microsystems of others, but end up indirectly affecting the child (e.g., if the company where the mother works closes down and the father is taking care of children at home, then the family microsystem may not have the means to cover essential needs such as food or housing, affecting the development of the child).
The fourth level is the macrosystem, which represents the policies and values of governments and societies that influence the child\'s development. If the child lives in a society that promotes healthy eating, and several stores with healthy products are available at accessible prices for the family to purchase, this will have a positive impact on the child’s physical development, who will get the nutrients and vitamins necessary for an optimal development. In the same way, a culture which promotes values of consistent, sensitive, and responsive care for children, and at the government level funds are designated to develop effective positive upbringing programs to support parents and caregivers, this would have an impact on the caregiver-child interpersonal interactions. Therefore, there is an impact in the child’s socioemotional, communicative, and cognitive development.
The last element of the PPCT model relates to the time or the époque in which the child was born. This is also known as the chronosystem. Bronfenbrenner explained that values and perceptions change with the passing of the years, and the conception of education or marriage, for example, is not same now as it was 50 years ago. Such values and perceptions can shape government policies and society behaviors.
The most important component of Bronfenbrenner’s model for the understanding the importance of interpersonal relationships, is the idea of development occurring through the interactions of the child with his or her environment. Such understanding of development goes along with the findings of epigenetic studies on the influence of experiences on the brain development in early years. Even though Bronfenbrenner does not explain child development from a neurobiological perspective, his model targets the engines of development (interactions with the environment). It is highlighted how positive proximal interactions or processes between the child characteristics and those of the surrounding environment, make possible to reach optimal developmental levels [28].
From this perspective, the vision of child development is seen as a constant process in which children acquire increasingly complex processes of thought, movement, affection, and social relationships through interactions with their context [19]. The child develops with the participation and engagement with his or her own environment, family, school, close people, culture, beliefs, and ideologies, among others [29].
3. Functional domains of development
McWilliam proposed the functional domains of development-engagement, independence, and social relations [19]. Engagement is understood as the cornerstone of development. The engagement of children in daily routines promotes their development and learning [21, 23]. When children are interacting with adults, peers, and materials have opportunities to practice and acquire skills. Receiving feedback from adults and peers while these interactions occur contributes to improve current abilities and crystalized previous learnings through practice. Engagement embeds social relationships and independence. A child who is capable of (1) communicating and relating with others in an adequate manner for the context and his or her age, and (2) carrying out actions to meet needs and meaningfully participate in everyday routines, where learning opportunities occur [30].
At the socioemotional level, interactions with caregivers and peers in early years mediate between internalizing problems and engagement levels [31], acting as protective factors against low engagement levels [32]. The effects of positive interactions remain strong even after controlling for variables like gender language proficiency of the child and the educational level of parents [32].
3.1 Engagement
Engagement is defined as the interaction of the child with the context (peers, adults, and materials) in an appropriate manner for the child\'s abilities and the demands of the context [22]. It consists of nine levels of complexity ranging from non-engagement to sophisticated engagement [33]. Each level represents an increase on the complexity of the behavior of the child. Lower levels of engagement relate to repetitive behaviors, passive paying attention, or engaging in activities with no differentiated behaviors, and higher levels of complexity, relates to children engaged in symbolic play and speech who persist in the activities while trying to solve problems or challenges [34].
For an infant or child to engage in a routine, there must be a fit between the child\'s skills, his or her interests, and the demands of the routine [35]. In a routine where the abilities and interest of the child fit the demands of the routine, there is an increment in the duration and/or complexity of the child behavior, reflected on higher levels of sophistication engagement levels [34]. Adults in the natural environments who are responsive and skillful at identifying misfits between the child characteristics and the demands of the routines, are more likely to make the necessary adjustments to facilitate meaningful participation of the child in the routines, through their interactions. During adult-child interactions, adults can teach the child a skill so she or he can meet the demands of the routine, adjust the routine or make it more interesting -so it matches the abilities and interests of the child-, or decide that the fit between the child abilities and demands cannot be addressed by teaching the skill or adjusting the routine demands, therefore, it is better to let it be and focus on the learning and acquisition of other skills. Interpersonal relationships become relevant for promoting proximal processes. Positive and strong interpersonal relationships will facilitate more effective interactions (proximal processes) because feelings of trust and well-being are associated to the interpersonal interaction between the child and the adult or early childhood education peers [35].
3.2 Independence
Independence refers to the degree to which a child can act to meet its needs, in other words, how much help does a child need to engage in a task or activity and successfully complete it. This functional domain has been related with selfcare behaviors and the child been able to request help from adults when needed after trying several times to solve a problem and failing to solve it [35]. Sensitive and responsive adults, observe the behavior of the child and offer help to the degree it would allow the child accomplish the task, and as children are able to complete more steps of the task by themselves the adults can withdraw the support. Emotionally supportive environments that focus positive learning (acknowledging all steps the child takes to accomplish a task even though his or her performance is not perfect on the first trials) will have a better impact on children’s skill acquisition than those environments where learning is based on trial and error, and error is emphasized after the child performance [36]. This does not mean the adult will not model adequate responses or provide prompts and supports to facilitate the success of the child when completing a task, but the adult does so by being empathic of the child’s efforts and providing encouragement after the attempt or completion of a task.
3.3 Social relationships
This domain relates to the way children communicate (express and respond) with others (peers and adults). In this regard, research supports the importance of the interactions with adults and peers for acquiring semantic language (vocabulary), phonetical awareness, and the pragmatics of communication (synaxis and nonverbal communication). Early years are crucial for the development and strengthening of the brain areas related to language acquisition and non-verbal forms of communication (imitating, understanding others no-verbal communication and using nonverbal communication) [37]. Adults model new words, offer feedback of children’s use of words and through interactions strengthen those neural circuits related to understanding of non-verbal communication forms. Research results support that frequency of exposure to vocabulary is correlated to noun vocabulary acquisition [38]. In addition, parents who provide more input in their interactions with children have children whose early vocabulary grows more quickly [39, 40]. Moreover, children who have difficulties imitating behaviors or participating in joint attention are more likely to have difficulties on language acquisition and expressive and responsive communication, such is the case child who suffer neglect or are at risk of presenting or have Autism Spectrum Disorders [15, 37].
In addition, the social relationships domain is associated to the degree which the child is able to get along with others by been able to understand and communicate with others and regulate his or her emotions. Vicarious learning (modeling) is crucial for the child learning to understand situations, control his or her affective and emotional responses [13], behavioral responses [41], and language acquisition [42, 43]. Direct learning through child-directed speech interactions has also been related to increased vocabulary size [44, 45]. As discussed previously, executive functioning and emotion regulation are acquired at later stages of development in early childhood [13]. Adults who are mindful and responsive of children’s emotional and communicative needs and model emotion regulation strategies and language can have an impact on the behavior of children when face with high emotional situations and children’s communication skills.
4. Supporting interpersonal relationships in natural environments
Natural environments are understood as home, classroom, and community settings. Learning occurs in each of these environments, and adults can take advantage of learning opportunities through caregiver-child interactions. Through this chapter, it has been emphasized the relevance of the caregiver being consistent, responsive, and sensitive in his or her interactions with children to promote learning and development. It is also important to provide the child with feedback of their actions in a loving way, focusing in positive learning (i.e., acknowledging child steps towards the completion of a task) instead of highlighting the child errors (i.e., trial-error learning). Adults must offer children opportunities to reflect on their actions and performance and must highly effort before outcome. For example, before providing feedback to a child on a task, the adults can ask the child his or her perception on his or her work. In this manner, the adult helps the child to identify his or her strengths and difficulties. Such interactions prevent the child from getting frustrated and cultivate trusting and loving relationships between caregivers and children.
Environments that are interesting, with a variety of materials and toys, promote child engagement. Based on child interest, adults can use incidental teaching [46, 47, 48] or scaffolding [49] to promote learning. These are strategies that allow caregivers to interact with the child in a warm and encouraging manner, while providing feedback of their performance to reinforce the learning of skills or contents [50, 51].
4.1 Incidental teaching
Incidental teaching (IT) is a naturalistic strategy, first proposed by Hardy and Risley [46, 47, 48] for teaching communication skills during free-play routine. Then, it was adapted by McWilliam [52] to teach different abilities in daily routines. McWilliam’s adaptation of IT includes four steps to guide the interaction of the adult with the child: (a) engaging (making sure the child is engage with an activity or introducing an activity to the child), (b) following (if the child is engage, the adult follows the child’s interest), (c) eliciting (based on the activity the child is engaged, the interacts with the child to increase the time the child is engaged in the task or promoting more complex levels of behavior), and (d) reinforcing (the adult reinforces the child behavior, such reinforcement must be related to the activity itself).
For example, the caregiver sees the child (6 months old) looking at a toy (e.g., a bottle with water and yellow glitter), the adult ensures the child is engaged (i.e., he is looking at the bottle), then follows the child’s interest (the caregiver takes the bottle and starts moving it), then elicits a behavior (the caregiver tries for the child to reach the bottle with yellow glitter, while bringing the bottle in his eye sight and moving it slowly back and forth). As the child looks at the bottle and tries to reach it, the caregiver says: “Thomas, look how pretty is the yellow color”. The child giggles in response to the adult’s comments and movement of the bottle content. Then, the caregiver reinforces this joint attention interaction by moving the bottle so the glitter moves a little bit more, while bringing the bottle closer to the hands of the child and saying: “You like the yellow color, don’t you? Do you want to grab the bottle?”. It is important to highlight that the reinforcement in this interaction must be related to the activity itself, it will not be enough with just saying: “Good job, Thomas!” as Thomas looks at the bottle. The caregiver reinforces the interaction by repeating the name of the color of the glitter and moving the bottle back and forth to maintain the child’s interest in the activity and had him try to reach the bottle. The adult is teaching the child color names and stimulating his visual and motor responses by moving the bottle and trying for the child to grab it. To continue the interaction, the adult could use other bottles with other glitter colors or materials to stimulate the child’s sight or hearing. This example of interpersonal interaction could apply to the home context (being used by the parents or other family members) or at the nursery classroom (being used by the teacher).
4.2 Scaffolding
As for scaffolding [49], this strategy is used to support the child’s learning of skills which are in Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Such skills are those the child has not mastered yet, but can perform with some help from the caregiver. For instance, Lucy is a 3-year old, who has not mastered going up the steps of the slight in the play-ground in her neighborhood. She can lift her legs, but struggles alternating the legs to go up the next step, mainly because is a little scare of heights. Her father supports her by using his hand to push a little bit the alternating leg, so Lucy can climb to the next step. While the father does so, he is encouraging Lucy by saying: “You are lifting your leg so well, I am so proud!” As Lucy gets stuck and does not want to go up because of the height, her father pushes up her leg gently and says: “You are okay Honey, daddy is standing right behind you!” As time passes, the father fades his help for lifting the leg to climb the next step, and once Lucy can alternate her legs by herself to climb the slight, the father starts stepping away from the slight to allow Lucy gain independence and to grow in her perceptions of self-confidence and self-competence.
These examples portrayed how incidental teaching [52] and scaffolding [49] can be used by family members and teachers to support children’s learning and development. This is attained through trusting, caring, sensitive, responsive, and consistent interpersonal interactions in their natural environments, and within their interpersonal relationships. These interactions are providing learning opportunities that are the basics for experiences that would affect the child’s early brain development and skill acquisition.
5. Conclusions
This chapter supported the importance of interpersonal relationships in early childhood. The important role of early experiences of children to impact their brain development was emphasized through the results of epigenetic studies. In the same line, Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological model, contributed to the understanding of the interaction of different system levels, which can ultimate affect the interpersonal interactions of the child in their microsystem supporting of hindering their developmental trajectories. As well, the functional domains are introduced to guide the understanding of the child’s meaningful participation in natural environments form his or her level of engagement, independence, and social relationships. Adults and peers in natural environments can support the acquisition of skills in those domains by providing sensitive, responsive, and contingent care. Finally, two strategies that could be used in different natural environments and during interpersonal relationships are introduce to support child development and learning in early childhood.
As stated by Bronfenbrenner and Evans [22], children’s learning and development occurs within the interactions with the context through proximal processes. Also, supported by the results of epigenetic studies, is well documented the impact of early experiences on the brain structure and functioning. Interpersonal relationships are crucial for early childhood development and the impact of the interactions occurring within such interpersonal relations will transcend the early stages of life, affecting future learning and development at cognitive, communicative, socioemotional and physical levels. Mindful caregivers who understand the importance of their interactions with the child in early years of life will provide care that spurs optimal developmental trajectories of the child promoting future optimal functioning and participation of this child in society.
Acknowledgments
This work is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Tânia Boavida, whose work has inspired the authors immensely. She mentored us in the kindest and most generous ways. We would like to thank her for her time and support. You are terribly missed.
Conflict of interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
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Interpersonal interactions facilitate the acquisition of social skills and emotion regulation strategies, which are learned through the observation of the behaviors of adults and peers and through the direct interactions with them. 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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\\n\\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\\n
\\n\\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
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\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
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\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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