Precision agriculture: main operations and techniques.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8970",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Tourism",title:"Tourism",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Tourism was booming until 2019 when the COVID-19 pandemic hit. Since then, tourism and related industries have suffered from negative economic impacts. This book examines current challenges and opportunities in the tourism industry using case studies from different parts of the world. It also examines the challenges and obstacles faced by the tourism sector due to lack of environmental policies, high crime rates, and poverty.",isbn:"978-1-83962-173-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-172-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-174-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82932",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"tourism",numberOfPages:348,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4b086129cadc323ba152b00c6386c2c8",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8970.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8614,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 9th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254664/images/system/254664.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Xuzhou University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Nanjing University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"71",title:"Hospitality Management",slug:"hospitality-management"}],chapters:[{id:"73393",title:"Challenges and Advances in the Planning of Tourism with Amazon River Dolphins in the Brazilian Amazon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93894",slug:"challenges-and-advances-in-the-planning-of-tourism-with-amazon-river-dolphins-in-the-brazilian-amazo",totalDownloads:484,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Being considered charismatic cetaceans are among the animals most sought after in tourist interactions that may involve observation, touch, swimming, and provisioning food. This tourism model has the potential to generate socioeconomic and conservationist benefits. However, when carried out in a disorderly manner, this can have a negative impact on cetaceans and tourists alike. In this chapter, we discuss the challenges and advances within the process of participatory planning of tourism with Amazon River dolphins (Inia geoffrensis). Our goal is to present strategies that can support the development of projects and public policies aimed at management of wildlife tourism in other areas. Since its implementation at the Anavilhanas National Park - Brazil, the activity had never had its impact monitored by any competent bodies, and this has led to problems and quick spreading to other sites. The rules and guidelines implemented in have significantly reduced risks for tourists and dolphins alike, improving tourist experience and promoting the awareness of animal life. However, many issues remain and need to be solved, especially in the protected areas. These include reduced staff levels, which limits the ability to implement and monitor planned actions. Such shortcomings lead to setbacks in the development of tourist activities with cetaceans.",signatures:"Marcelo Derzi Vidal, Priscila Maria da Costa Santos, Maria do Perpétuo Socorro Rodrigues Chaves and Robert Swett",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73393",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73393",authors:[{id:"322901",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo Derzi",surname:"Vidal",slug:"marcelo-derzi-vidal",fullName:"Marcelo Derzi Vidal"},{id:"329272",title:"MSc.",name:"Priscila Maria da Costa",surname:"Santos",slug:"priscila-maria-da-costa-santos",fullName:"Priscila Maria da Costa Santos"},{id:"329274",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria do Perpétuo Socorro Rodrigues",surname:"Chaves",slug:"maria-do-perpetuo-socorro-rodrigues-chaves",fullName:"Maria do Perpétuo Socorro Rodrigues Chaves"},{id:"329275",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Swett",slug:"robert-swett",fullName:"Robert Swett"}],corrections:null},{id:"76910",title:"From Eco to Sustainable Tourism, the Contradictions and Challenges of Nature-Based Tourism: The Case of Polar Cruises",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96914",slug:"from-eco-to-sustainable-tourism-the-contradictions-and-challenges-of-nature-based-tourism-the-case-o",totalDownloads:318,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polar tourism includes all leisure travel products set in the Antarctic and Arctic regions. As such, it is conditioned by an interest for nature in extreme settings (polar desert, cold climate, harsh travel conditions – when by sea. The Arctic adds an additional interest for indigenous cultures. Trying to met those tourism interests, a specialized cruise tourism branch developed in the late 1980s (thu sporadic cruises were held back from the XIXth century onward) providing exclusive access the most difficult and far distant latitudes of the High Arctic and opposite Antarctic coastline. In any form of tourism, operators must protect the resources their economic activities rest upon as any deterioration they suffer will sooner or later impact the experiente and its viability. Hence a paradox: how to protect the ecological (and cultural) integrity of these features for sustained competitiveness? Since its emergence, as an industry some 40 years ago, the polar cruising has followed trends in environmental and social management, referring in their marketing and travel policies to both eco- and sustainable tourism. Serving the wealthy customers, initially the well traveled elderly, the ship-based polar industry kept a simple programme of lecture and soft-oriented activities, namely inflatable cruising in icy bays and close-to-shore trekking. Yet, with an increasing clientele of younger middle-age tourists, operators have also diversified their excursion products to offer more sportive-oriented activities off-ship. As long as these activities were non-fuel based, the operators enforced their ecological management claims. But with more fuel-based activities (helicopter, Zodiac sightseeing), and therefore a more invasive approach to the sensitive ecosystems visited, can this industry continue to claim to be sustainable? Based on the sustainable claims made by two important polar cruise operators, this study ams to underlines that while the polar cruise industry, as a whole, might seek to improve its ecological footprint, there remains many contradiction between their will to be environmental and the desire to conquer the environment.",signatures:"Alain A. Grenier",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76910",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76910",authors:[{id:"324497",title:"Prof.",name:"Alain A.",surname:"Grenier",slug:"alain-a.-grenier",fullName:"Alain A. Grenier"}],corrections:null},{id:"73547",title:"The Light-Up of Dark Bali Tourism: A Qualitative Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93389",slug:"the-light-up-of-dark-bali-tourism-a-qualitative-study",totalDownloads:367,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tourism world currently stumbles due to Corona virus case that limits all human activities including those related to traveling. Various efforts in every country have been conducted to rebuild tourism to the normal condition; however, each country has its own obstacles. This study aims to create a strategic model in developing tourism based on cultural values or local wisdom to rebuild tourism passion to support economy. This study is a qualitative study using cultural approaches with ethnomethodology tools. Data are collected through in-depth interview with tourism actors: government and communities represented by traditional village leaders. The qualitative results indicate that cultural values summarized in a harmonization concept—harmony with God, harmony with fellow human being, and harmony with environment—become a model core that influences human behavior in developing tourism, namely: natural tourism, cultural tourism, spiritual tourism, culinary tourism, conference tourism, and so on. Traditional villages become the second pillar in developing tourism and it supports by local government. Another finding is that Bali will conduct a shift in tourism from cultural-based tourism to those that give more emphasis on natural tourism based on cultural and religious values as a promoter. The strategy will support health protocol related to physical distancing between tourists.",signatures:"I. Putu Astawa, Tjokorda Gde Raka Sukawati and I. Nyoman Gede Sugiartha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73547",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73547",authors:[{id:"322956",title:"Prof.",name:"I. Putu",surname:"Astawa",slug:"i.-putu-astawa",fullName:"I. Putu Astawa"},{id:"322967",title:"Dr.",name:"Tjokorda Gde Raka",surname:"Sukawati",slug:"tjokorda-gde-raka-sukawati",fullName:"Tjokorda Gde Raka Sukawati"},{id:"323920",title:"Dr.",name:"I. Nyoman Gede",surname:"Sugiartha",slug:"i.-nyoman-gede-sugiartha",fullName:"I. Nyoman Gede Sugiartha"}],corrections:null},{id:"73254",title:"Opportunities and Obstacles in the Global Tourism Industry: A Story of Post-Covid-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93683",slug:"opportunities-and-obstacles-in-the-global-tourism-industry-a-story-of-post-covid-19",totalDownloads:818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The rapid spread of Covid-19 has had far-reaching consequences for people’s daily lives in almost all parts of the world. Furthermore, it creates a negative impact on trade and economic activities, which further has spillover social problems, including unemployment and poverty. Moreover, in the tourism sector, millions of people lost their jobs, and hundreds of airlines are nearly bankrupt. This chapter is intended to investigate the link between the outbreak of Covid-19 and its effect on the tourism sector. The discussion reveals that due to the Covid-19, tourism sector declined sharply, but it provides an opportunity to transform our polluted world into a green one, which will have a significant and positive impact on global tourism in upcoming years. Finally, the chapter provides practical implications and recommendations, which will help policymakers to formulate an eco-friendly mechanism in the tourism sector.",signatures:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan, Laeeq Razzak Janjua and Zhang Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73254",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73254",authors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"},{id:"300373",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhang",surname:"Yu",slug:"zhang-yu",fullName:"Zhang Yu"},{id:"328959",title:"Dr.",name:"Laeeq Razzak",surname:"Janjua",slug:"laeeq-razzak-janjua",fullName:"Laeeq Razzak Janjua"}],corrections:null},{id:"74482",title:"Applying and Promoting the Seaport Quality System (SQS) and Spatial Interaction Model (SIM) for the Sustainable Development of the Recreational Seaport Industry in Malaysia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93765",slug:"applying-and-promoting-the-seaport-quality-system-sqs-and-spatial-interaction-model-sim-for-the-sust",totalDownloads:343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The recreational seaport industry carries out many critical functions, including transport circulation, logistics, commercial, and spatial ones. They influence local economic growth and determine the quality of recreational seaport. However, the definition of recreational seaport quality has remained elusive among the community, at present. Hence, this chapter explores the current literature by using the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) to derive at the definition of seaport quality based on three categories: seaport effectiveness, seaport reliability, and seaport governance, which will be main pillars for the development of marinas. This chapter proposes the Seaport Quality System (SQS) and Spatial Interaction Model (SIM) as a way to develop approaches and strategies that support sustainable planning and management of recreational seaports and marinas in countries with extensive coastlines. It is proposed that in order to offer sustainable and quality services, marinas must adopt the SQS model based on identifying and managing quality and risks. In addition, SIM can be utilised to improve the marinas operations by adopting key components in cruise activities, economic corridors and seaport regionalisation. The combination of both models are essential to enhance the growth momentum of marinas in this country.",signatures:"Mohamad Rosni Othman, Jagan Jeevan, Nurul Haqimin Salleh and Noor Azwa Noralam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74482",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74482",authors:[{id:"322938",title:"Dr.",name:"Jagan",surname:"Jeevan",slug:"jagan-jeevan",fullName:"Jagan Jeevan"},{id:"329107",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamad Rosni",surname:"Othman",slug:"mohamad-rosni-othman",fullName:"Mohamad Rosni Othman"},{id:"329109",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurul Haqimin",surname:"Salleh",slug:"nurul-haqimin-salleh",fullName:"Nurul Haqimin Salleh"},{id:"329110",title:"Ms.",name:"Noor Azwa",surname:"Noralam",slug:"noor-azwa-noralam",fullName:"Noor Azwa Noralam"}],corrections:null},{id:"74446",title:"Tourism Impact on Environmental Sustainability: A Focus on the Cruise Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93922",slug:"tourism-impact-on-environmental-sustainability-a-focus-on-the-cruise-industry",totalDownloads:184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The growth of the Global Economy and in particular the Caribbean Islands has been for the last two decades fueled by the cruise shipping industry. However, the growth in this industry gives rise to the expansion in ship size and the number of destinations. Unfortunately, the cruise line industry is responsible for the largest volume of waste, pollutants and destruction to marine lives when compared to other maritime industry sector. This chapter seeks to highlight the correlation between the industry and the growing global need for vibrant economies, a high quality of life, while protecting the environment and sustaining the world’s natural resources. A review of several literature has shown that within the last twenty years, the cruise lines have invested a lot of time and money correcting the negative environmental impacts created. Several proactive and green shipping initiatives designed to improve environmental management were successfully implemented by the industry. These diverse initiatives are group as follows: Research and Innovation, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Marketing, Awareness raising/environmental education initiative, and Green technologies. Emanating from these initiatives are: reduce or obviate of harmful environmental emissions and environmental management improvements and ultimately an environment that is experiencing an increased level of sustainability and economic activities.",signatures:"Kirkland Robert Anderson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74446",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74446",authors:[{id:"267131",title:"Dr.",name:"Kirkland Robert",surname:"Anderson",slug:"kirkland-robert-anderson",fullName:"Kirkland Robert Anderson"}],corrections:null},{id:"73876",title:"Development of a Destination Image Recovery Model for Enhancing the Performance of the Tourism Sector in the Developing World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93854",slug:"development-of-a-destination-image-recovery-model-for-enhancing-the-performance-of-the-tourism-secto",totalDownloads:542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is based on a doctoral thesis on the development of a destination image (DI) recovery model for enhancing the performance of the tourism sector in Zimbabwe. The study was prompted by the failure of African destinations to develop DI image recovery models. A pragmatist paradigm, a convergent parallel mixed methodology research approach and a cross sectional survey were adopted. A sample of three hundred and nineteen comprising international tourists, service providers and key informants was used. A structured, semi-structured questionnaire and semi-structured interview guide were used respectively. Quantitative data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and AMOS version 25 while qualitative data was analyzed using NVivo version 12. Tests were conducted using descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the multiple independent variables. The major findings were that price, ancillary services and amenities significantly influenced affective image while ancillary services significantly influenced destination performance. The study recommended that the Ministry of Environment, Climate, Tourism and Hospitality Industry trains tourism stakeholders including the host community in order to achieve sustainable destination image recovery.",signatures:"Phillip Farayi Kanokanga, Marian Tukuta and Oliver Chikuta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73876",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73876",authors:[{id:"324894",title:"Dr.",name:"Phillip Farayi",surname:"Kanokanga",slug:"phillip-farayi-kanokanga",fullName:"Phillip Farayi Kanokanga"},{id:"329365",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Tukuta",slug:"marian-tukuta",fullName:"Marian Tukuta"},{id:"329366",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliver",surname:"Chikuta",slug:"oliver-chikuta",fullName:"Oliver Chikuta"}],corrections:null},{id:"74265",title:"Contribution of Domestic Tourism to Sustainable Tourism Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93646",slug:"contribution-of-domestic-tourism-to-sustainable-tourism-development",totalDownloads:664,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tourism literature is awash with evidence of the value of domestic tourism to the tourism industry in general. However; there is limited knowledge of how domestic tourism is contributing towards sustainable tourism development especially in developing countries. This study explored the contribution of domestic tourism to sustainable tourism development in Zimbabwe, one developing country in Southern Africa. Using qualitative methodologies, data were collected and thematically analysed. The study revealed that domestic tourism has both positive and negative contributions to sustainable tourism development in unique ways. In conclusion, it was noted that without domestic tourism, Zimbabwe as a tourism destination would be struggling to grow its tourism product offering and expand its market share on the global tourism market.",signatures:"Forbes Kabote",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74265",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74265",authors:[{id:"324488",title:"Dr.",name:"Forbes",surname:"Kabote",slug:"forbes-kabote",fullName:"Forbes Kabote"}],corrections:null},{id:"71919",title:"Vein Thrombosis Risk in Women and Travel",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92229",slug:"vein-thrombosis-risk-in-women-and-travel",totalDownloads:700,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) of the lower limbs is a serious condition that can lead to pulmonary embolism (PE) in about 15–24% of cases. If it is not diagnosed/treated timely, nearly 15% of these PE are lethal. The relationship between travel and staying in the same position for a long time is well-known since World War II. Generally, it is more frequent in air flights. It is also associated with the economic downturn in airplanes because passengers have limited space and have greater difficulty of moving. It is estimated that approximately 1–6% of long-haul passengers arrive at their destination with a clot in their veins, but most DVT are asymptomatic.",signatures:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Xanthoula Anthoulaki, Theodora Deftereou, Anna Chalkidou, Anastasia Bothou, Fotini Gaitatzi, Eleftherios Chatzimichael, Selma Gyroglou, Arsou Chalil Bourazan, George Stanulov, Spyridon Michalopoulos, John Tsirkas, Irene Babageogaka, Werner Rath, Georg-Friedrich Von Tempelhoff, Stefanos Zervoudis, Georgios Iatrakis, Georgios Galazios and Nikolaos Nikolettos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71919",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71919",authors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras"},{id:"229224",title:"Ms.",name:"Theodora",surname:"Deftereou",slug:"theodora-deftereou",fullName:"Theodora Deftereou"},{id:"229225",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Chalkidou",slug:"anna-chalkidou",fullName:"Anna Chalkidou"},{id:"229226",title:"Ms.",name:"Xanthoula",surname:"Anthoulaki",slug:"xanthoula-anthoulaki",fullName:"Xanthoula Anthoulaki"},{id:"229227",title:"Ms.",name:"Anastasia",surname:"Bothou",slug:"anastasia-bothou",fullName:"Anastasia Bothou"},{id:"229230",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefanos",surname:"Zervoudis",slug:"stefanos-zervoudis",fullName:"Stefanos Zervoudis"},{id:"229232",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Iatrakis",slug:"georgios-iatrakis",fullName:"Georgios Iatrakis"},{id:"229233",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Galazios",slug:"georgios-galazios",fullName:"Georgios Galazios"},{id:"290371",title:"Mrs.",name:"Fotini",surname:"Gaitatzi",slug:"fotini-gaitatzi",fullName:"Fotini Gaitatzi"},{id:"290372",title:"Mr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Tsirkas",slug:"ioannis-tsirkas",fullName:"Ioannis Tsirkas"},{id:"290373",title:"Mrs.",name:"Arsou",surname:"Chalil Bourazan",slug:"arsou-chalil-bourazan",fullName:"Arsou Chalil Bourazan"},{id:"290374",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",surname:"Rath",slug:"werner-rath",fullName:"Werner Rath"},{id:"298197",title:"Mrs.",name:"Eirini",surname:"Bampageorgaka",slug:"eirini-bampageorgaka",fullName:"Eirini Bampageorgaka"},{id:"299669",title:"Prof.",name:"Georg-Friedrich",surname:"Von Tempelhoff",slug:"georg-friedrich-von-tempelhoff",fullName:"Georg-Friedrich Von Tempelhoff"},{id:"300195",title:"Mr.",name:"George",surname:"Stanulov",slug:"george-stanulov",fullName:"George Stanulov"},{id:"303163",title:"Dr.",name:"Spyridon",surname:"Michalopoulos",slug:"spyridon-michalopoulos",fullName:"Spyridon Michalopoulos"},{id:"317103",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Nikolettos",slug:"nikolaos-nikolettos",fullName:"Nikolaos Nikolettos"},{id:"317104",title:"Dr.",name:"Selma",surname:"Gyroglou",slug:"selma-gyroglou",fullName:"Selma Gyroglou"},{id:"317105",title:"Mr.",name:"Eleftherios",surname:"Chatzinmichael",slug:"eleftherios-chatzinmichael",fullName:"Eleftherios Chatzinmichael"}],corrections:null},{id:"74326",title:"Manta Ray Tourism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93924",slug:"manta-ray-tourism",totalDownloads:450,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Manta rays are flagship species for marine conservation because of a number of threats including anthropogenic, overfishing, plastics (microplastics), over tourism, commercial trade (gills for medicine), and chaotic shipping lines where they often injured or killed. Because of these reasons, manta ray face risk of extinction and listed on the Red List of IUCN. A number of studies present the value of this fish estimated millions of dollars per year from tourism which show much greater valuable alive than dead. Responsible manta ray tourism encourages stakeholders to protect the species by generating incentives from tourism while develop conservations initiatives to protect the species. Desk study on current literatures were reviewed to identify the role of stakeholders in supporting the sustainable management of manta ray tourism. This chapter explored the operations of manta ray tourism in Indonesia as the study areas. In summary, to reach the positive contributions from manta ray tourism, there is an important role of co-management between stakeholders to ensure the sustainable operations and conservation of the ecology, economy, and socio-culture.",signatures:"Maulita Sari Hani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74326",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74326",authors:[{id:"323655",title:"Dr.",name:"Maulita Sari",surname:"Hani",slug:"maulita-sari-hani",fullName:"Maulita Sari Hani"}],corrections:null},{id:"73258",title:"Effective Leadership in the 21st Century: Lessons for the Tourism Sector in the African Continent",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93844",slug:"effective-leadership-in-the-21st-century-lessons-for-the-tourism-sector-in-the-african-continent",totalDownloads:371,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although Africa has been one of the world’s fastest growing tourism regions, when comparing it to the rest of the world, tourism still lags behind. Tourism is a dynamic and a competitive industry that continues to develop whilst the tourists’ preferences are changing. Consequently, leading and managing in the tourism sector is of great importance, particularly in the 21st century. The purpose of this paper is to explore leadership concepts to draw lessons for the tourism sector in the African continent. Leadership in the African continent remains questionable and controversial; the nature of effective leadership has been the subject of great debate. The findings reveal the prominent African leadership concepts from Ubuntu, Culturally embedded values, Communalism, Common good and Paternalism as some of the existing leadership concepts that could be applicable to an effective leader in the 21st century in the tourism sector in Africa.",signatures:"Portia Pearl Siyanda Sifolo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73258",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73258",authors:[{id:"324889",title:"Dr.",name:"Portia Pearl Siyanda",surname:"Sifolo",slug:"portia-pearl-siyanda-sifolo",fullName:"Portia Pearl Siyanda Sifolo"}],corrections:null},{id:"76067",title:"Model of Virtual Tourism as an Alternative of the Concept of Architecture Tourism Post Covid-19 in Bandung City, Indonesia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94015",slug:"model-of-virtual-tourism-as-an-alternative-of-the-concept-of-architecture-tourism-post-covid-19-in-b",totalDownloads:269,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The tourism sector as one of the sectors that has been hit by the Covid-19 pandemic needs a new breakthrough to enter a new normal era. Amid the ongoing paradigm shift and a number of new protocols will be implemented to welcome the new normal conditions in the tourism industry. The tourism sector in Indonesia, which has been absorbing many jobs, has been hit hard by the Covid-19 pandemic. Coupled with the difficulty of predicting when the pandemic will end, it is necessary to take smart steps in maintaining the sustainability of the tourism industry in entering an era of new norms. The new normal era brings new roles, new roads and expectations in the tourism sector. Digitalization that is growing rapidly and rapidly requires adaptation to new conditions and rearranging business strategies and models so that they can survive in the new normal era by adjusting technological developments. The development method used in this research is the Multimedia Development Life Cycle (MDLC). MDCL as a method for designing multimedia tools by emphasizing the 6 stages of multimedia development. The tools used in this application are PT GUI, Eclipse, and Google Maps. The objects of historical and heritage buildings that become the Sate Building, Villa Isola, the Geological Building, the Asian Africa Museum, and the Merdeka Building are made using immersive photography techniques. By representing information in the form of panoramic images, the 3600 makes it easy for users to visually display information from historical and heritage buildings in Bandung. The tourism model is virtually a possible form of tourism in the future.",signatures:"Asep Yudi Permana, Aathira Farah Salsabilla Permana and Karto Wijaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76067",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76067",authors:[{id:"322928",title:"Dr.",name:"Asep Yudi",surname:"Permana",slug:"asep-yudi-permana",fullName:"Asep Yudi Permana"}],corrections:null},{id:"73374",title:"Eco-Cultural Tourism: Sustainable Development and Promotion of Natural and Cultural Heritage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93897",slug:"eco-cultural-tourism-sustainable-development-and-promotion-of-natural-and-cultural-heritage",totalDownloads:637,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ecotourism has the eradication of poverty and environmental protection at its core. Both of these goals were established by the United Nations in 2012 though their development began in the 1980s. The purpose of this chapter is to analyse, using a comparative methodology, global and local eco-cultural tourism (natural, rural and urban areas) in tourist destinations of countries with emerging economies (Asia: China, Malaysia, Thailand), developed countries (Europe: Spain), and developing nations (South America: Peru, Argentina, Bolivia). The working hypothesis states that local, sustainable planning, endorsed by all the tourist agents is required, and should be led by the load capacity and the economic and environmental balance (green economies and ideologies), in order to answer to poverty and climate change problems by means of Tourist Projects directed by governmental policies and administrations. The outcomes suggest a need for a logistical change of policies, to prevent economies from generating pollution and carrying out abrasive activities associated with tourism. This change will create sustainable tourist destinations, the inclusion of populations, and the protection and conservation of natural and cultural heritage.",signatures:"Violante Martínez Quintana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73374",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73374",authors:[{id:"322905",title:"Mrs.",name:"Violante",surname:"Martínez Quintana",slug:"violante-martinez-quintana",fullName:"Violante Martínez Quintana"}],corrections:null},{id:"73647",title:"Gen Y: Emotions and Functions of Smartphone Use for Tourist Purposes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94245",slug:"gen-y-emotions-and-functions-of-smartphone-use-for-tourist-purposes",totalDownloads:539,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Smartphones have revolutionized the tourism industry due to their ability to create and improve the tourist experience, mostly among young users, especially those belonging to the Generation Y (Gen Y). Millennials, as the Generation Y is often referred to, stand out for their ability to travel more frequently and for longer periods, as well as for their often-addictive use of smartphones. Despite nomophobia is not a recent phenomenon, there are few research works on information and communication technologies and tourism that address the effects of smartphone use on the tourist experience. The objective of this exploratory study is to describe the feelings Gen Y experiences as a result of use smartphones during their travels, their tourism functionality, and the relationship between the two. The study is based on the application of an online survey to a representative sample. The results confirm the problems associated with smartphone use, especially among young people (16–19) and the existence of a correlation between smartphone use for tourist purposes and a positive travel experience. It has confirmed that they experience negative feelings and emotions. The study presents crucial information that destination marketing organizations can use to successfully integrate smartphones into their digital marketing and communication strategies.",signatures:"Alba-María Martínez-Sala, Concepción Campillo-Alhama and Irene Ramos-Soler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73647",authors:[{id:"316359",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba-María",surname:"Martínez-Sala",slug:"alba-maria-martinez-sala",fullName:"Alba-María Martínez-Sala"},{id:"329491",title:"Dr.",name:"Concepción",surname:"Campillo-Alhama",slug:"concepcion-campillo-alhama",fullName:"Concepción Campillo-Alhama"},{id:"329492",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",surname:"Ramos-Soler",slug:"irene-ramos-soler",fullName:"Irene Ramos-Soler"}],corrections:null},{id:"74136",title:"Tourism Routes for the Diversification of Rural Livelihoods: A Methodological Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94871",slug:"tourism-routes-for-the-diversification-of-rural-livelihoods-a-methodological-approach",totalDownloads:323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tourism routes are the configuration of resources and services into an experience. They are structured based on the characteristics of the local setting but also considering the tourists’ expectations motivations and interests. The objective of this manuscript is to present a methodological approach for the configuration and evaluation of tourism routes, using the municipality of Tenancingo, Mexico as a case study. The methodology followed consisted of three phases: 1) the identification and classification of resources; 2) the qualitative evaluation of the resources; and 3) the use of a route evaluation index to determine the suitability. The study concluded that the methodology allowed for the evaluation of different configurations, and the identification of the tourism route with the most potential, according to its characteristics.",signatures:"Emmanuel Mérida Velazquez, Tirzo Castañeda Martínez and Gandhi González-Guerrero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74136",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74136",authors:[{id:"325521",title:"Prof.",name:"Gandhi",surname:"González-Guerrero",slug:"gandhi-gonzalez-guerrero",fullName:"Gandhi González-Guerrero"},{id:"337481",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Mérida Velázquez",slug:"emmanuel-merida-velazquez",fullName:"Emmanuel Mérida Velázquez"},{id:"337482",title:"Dr.",name:"Tirzo",surname:"Castañeda Martínez",slug:"tirzo-castaneda-martinez",fullName:"Tirzo Castañeda Martínez"}],corrections:null},{id:"73267",title:"Developing a Rural Tourism Destination Brand Framework from the Perspective of a Relationship-Based Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93839",slug:"developing-a-rural-tourism-destination-brand-framework-from-the-perspective-of-a-relationship-based-",totalDownloads:501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this paper is to develop a destination brand framework for rural tourism destination. Bario a rural community in Sarawak (Borneo) in Malaysia was chosen as a study context. The choice of Bario over other pre-selected rural destinations is because of its unique remote destination. The primary data collection method for this paper was the in-depth interview with 48 participants; this was supplemented by participant observation and documentary evidence. From the perspective of relationship-based approach adopted in this paper, the findings outline three components for a theoretical construction of rural tourism destination brand framework that comprise tourism destination appeals, branding strategies, and stakeholders’ roles. Findings also indicate that the development of rural tourism destination brand should be from the bottom-up, where community-driven strategies can be most effectively delegated to the local leadership system and community’s association. Implications for practice and host community well-being are discussed in detail.",signatures:"Samuel Adeyinka-Ojo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73267",authors:[{id:"323647",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Adeyinka-Ojo",slug:"samuel-adeyinka-ojo",fullName:"Samuel Adeyinka-Ojo"}],corrections:null},{id:"71912",title:"Traveler’s Infections: Overview of Hepatitis B Virus Infection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92174",slug:"traveler-s-infections-overview-of-hepatitis-b-virus-infection",totalDownloads:549,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a double-stranded circular DNA virus that infects the hepatocytes. HBV infection is considered as an important public health concern globally especially with one-third of the world’s population been infected. Local and international migrants are one of those population at high risk of the infection. Many factors interplay in the acquisition of HBV such as purpose of travel, destination endemicity rate of the virus, time of stay of the traveler, inadequate prevention and control measures, among others, understanding the genotypes of HBV is critical in correlating the evolution of the virus and migration of humans and also treatment responses of infected population. The symptom of the virus ranges from fever to jaundice and to a liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Transmission of HBV is commonly via horizontal route in developing regions and in the developed regions; transmission occur more often among adults that use injectable drugs and high-risk sexual behaviors. Therefore, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and World Health Organization (WHO) have recommended HBV screening and vaccination to all travelers without an HBV immunization history before traveling to endemic regions. This chapter gives an overview on HBV as a potential traveler’s infection.",signatures:"Victor B. Oti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71912",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71912",authors:[{id:"245062",title:"Mr.",name:"Victor B.",surname:"Oti",slug:"victor-b.-oti",fullName:"Victor B. Oti"}],corrections:null},{id:"73322",title:"Marketing Cultural Resources as a Tourism Product",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93869",slug:"marketing-cultural-resources-as-a-tourism-product",totalDownloads:559,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the marketing aspect of cultural tourism resources by taking evidence from Sidama, Southern Ethiopia. It identifies the major cultural tourism resources of Sidama, and assesses their market readiness state through the lenses of tourists. It also presents the profile of cultural tourists visiting endowments in Sidama using descriptive research approach. Brief introduction of marketing approaches to cultural tourism and a review of literature on cultural tourism products and cultural tourists is also provided. As to its significance, the chapter offers analysis of cultural tourism assets and their marketability as a tourism product in a developing destination context. Practical implications for sound cultural tourism marketing are also discussed in the chapter.",signatures:"Amare Yaekob Chiriko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73322",authors:[{id:"324979",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Amare Yaekob",surname:"Chiriko",slug:"amare-yaekob-chiriko",fullName:"Amare Yaekob Chiriko"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6939",title:"Terrorism and Developing Countries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad19b1ce8023e63b593a1835e0ec744e",slug:"terrorism-and-developing-countries",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan and Zhang Yu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6939.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman 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It includes four sections and five chapters that provide the most common diseases and an overview of the essential methods for their prevention and control.The book will be useful to researchers and students of veterinary sciences as well as those who are interested in cattle production.The book is the result of collaborating parties. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided by all authors who have contributed to the publication of this volume and the In-techOpen editorial office that initiated this project and saw it to its completion.",isbn:"978-1-83881-230-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-229-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-231-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78416",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"bacterial-cattle-diseases",numberOfPages:96,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f45b8b4974eb0d7de8719ef6b9146200",bookSignature:"Hussein Abdel hay El-Sayed Kaoud",publishedDate:"August 7th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8288.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:7288,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfTotalCitations:33,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 2nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 23rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 21st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 8th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",middleName:null,surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265070/images/system/265070.png",biography:"Dr. Hussein Kaoud has a Ph.D. and DSc and has completed veterinary fellowships. He is currently a Full Professor of Preventive Medicine, at Cairo University, Egypt, where he was previously Chairman of the Department of Preventive Medicine. He has given lectures in Molecular Epidemiology and Biotechnology at different universities and has been a reviewer and editor for several scientific journals. His research interests include molecular biology and advanced technology in basic life sciences. He has more than 300 publications to his credit, including several international books. He has received one international award, twenty Cairo University International Publication Awards, and the Appreciation Award in Advanced Technological Sciences from the same university. 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The challenges for robots in agriculture are diverse. On the one hand, agricultural environments, in contrast to industrial facilities, are not structured and controlled. On the other hand, industrial processes can be designed by modules to apply specific robots to specific works, whereas the complex tasks of agriculture sometimes cannot be split into simple actions. For the above reasons, agricultural applications require more versatile and robust robots.
\nIn the last years, multiple groups around the world have applied different automation solutions (e.g. sensor networks, manipulators, ground vehicles and aerial robots) to diverse agricultural tasks (e.g. planting and harvesting, environmental monitoring, supply of water and nutrients, and detection and treatment of plagues and diseases). This chapter aims to collect the state of the art about robotics applied to agriculture, as well as to describe more exhaustively some of our practical experiences.
\nSection 2 addresses the agricultural tasks where the robots can be applied, remarking precision agriculture and greenhouse farming, but covering other works such as automatic planting and harvesting. Section 3 describes the robots applied in agricultural tasks in the state of the art, covering both multi‐robot systems, ground and aerial robots. Section 4 summarizes our main experiences in robotics applied to agriculture, which are related to precision agriculture in open fields and environmental monitoring of greenhouses. Finally, Section 5 summarizes the main conclusions acquired from the review of the state of the art and our experience in the research projects.
\nThis section reports the state of the art about automation in agriculture. For this purpose, it is organized as follows: Section 2.1 is focused on precision agriculture, Section 2.2 addresses the application of new technologies to greenhouse farming, and Section 2.3 analyzes the proposals for automatic planting and harvesting.
\nPrecision agriculture, also known as precision farming, is a concept of farm management based on the application of different technologies, in order to manage the spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production. Its main goal is the improvement of both crop performance and environmental quality.
\nSeveral authors have confirmed the economic and environmental benefits that are achieved when precision agriculture methodologies are applied. Nonetheless, academic surveys and professional reports show that the rate of adoption of these technologies is still low [1].
\nMoreover, instead of using precision agriculture as complete concept, most of the deployments reported use these techniques to solve specific needs or to fill important gaps in the knowledge of farmers [2]. Additionally, even though agronomists are playing the leading role in PA development, engineers have worked diligently to provide technologies needed to implement PA practices. Engineering innovations for PA involve development of sensors, controls, and remote‐sensing technologies.
\nAutonomous mobile robots can be used in a variety of field operations. They can be applied to facilitate capturing and processing high quantities of data, and they can provide the capabilities required to operate not only at individual plant level but also at complete field level. Blackmore and Griepentrog [3] study the autonomous platforms that may be available in the future, which would be used for cultivation and seeding, weeding, scouting, application of fertilizers, irrigation and harvesting.
\nThe most widely used robotic technology in precision agriculture is vehicle guidance and auto‐steer systems. The reason is that the economic benefits are easily achievable without requiring the integration of additional components or decision support systems [2]. However, other technologies, especially those related to remote sensing, development of sensors and controls, are also used by teams combining agronomists and engineers. \nTable 1\n summarizes some of the developments, which use mobile robotics and remote sensing for precision agriculture.
\nPublication | \nOperation | \nTechnique | \n
---|---|---|
[4] | \nWeeding | \nAutomatic computer vision method for detecting weeds in cereal crops, and differential spraying to control the weeds. | \n
[5] | \nField mapping | \nCreation of 3D terrain maps by combining the information captured with a stereo camera, a location sensor, and an inertial measurement unit, all installed on a mobile equipment platform. | \n
[6] | \nField mapping and coverage | \nAn unmanned car‐like mobile robot uses a SLAM algorithm to navigate in the agricultural environment while creating a map of such environment. | \n
[7] | \nMulti‐purpose | \nDesign and construction of a multi‐purpose mobile ground platform for PA tasks. | \n
[8] | \nCoverage path planning | \nHarmony Search (HS) algorithm for finding complex coverage trajectories with a fleet of aerial robots. | \n
[9] | \nWeed and pest control | \nA fleet of heterogeneous ground and aerial robots is developed and equipped with innovative sensors, enhanced end‐effectors and improved decision control algorithms to cover a large variety of agricultural situations. | \n
Precision agriculture: main operations and techniques.
Greenhouse farming is often a suitable field for applying the technologies of automation, computing and robotics. Some examples of technologies implemented in productive greenhouses are the control of temperature and humidity, the soil preparation and the supply of water and nutrients [10]. The robots can perform some tasks that humans cannot do due to the harsh conditions of greenhouses, such as environmental monitoring and control, crop monitoring, supply and treatment, and pest and disease detection.
\nThe environmental monitoring of greenhouses is interesting not only to control the growth of crops but also to determine the traceability of products. Nowadays, most of the systems used for environmental monitoring of greenhouses are based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) [11–13]. Nevertheless, the robots are starting to be applied as mobile platforms for sensors [14–16].
\nGreenhouses can be considered complex multiple‐input multiple‐output systems [17]. The literature collects multiple proposals for modelling and controlling the conditions of greenhouses [18]. Some of them obtain the models of greenhouses applying analytical equations (e.g. mass and energy balances) [19], whereas the rest identifying process models (e.g. neural networks or fuzzy sets) [20]. A review of these models determined the input, output, and disturbance variables described below.
\nThe input variables allow to actuate the greenhouses and change the environmental conditions. The most relevant variables considered by literature are the ventilation [21], heating [22], fogging [23], shading and CO2 injection [24] systems. The ventilation systems control the exchange of air between greenhouse and environment, which has an impact on the air temperature, humidity and composition. The heating systems are used to compensate the heat losses and keep the temperatures in the adequate range. The fogging systems spray water into the air to increase the humidity and reduce the temperature. The shading systems control the irradiation of the covers to avoid the overheating of the greenhouse. Finally, the CO2 injection systems are used to promote the photosynthesis of the plants.
\nThe output variables define the state of greenhouse can be measured by the appropriate sensors and are the target of climate control. The most relevant variables collected by literature are the air temperature, air humidity, solar radiation and CO2 concentration. In addition, there are some variables that have influence on the state of greenhouse and should be measured and controlled. These disturbances are the external temperature, external humidity, wind speed, wind direction, external CO2 concentration, cover temperature, crop temperature and ground temperature.
\n\n\nTable 2\n collects the relevant variables for the environmental monitoring of greenhouses [25], as well as the appropriate sensors to measure them and their possible application in robots.
\nVariable | \nSensor | \nApplication | \n
---|---|---|
Radiation (absorbed) | \nNet radiometer | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
Radiation (solar) | \nPyranometer | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
Air temperature | \nResistance temperature device | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
\n | Thermocouple | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
\n | Thermistor | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
Surface temperature | \nInfrared | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
\n | Thermocouple | \nGR, FS | \n
Substrate temperature | \nResistance temperature device | \nGR, FS | \n
\n | Thermocouple | \nGR, FS | \n
\n | Thermistor | \nGR, FS | \n
Air humidity | \nCapacitance hygrometer | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
\n | Condensation hygrometer | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
\n | Psychrometer | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
Ground humidity | \nElectrical conductivity meter | \nGR, FS | \n
Carbon dioxide in air | \nNon‐dispersive infrared sensor | \nAR, GR, FS | \n
pH | \npH probe | \nGR, FS | \n
Environmental monitoring of greenhouses: variables, sensors and robots based on Ref. [16].
AR, air robot; GR, ground robot; FS, fixed sensor.
Another task of greenhouse farming where the robots can perform an important role is the crop inspection and treatment. The detection of weeds [26], pests [27] and diseases [28] is possible through direct and indirect methods. The direct methods are based on acquiring RGB [29] and 3D [30] images and applying computer vision techniques. The indirect ones require to take samples in the greenhouse and to analyze them in the laboratory. The ground robots can be used to apply treatments and fertilizers to the crops [31–33], in order to improve the precision and rationalize the products.
\nPlanting and harvesting are seasonal tasks that require a considerable amount of work. The literature contains some proposals to automatize these tasks [34–36]. These proposals consider different types of robots (ground mobile and rail robots), sensors (mainly, RGB and 3D cameras and laser scanners) and effectors (manipulators and graspers).
\nRegarding the point of view of service robotics, Onwude et al. [37] attempt to evaluate the application of agricultural mechanization and its present technologies and limitations for the large‐scale purposes. The study shows an increasing level of technological advancement in field and crop mapping, soil sampling, mechanical seeders and harvesters in agricultural robots. Sharing the same approach, Kester et al. [38] show the future trends and the likely adoption of automated farming machinery. The results of this study point out a growing interest in autonomous and semi‐autonomous systems for reducing the highest workload operations: tillage, seeding and harvesting.
\nIn order to support the growing development of seeding and harvesting robots, new strategies are proposed for driving autonomous mobile robot in the associated scenarios. Ko et al. [33] makes a small review about common techniques for robot navigation in greenhouses and proposes a methodology based on machine learning. Due to the importance of the manipulation tasks in seeding, transplanting and harvesting processes, the manipulator motion strategy is also discussed by several authors. However, they usually do not specify path planning algorithms; the most common approach is the direct displacement towards the end‐effector desired position by position‐based control [39] and visual feedback control [40]. The task planning strategies are only studied by a few researchers. Commonly, the harvesting task is limited to pick one fruit, while the planning required for picking the rest is avoided. Nevertheless, the problem can be studied from two perspectives: the coverage path planning [41] for picking all the fruits in a scene or the time minimization [42] for moving from a fruit to another. The obstacle detection and avoidance are studied by an equally low number of authors. A great complexity is added to the solution due to the obstacle recognition in addition to the path planning algorithms. A few approaches are based in the obstacle detection with collision sensors in the end effector [43], the obstacle recognition by Light Imaging, Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) [44] and vision techniques [45].
\nA review about the use of technologies for automated activities in greenhouses is presented in Ref. [46], showing an increasing implementation of wireless systems for environmental measurements. Additionally, the study shows that a considerable number of research works are aimed to develop robotic systems for fruit picking and extraction. Furthermore, the research community has put much effort on developing techniques for robust fruit recognition; moreover, there is a high necessity for improving the picking capabilities of transplanting and harvesting robots in order to move towards a commercial application. A review on vision control techniques and their potential applications in fruit or vegetable harvesting robots is presented in Ref. [47]. The fruit identification and localization are the most common problem studied by the authors. Like the fruit ripeness identification [48, 49], a great number of approaches are based on RGB cameras [50], as well as colour and shape recognition [51]. The multi‐spectral lightning is less studied despite more information can be acquired with this kind of technology [52]. The next level of complexity involves the implementation of stereo vision systems and LIDAR for calculating the fruit position in a 3D space [53].
\nThis objective can only be accomplished by the diversification and specialization of the robotic systems. With the aim of getting better results in harvesting tasks, newer and more precise sensors are needed. In Ref. [36], the authors review the modern sensor systems used in semi or fully automated robotic harvesting. Their research shows how the integration of several kinds of technologies and sensor fusion can improve the precision in fruit recognition and localization activities.
\nSome interesting publications to be considered for a further review of seeding, transplanting and harvesting robotics can be found in Refs. [34, 54].
\nThis section reviews the different types of robots and payloads that are applied to agricultural tasks. For this purpose, it is organized as follows: Section 3.1 analyzes the aerial robots, Section 3.2 the ground robots, Section 3.3 some special robots that are not conventional ground or aerial vehicles and Section 3.4 the multi‐robot systems.
\nThe Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International (AUVSI) published an economical report in 2013 [55], which emphasized the future impact of the civil use of the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) on the USA economy. This document highlights two markets over multiple areas: public safety and precision agriculture. It concludes that by far and above, this last market will be the largest in the next decade in terms of economy and jobs.
\nIn the last decades, collecting data from agricultural holdings has been carried out mainly by manned aerial vehicles, satellites or directly specialized experts at floor level [56]. The availability of these methods has some limitations, such as the presence of clouds, the long data delivery times, the need for special permissions and the prizes of some products. In contrast, the UAVs can be deployed efficiently, can carry multiple types of sensors, do not require very restrictive permissions and are becoming a cost‐effective alternative. These advantages have been reinforced with the rise of the vertical take‐off and landing (VTOL) vehicles and more specifically the quadcopters (a good example can be seen in Ref. [57]).
\nOne of the first applications of UAVs in precision agriculture was their use to measure the water stress in agricultural holdings. Nowadays, the UAVs are equipped with thermal and hyperspectral cameras, as well as fluorescence sensors [58]. An interesting experiment is reported in Ref. [59], where the authors produced a controlled deficit of irrigation to generate a gradient of water stress in a citrus orchard. They compared the data obtained by the micro‐thermal and hyperspectral cameras boarded on a fixed‐wing unmanned aircraft with the measurements on the leaves, validating the aerial methods to measure the water stress. Similar works can be found in Refs. [60–62], which show the feasibility and benefits of the aerial thermal imagery to improve the irrigation.
\nAnother use of aerial vehicles in precision agriculture is the monitoring of crops to predict yields, properly calculate the amount of fungicides and fertilizers and detect pathogen. In Ref. [63], a RGB camera was used to estimate the biomass of a barley exploitation under two different nitrogen treatments. The results were cross‐validated with five different crop surface models based on the height of the plant. Additionally, in Ref. [64], techniques of clustering were applied to estimate the biomass of a wheat exploitation through the RGB images. The method was enhanced by measuring the height of the plant directly on ground. These studies demonstrate the feasibility, applicability and precision of this tool.
\nAnother interesting parameter for monitoring is the leaf area index (LAI), defined as the ratio of leaf surface to unit ground area. In Ref. [65], the authors estimate the LAI of maize, potato and sunflower fields by using a hyperspectral camera and inverting the solar model of the canopies. In [66], they used a visual 3D modelling technique to estimate the LAI in a vineyard, obtaining around 57% less precision. Although this method seems to be nowadays less accurate, it is quick, inexpensive and practical compared to other methods. In Ref. [67], they use four cameras and overlap the corresponding images to measure the LAI over wheat and rapeseed crops. They achieve a very good correlation in comparison to the measurements at floor level, despite that they highlight the dependency of the method on the light conditions.
\nAdditionally, the UAVs are a practical tool for the prevention of diseases in agricultural holdings. The work reported in Ref. [68] uses a UAV and a manned aircraft equipped with multispectral cameras. It applies four classification algorithms to detect the prints of the diseases and compare the results with the ground truth. Similarly, the work described in Ref. [69] proposes a new airborne visual sensor to detect diseases on the leaves on citrus trees, and the experiments show an accuracy of 93%. These methods have been used not only for citrus trees but also for olives [70], avocado trees [71], potatoes [72] and grapevines [73], among others.
\nAlthough this use is not extended around the world due to the restrictions in many countries, there have been some trials and investigations with UAVs spraying locally fertilizers and pesticides [74]. For instance, in Ref. [75], a net of pesticide sensors are deployed over a virtual field, whereas a UAV sprays the chemicals where they are needed. The sensors provide a feedback to the UAV, which adjusts the optimal route and minimizes the waste of pesticides. A more practical and exhaustive study was carried out in Ref. [76], where different spraying parameters are tested in a field with rice crops, such as operation height and velocity, and the deposited volume at different heights of the plants.
\nAs we have seen, the UAVs equipped with hyperspectral and thermal cameras are an affordable and practical system to improve the performance of agricultural holdings, reducing costs and increasing productivity. With the development of new sensors and the establishment of new legal frameworks, their expansion will continue in the next decades.
\nThe systematic design methods assist researchers in design choices, whereas the economic analysis considers allowable cost of a system. Only a few authors report design processes based in requirement engineering. The decisions about the hardware have influence on the robot performance, the complexity of algorithms and, eventually, the system costs. Some approaches for ground robots are reviewed with special interest in the platform, manipulator and end‐effector implemented in several agricultural applications.
\nRegarding to the platform, custom mobile robots are the most common choice [77]. The robustness of crawler and caterpillar platforms [78, 79] is described by several authors, but the wheeled robots [80] are also shown as good choices due to their simplicity. All these platforms can integrate approaches such as GPS [43], odometry [50], line guidance [81], path plans [82] and manned approaches [83] as navigation strategy. Other robots take advantage of irrigation pipes or rails in the field [84, 85] to achieve their displacement.
\nThe most common configuration of the manipulators is near 3 DoF (Degrees of Freedom) in a custom‐made development [86, 87]. This situation can be associated to the high cost of implementations involving commercial manipulators [39]. Although the manipulators are commonly custom made, neither analysis nor explanation for the number of DOF selected is usually detailed by the authors. The manipulator movements are just simplified, and the high numbers of DOF are avoided.
\nFinally, most end‐effectors are designed to operate with two fingers [44, 79], since most of the grasps can be performed by them, and they are the smallest suitable mechanical architectures for grasping hand devices. In addition, grasping is commonly achieved by suction grippers [88]; for that reason, the end effectors are mainly actuated by electrical and pneumatic systems. A great number of the end effectors are custom made [89, 90]; this design preference can be associated to the huge diversity of tasks to be performed, as well as the several kinds of fruits and vegetables to be handled. Additionally, it is a common practice trying to solve the problems originated by the mobile platform and the manipulator through the end‐effector behaviour; this situation leads to greater customization of the grippers.
\nFor comprehensive reviews of the agricultural robotics literature and further exemplification of their ground robot applications, we refer the reader to the readings [91, 92].
\nThe traditional ground robots present several limitations related to the constraints of wheeled and caterpillar motion. Additionally, the use of aerial robots is not always possible, especially when the task should be performed on surface or indoor. This section reports some cases in the literature where robots with alternative locomotion systems are applied to agricultural tasks.
\nSphere robots are systems whose movements are produced by instability. This type of robots is used in several applications and scenarios, such as exploration [93] and surveillance [94]. ROSPHERE is described by their authors as a new low‐cost spherical robot for measuring soil temperature and moisture in precision agriculture [95]. In comparison to wheeled robots with similar size and capabilities, the ROSPHERE is much lighter and robust in irregular terrains.
\nSeveral robots are designed by bioinspiration, which tries to replicate the biological evolution. For instance, the engineers have noticed that hexapod insects are able to walk in all terrains, so they are replicating their physiognomies and walking patterns. This is the case of Prospero, which is a prototype of hexapod robot that can plant, tend and harvest autonomously [96]. Another example are the RoboBees of Harvard University, which are micro‐aerial robots inspired in bees [97]. These robots are being applied for distributed environmental monitoring and assistance to crop pollination.
\nSometimes, single robots are not able to perform some complex tasks (e.g. those that require coordinated actions in multiple locations) or to perform simple tasks in the required time (e.g, when the tasks must be performed in large areas). In these cases, robot teams might provide some advantages over single robots, such as their effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility and fault tolerance.
\nMost of the cases of robot teams for agricultural tasks reported by the literature are homogeneous. Using a fleet of UAVs instead of a single UAV for collecting data in large areas is common, and there are multiple techniques for area distribution and path planning [98]. For instance, a team of small UAVs with low‐cost cameras can be applied to control the exploitation and management of water [99], obtaining the same results than a single UAV equipped with a better camera and providing the operation with more robustness.
\nNevertheless, some agricultural applications require heterogeneous robot teams. The most common situation is when the task consists of operations that are more effective from the air and others that are more effective from the ground. For instance, aerial robots are able to efficiently cover large fields taking pictures and collecting data (e.g. distribution of water or location of weeds), whereas ground robots can actuate on the crops with more robustness and precision (e.g, watering or applying treatments) [9].
\nTherefore, the heterogeneous multi‐robot systems often combine the advantages and compensate the drawbacks of different robots. The Section 4 describes with more details two different multi‐robot systems applied to two different agricultural scenarios: outdoor agriculture and greenhouse farming.
\nThis section reports some of the experiences of the Robotics and Cybernetics Group (RobCib) in the context of robotics applied to agriculture. It is organized as follows: Section 4.1 summarizes the participation in the Robot Fleets for Highly Effective Agricultural and Forestry Management (RHEA) Project, whereas Section 4.2 describes the use of multiple robots for the environmental monitoring of greenhouses.
\nA good example of precision agriculture is the RHEA (Robot Fleets for Highly Effective Agricultural and Forestry Management) Project. It was carried out under the seventh framework program of the European Commission and identified as NMP‐CP‐IP 245986‐2. RHEA activities finished on 31 July 2014. The project was focused on designing, developing and testing of a new generation of robotic systems for both chemical and physical (mechanical and thermal) effective weed management in the context of agriculture and forestry.
\nThe use of pesticides in agriculture helps to improve yields and to prevent crop losses. Nevertheless, pesticides include active ingredients that have adverse impacts on the environment and habitats. According to the “Agriculture, forestry and fishery statistics” [100] online publication of Eurostat, the sale of pesticides in European Union member states amounted to close to 400,000 tonnes in 2014. Due to their potential toxicity, the application of pesticides is strictly controlled by EU legislation since 1991 and previously by national regulations. Although the return of pesticides (the crops saved from pests and diseases) is approximately four times the investment [101], the indirect costs (the impact on human health and environment) are estimated to total approximately $10,000 million per year in the United States [101].
\nThe farmers usually apply these pesticides by using traditional sprayers that distribute them uniformly over the complete field. Therefore, the aim of RHEA Project was to support the farmers by reducing the amount of pesticides applied without reducing the effectiveness of the treatments. This objective was reached by applying the pesticides with high precision only where it is required. This solution not only prevents the pernicious effects of the pesticides but also reduces drastically the economic cost of treatment.
\nRHEA scope covers a large variety of European products, such as agriculture wide row crops (processing tomato, maize among others), close row crops (winter wheat and winter barley) and forestry woody perennials (walnut trees, almond trees, olive groves and multi‐purpose open woodland).
\nThe project is based on the cooperation among aerial and ground vehicles to perform precision agriculture tasks, namely weeds removal and trees fumigation. A complete description of the system as well as the result of the project can be found at Ref. [9].
\nGround units are based on small
A high precision Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for autonomous outdoor navigation was used to allow the control system to accurately steer the robots to work on wide‐row crops (with 0.75 m‐spaced rows). Additionally, a ground perception system was used to discriminate weeds from crops while travelling along crop rows, as well as a real‐time tree canopy detection system.
\nThe tractors were also endowed with three kinds of actuators, namely a patch sprayer aiming at reducing herbicide use by approximately 75%, a canopy sprayer to reduce the use of pesticide in canopy spraying by approximately 50% and a mechanical/thermal tool to destroy 90% of the detected weeds.
\nAdditionally, the tractors were provided with a communication equipment, a sustainable energy system and a safety systems for humans and animals detection. \nFigure 1\n shows the ground units with the mentioned actuators.
\nGround units of RHEA project.
In order to plan the activities of the ground units, the RHEA concept includes the support of aerial imagery by using drones. Thus, the system used a fleet of last‐generation hexacopters provided by
Aerial units of RHEA project.
Usually, weeds are not uniformly spread over the fields but are located in patches. For this reason, the first step of the mission is to obtain high‐precision aerial images to locate the patches in the field. The location of the patches will allow defining optimal paths for the tractors. This task requires a thorough planning of the flights, which was our main task in this project. Several area coverage planning techniques were applied taking into account spatial and temporal requirements, in order to generate optimal and safe flight plans for the drones. A complete description of the aerial mission can be found in Refs. [102, 103].
\nThe drones were equipped with two high‐resolution cameras (4704 × 3136) mounted on a gimbal system. A multi‐spectral device that includes visible and near infrared (NIR) channels was selected to maximize the robustness under different light conditions. Moreover, in order to preserve the complete colour information, the solution uses a coupling of two commercial still cameras: one of them modified to provide the NIR channel. The flights were performed with an elevation of 60 m to obtain a resolution of 1 cm per pixel with each image covering approximately 40 × 30 m and overlapping 60% with the consecutive ones.
\nRHEA provides the farmer with a ground station with a graphical user interface (GUI). This interface allows the farmer to create and launch the mission. Thus, the operator has to define the area by entering the points that limit the field.
\nOnce the limits of the field have been established, the system creates a flight plan for each robot of the fleet. After testing several optimization techniques, back and forth motion movements are applied for planning the fleet trajectories, in order to increase the situational awareness of the operator. Although the drones are able to autonomously perform take‐off and landing operations, the pilot needs to provide altitude commands to ensure a safe operation.
\nLater, a mosaicking procedure is developed: colour and NIR images from the two cameras are joined in a unique four‐channel picture. An approach based on the Fourier‐Mellin (FM) transform was successfully developed and tested. This approach identifies rotation, translation and scale changes between images by means of Fourier spectrum analysis. To cope with large‐sized camera images, which imply non‐linear transformations, the original images are partitioned into a set of small image portions, where the FM identification process is executed iteratively. Then, a global homographic transformation model is computed including lens radial distortion. A registration accuracy of 0.3 pixels is obtained [17]. After obtaining a global image of the fields, the patch detection should be performed.
\nDetecting weeds when crop and weed plants are at early phenological stages is a challenge. The proposal of RHEA overcomes it by using high‐spatial‐resolution imagery and object‐based image analysis (OBIA), taking into account the relative position of the weeds to the crop lines, so that every plant that is not located on the crop row is considered a weed [104]. As a result, a weed patch map is created using a grid of 0.5 m. The size of this grid is customizable according to the requirements of the herbicide‐spraying machinery.
\nLater, the Ground Mission Planner is executed by the operator in the base station. It determines the configuration of the ground vehicles (number and type of vehicles), as well as the plan for each one to efficiently apply the treatment. Simulated annealing and basic genetic algorithms are used to find the optimal solution that minimizes either the task cost or the time required cost, whereas a non‐dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA‐II) is employed as a proper approach for simultaneously minimizing both criteria [105].
\nOnce defined the optimal paths, the ground mission starts. During the mission, the ground perception system detects weeds, both inter and intra row. This system is based on a SVS‐VISTEK camera connected to the high‐level decision‐making system computers for acquiring images and running the relevant vision algorithms [106]. The operation speed of Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) was fixed at 0.83 m/s, and the region of interest (ROI) for the ground perception system was defined to be 3‐m wide and 2‐m long located in front of the UGV. Weed detection relies on the spatial identification of crop rows. Thus, determination of crop‐row positions with respect to the UGV becomes a key task for weed patch detection and UGV guiding. Weed detection system also generates the orders to the sprayers to activate precisely when nozzle passes over the weeds.
\nAs mentioned above, one of the agricultural applications where the robots can work is the environmental monitoring of greenhouses. This task cannot be performed by humans, because it requires a continuous work under the harsh conditions of greenhouses. The alternatives of the robots in this task are the fixed sensors, which are not able to capture the spatial variability of the environmental conditions, and the sensor networks, which cannot be moved during the operation to the points of interest.
\nThe proposed solution is a multi‐robot system that measures the environmental variables and collects their spatial and temporal variability. This information is the key to control the conditions of the crops, which determine both the productivity and the quality of greenhouse. As shown in \nFigure 3\n, the multi‐robot system is split into small teams with ground and aerial units that work in specific areas. A base station controls the mission, coordinating the actions of the robots, as well as collecting and storing their measurements.
\nScheme of multi‐robot system for environmental monitoring of greenhouses.
The first work used a mini‐UAV to measure air temperature, humidity, luminosity and carbon dioxide concentration [5]. The sensors shown in \nTable 3\n were selected to measure these variables regarding their size, weight, range, resolution and cost. These sensors were integrated by means of a Raspberry Pi computer, which collects the measurements and sends them to the base station via Wi‐Fi network.
\nVariable | \nSensor | \nRobot | \nController | \n
---|---|---|---|
Air temperature | \nRHT03 | \nUAV/UGV | \nRaspberry Pi | \n
Ground temperature | \nMLX90614 | \nUGV | \nArduino | \n
Air humidity | \nRHT03 | \nUAV/UGV | \nRaspberry Pi | \n
Ground humidity | \nSEN92355P | \nUGV | \nArduino | \n
Luminosity | \nTSL2561 | \nUAV/UGV | \nRaspberry Pi | \n
CO2 concentration | \nMG811 | \nUAV/UGV | \nRaspberry Pi | \n
Experience in environmental monitoring in greenhouses.
The main contributions of this work were the aerodynamics study of quadcopter and the real experiments with the sensory system. The results validated the use of quadcopter as sensory system and determined the optimal location of sensors: the centre and top of the quadrotor frame. A subsequent work developed a chamber to measure the concentration of gases minimizing the influence of propellers and obtaining less errors and fluctuations [107].
\nThe second work introduced a medium‐size UGV to measure ground temperature and humidity [6]. Specifically, we used the distance infrared temperature sensor and the contact conductivity humidity sensor collected by \nTable 3\n. Additionally, the work studied the path planning and following strategies to cover the greenhouse in the minimum time.
\nThe aerial and ground robots have different strengths and weaknesses. The aerial robots can move fast and agile through the corridors and reach any point in the 3D space. On the other hand, the ground robots have more autonomy to cover the greenhouse and more robustness to avoid accidents. Therefore, a heterogeneous team can take advantage of the potential of both types of robots [7].
\nThe team strategy of the multi‐robot system is the following: the UGV carries the UAV on a platform while it develops its tasks, and when it is required, the UAV takes‐off, performs some tasks and lands on the UGV. In this manner, the multi‐robot system can avoid the obstacles in the corridors, as well as find the source of anomalous measurements.
\nThe main future challenges of this research line are related to the navigation of the UAVs and the autonomy of UGV and UAV. The navigation of UAVs in the greenhouse is a challenge because the scenario is closed and has high occupancy. The autonomy of both robots is required for the continuous operation and needs better batteries and charging systems.
\nIn recent years, the robots have found their own place in agriculture. This chapter addresses the main fields of application (precision agriculture, greenhouse farming, and seeding and harvesting), analyzes the aerial, ground and special robots used in these applications, and describes two research projects related to precision agriculture and greenhouse farming. The main conclusions of these sections are summarized below.
\nPrecision agriculture seeks to apply multiple technologies to acquire knowledge about the spatial and temporal variability of crops. Among other technologies, the use of aerial robots to build maps of the fields and detect weeds or irrigation deficits, and the application of ground robots to apply accurate treatments to plants must be remarked. In addition, greenhouse agriculture has included robots for multiple tasks, such as the monitoring of environmental variables, which is important for the control of the conditions of crops, and the watering and spraying of plants. Finally, although the use of robots for seeding and harvesting is in an earlier step of development, a series of techniques of perception, positioning and grasping have been developed.
\nThe most widely used robots in agriculture are UAVs and UGVs. Aerial robots are usually applied to acquire information of the fields by taking advantage of the altitude. Although the first agricultural aerial robots were fixed‐wing UAVs, nowadays the multi‐rotors are more popular due to their flexibility. On the other hand, ground robots are usually used to act on the crops. The most common configurations are wheeled and caterpillar robots, and some of the most relevant issues are the selected location and navigation algorithms. Nevertheless, other designs such as spherical or bio‐inspired robots are gaining interest, as well as the use of multi‐robot systems that can go further than single‐robot ones.
\nFinally, the chapter summarizes two different projects that address the application of robots in agriculture. The RHEA project uses aerial robots to locate weeds within the fields and ground robots to apply localized treatments on them. The other project introduces ground and aerial robots in greenhouses to take measurements of environmental variables. A series of lessons have been learned from these experiences, such as the potential of robots as moving sensory and actuation systems, the difficulties of navigation in unstructured scenarios, the power of cooperation with heterogeneous fleets and the limitations imposed by the autonomy of robots.
\nThe research leading to these results has received funding from the RoboCity2030‐III‐CM project (Robótica aplicada a la mejora de la calidad de vida de los ciudadanos. Fase III; S2013/MIT‐2748), funded by Programas de Actividades I+D en la Comunidad de Madrid and the Structural Funds of the EU, from the DPI2014‐56985‐R project (Protección robotizada de infraestructuras críticas) funded by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Gobierno de España, and from the NMPCP‐IP 245986‐2 RHEA project (Robot Fleets for Highly Effective Agriculture and Forestry Management) sponsored by the European Commission’s Seventh Framework Programme.
\nMatter can exist in the following phase states: crystalline, amorphous (liquid), gaseous, and liquid crystalline. The substances in the different phase states exhibit the different spatial arrangements of structural elements (molecules, atoms, ions).
The crystalline phase state is characterized by a three-dimensional long-range order in arrangement of atoms or molecules. Long-range orientational order is an order observed over distances hundreds and thousands of times larger than the size of the molecules and can exist in one, two, or three dimensions.
The amorphous phase state (liquid phase state) is characterized by a short-range orientational order, i.e., an order observed over distances commensurate with molecular size. In the vicinity of any given molecule, its neighbors can be ordered but at a small distance from the molecule. The amorphous phase state is attributed to all liquids (excluding mercury) as well as glass and other solid noncrystalline substances.
In a gaseous phase state, there is no order in the spatial arrangement of structural elements.
The term “liquid crystal” is a contradiction in itself. The crystals are considered to be anisotropic solids showing usually very low deformations even under high mechanical stress. On the other hand, the fluids are able to flow, and they exhibit isotropic optical properties. Meanwhile, over a hundred years ago, it was found [1] that some organic substances in melt, that is they are able to flow, exhibit anisotropic optical properties (birefringence). Such a substance was first described in 1888 by F. Reinitzer [2], Professor of the Botanic School of Graz University of Technology (Austria). He examined the physiological activity of cholesterol, the chemical formula for which had not yet been determined. In the course of his studies, F. Reinitzer synthesized cholesterol derivatives and determined their melting temperatures. He found that cholesteryl benzoate under melting at 145.5°C turned into a cloudy liquid and after further heating, turned into transparent melt at 178.5°C. The refractive indices of the cloudy melt measured in two perpendicular directions were different, which proved its anisotropic properties. Therefore, F. Reinitzer assumed that the turbid melt included two substances. F. Reinitzer tried to separate the substances, but he could not, and so he sent a cholesteryl benzoate sample for examination to physicist, Prof. Lehmann, who lived in Dresden. Prof. Lehmann examined the sample with a polarizing microscope and concluded that the turbid melt did not comprise two different liquids but presented a single liquid crystal [3]. Thus, it was Lehmann who introduced the term “liquid crystal.” In 1890, he discovered liquid crystals of ammonium oleate, para-azoxyanisole, and para-azoxyphenetole.
The nature of a liquid crystalline (LC) phase state is as follows: some substances, as soon as they reach the temperature at which the three-dimensional lattice disintegrates, do not exhibit the direct transition to isotropic liquid but hold intermolecular order. In LC systems the order is not three-dimensional but, according to Gray, one- or two-dimensional, i.e., the regularity is partially destroyed, but the long-range orientational order always remains in one or two directions. Such behavior determines, on the one hand, an essential fluidity (ability for irreversible deformation) and, on the other hand, a demonstration of anisotropic physical properties in contrast to liquids possessing a short-range order.
Further detailed study of LC substances revealed that the crystal-liquid crystalline transition and consequent liquid crystalline-liquid (amorphous) transition are phase transitions of the first order and that the liquid crystals are in a special phase state, which is neither conventional crystalline nor amorphous phase state.
Liquid crystalline state is a thermodynamically stable phase state at which the matter exhibits the stable anisotropic physical properties of crystalline solids and the fluidity typical for liquids [4].
As liquid crystal exists between crystalline and amorphous phase states, it is called “mesomorphic phase” (“mesos” in Greek means middle, intermediate). The term “mesomorphic phase” or “mesophase” was introduced by Friedel in 1922.
The majority of liquid crystals have an enantiotropic mesophase, i.e., they appear upon both the melting of a crystalline solid and the cooling of a melt. However, some liquid crystals possess a monotropic mesophase appearing only upon cooling [5].
The main cause of matter transition to a liquid crystalline phase state, as soon as the melting point is achieved, is the asymmetric molecule structure. All matters demonstrating the transition to mesophase consist of the elongated molecules. At
As mentioned above, the liquid crystalline systems demonstrate one- and two-dimensional orders [1]. A one-dimensional order of molecules means only a long-range orientation order along the molecule axes (Figure 1).
Nematic mesophase [
The gravity center of individual molecules is not coordinated relative to each other, and molecules can have a casual azimuthal deviation from the main axis. Such a structure is called nematic. Nematic systems are the first type of liquid crystal. For example,
The patterns of so-called cholesteric systems are more ordered in comparison to nematic liquid crystals (Figure 2).
Cholesteric mesophase [
Their structure is a combination of parallel nematic layers where the direction of axes of molecules within each following layer is turned on a certain angle concerning the direction of molecule axes in the previous layer. Thus, a helix appears with a pitch that can be of several hundreds of nanometers. The equidistant arrangement of parallel layers and constant helix pitch allow the formal classification of this type of structure as two-dimensional; however, the molecule orientation within the layers is of a nematic nature due to which the cholesteric liquid crystals are sometimes referred to as a variant of the nematic phase. The cholesteric liquid crystals are so called because they are the complex esters of cholesterol, mainly:
where R is the residue of relevant acid. But the complex esters of cholesterol are not the only representatives of cholesteric structure. A cholesteric mesophase is characteristic to other compounds, for example, 4′-(4-methoxybenzyl idenamin)aril cinnamate over a range of temperatures from 82 to 102°C [5]:
All such compounds contain asymmetric (chiral) atoms of carbon. Chiral properties give rise to the formation of a cholesteric mesophase. If the mesogenic compound is able to form a nematic phase and its molecules are chiral, then a cholesteric mesophase appears. This is proved by the fact that an addition to the nematic of a small amount of the cholesteric or chiral compound, which is not mesogenic, transfers the latter to the cholesteric. It should be noted that when changing the external conditions, the helix pitch may alter by discrete quantities up to infinity. Under such conditions, the cholesteric liquid crystal-nematic liquid crystalline transition is observed.
The smectic liquid crystals are the most ordered. They represent two-dimensional liquid crystals: the centers of molecule mass are located in layers, but the director
Smectic A mesophase [
These liquid crystals are usually referred to smectic A, which is the most commonly found among smectic liquid crystals. The typical example of A smectic is ethyl ester of n-nitrooxybenzoic acid (ENB) [5]:
within temperatures from 114 to 120°C.
The thickness of layers is usually equal to the length of molecules of mesogen and the majority of the smectics exhibits such property. But for some smectics, the layer thickness is less than the molecular length or exceeds it. This is determined by the peculiarities of molecular structure.
For example, the layer thickness of 4-cyano-4′-
exceeds the molecule length by 1.4 times. In this case, a double-layered structure seems to exist and as such molecules within one layer enter the gaps between the molecules of the other layer.
The smectics with non-ordered layers are called
Smectic
They are commonly classified into smectic
within the temperatures from 114.1 to 172.5°C, where the smectic
In such structures, the director processes around the cone from one layer to the next. Such a structure is similar to cholesteric.
Liquid crystals appearing upon cooling or heating by individual matters are called thermotropic. Liquid crystals resulting from the dissolution of matters are called lyotropic.
In [4], the mesogenic compounds are classified into the following groups based on their chemical structure:
aromatic compounds without bridge groups;
heteroaromatic compounds without bridge groups;
aromatic compounds with one bridge group;
aromatic compounds with several similar bridge groups;
aromatic compounds with different bridge groups;
stilbene, amides of carbon acid, derivatives of hydrazine and glyoxal;
aromatic carbon acids;
carbonic acid salts and ammonium salts;
alicyclic and aliphatic compounds.
Following the above classification, the various chemical fragments used in synthesis of mesogenic compounds are listed below (
often used:
seldom used:
If one and the same substance has both nematic and smectic phases, the temperature of a smectic phase is always lower than the temperature of a nematic phase. Upon heating or cooling of the matter with the symmetrical molecules, the phase transitions from crystalline solids (CS) to isotropic liquids (IL) occur according to the scheme:
Transition temperatures are repeatable and reversible in case of enantiotropic transitions. Matters with optically active molecules exhibit the phase transitions according to the following scheme:
The specifics of polymers include both nonequilibrium states and manifestations of features, typical of an LC state, when the polymer is in an amorphous but not in a mesomorphous state. The majority of flexible chain polymers are subjected to orientational stretching during their manufacturing. If this is followed by a glass transition of the polymer system, the orientational order remains practically infinitely long. The resulting structure is nonequilibrium since after prolonged heating and slow cooling down to the original temperature, the system exhibits a clear tendency to disorder through weakening anisotropic properties [1].
The difference in phase transitions between the low-molecular matters and polymers should be assumed not in the special thermodynamic behavior of mesophase but rather in the kinetics of these transformations. The higher speed of phase transitions in low-molecular systems is quite clear as well as the lower speed of such transformations in polymers. These general properties of polymer systems and transitions to LC state and especially the liquid crystalline-crystalline solid transition, such as direct amorphous-crystalline solid transition, can be accompanied by such long periods of induction that they are not comparable to internal observation.
It should be noted that the rigid-chain polymers that most probably form the liquid crystals due to the high geometric anisotropy of molecules melt at temperatures higher than the temperatures of their intensive thermal destruction. Thus, polymers (with few exceptions) are unlikely to produce thermotropic LC systems. Apparently, this allowed Ph.H. Geil to consider the formation of only lyotropic liquid crystals though at present, thermotropic high-molecular LC systems are also known; for example, the melt of polypropylene, hydroxypropyl cellulose, as well as system based on block copolymers [5, 6, 7, 8].
The appearance of a mesophase in polymer systems is caused by the following [1]:
The ordering caused by the interaction of rather long side groups (side chains) in polymers.
The ordering caused by the interaction of homogeneous sequences (blocks) in block соpolymers.
The ordering caused by the molecule rigidity. The distribution of rigid macromolecules in melts and solutions cannot be random. The polymer systems with rigid macromolecules exhibit a spontaneous transition to ordered states, which do not achieve a three-dimensional order; they are limited by the one- or two-dimensional order.
The degree of orientational order is mainly determined by the flexibility of macromolecules, which is measured by Khun’s segment
Polymer | |||
---|---|---|---|
Poly-γ-benzyl-l-glutamate | 240 | 33–330 | 0.88–0.38 |
Polybutyl isocyanate | 100 | 15–150 | 0.76–0.19 |
Poly-hlorohexyl isocyanate | 48 | 24–240 | 0.57–0.10 |
Poly-para-benzamide | 110 | 5.5–55 | 0.45–0.18 |
Poly-para-phenyleneterephthalamide | 65 | 5.5–55 | 0.46–0.13 |
Poly-para-amide-hydrazide | 45 | 5.5–55 | 0.39–0.09 |
Poly-meta-phenylenisophthalamide | 5 | 5.9–59 | 0.1–0.01 |
DNA | 90 | 58.3–583 | 0.72–0.17 |
Double-chain polyphenylensiloxan | 20 | 31–310 | 0.34–0.04 |
Cellulose nitrate | 23 | 17.3–173 | 0.37–0.05 |
Ethyl cellulose | 20 | 14–140 | 0.33–0.05 |
Cellulose phenylcarbanilate | 16 | 23–230 | 0.28–0.04 |
Polystyrene | 2 | 12–120 | 0.04–0.004 |
Polyethylene | 2 | 3.3–33 | 0.04–0.004 |
Polymethylmethacrylate | 2 | 12–120 | 0.04–0.004 |
Values of
Table 1 shows that with an increase in the flexibility of macromolecules (reduction of Khun’s segment size) and in the polymer molecular mass, the value of the intermolecular orientation order decreases. It is important to emphasize that the transitions of the rigid-chain polymers into the LC state usually occur in solutions rather than in melts.
Low-molecular-mass liquid crystals exhibit a good orientation in the magnetic and electric fields. In general, this is associated with the anisotropy of diamagnetic susceptibility Δχ or dielectric permittivity Δε parallel and perpendicular to the long axis of molecules. The molecules of LC substances are ordered so that the direction with the higher values of χ (or ε) is parallel to a vector of field intensity [1]. However, the behavior of polymer LC systems in the force fields has not been studied enough.
The theory of the interaction of diamagnetic macromolecules with a magnetic field is in the development stage [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. If such a macromolecule is placed in a magnetic field, then the force acting on it will cause it to rotate. This is due to the magnetic anisotropy of the molecule, depending on the magnetic anisotropy of chemical bonds. In these systems, an orientation of chains proceeds cooperatively. The magnetic field leads to the orientation of macromolecular domains in a certain predominant direction that depends on the sign of diamagnetic susceptibility anisotropy ∆χM for this polymer. Domains are taken to mean the anisotropic associates of macromolecules. The diamagnetic moment appearing at the domain can be written as [9, 10]:
where V is domain volume, μ0 is a magnetic constant of vacuum, B is a vector of magnetic induction, ξ is an angle between the direction
Interaction of external magnetic field with the domain having the magnetic moment μ increases energy of magnetic field by value of Emag. Orientation is observed when
secondly, the volume of the particle must be greater than the critical value.
where μ0 is the magnetic constant of vacuum,
third, the medium should be low viscosity.
The influence of the magnetic field on the liquid crystals was studied by Mayer [14] and de Gennes [15]. They examined the behavior of a cholesteric liquid crystal under magnetic field and found that at the critical intensity
where
The theory has been checked for the lyotropic PBG liquid crystals in a number of solvents [16, 17]. According to Miller et al. [18], the molecules of liquid crystals are oriented parallel to the magnetic field lines. This orientation is related to the anisotropy of the magnetic susceptibility of molecules, which in turn is associated with the anisotropy of their structure. The effect of a magnetic field on the properties of polymer systems is discussed in [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28].
Since 2006, researchers of the Chair of Macromolecular Compounds, Ural State University investigate the effect of magnetic field on the phase transitions, structure and rheological properties of liquid crystalline solutions of cellulose ethers [12, 13, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36].
A qualitative approach to examination of the solutions of rigid-chain polymers with rigid rod-shaped molecules reveals that an independent position (a random orientation) of each molecule is possible only in relatively diluted solutions. As the number of macromolecules in the given volume of solution increases, the probability of the random orientation of the rigid rod-shaped molecules decreases, and as soon as the polymer concentration reaches a certain critical value, the further increase in the number of molecules in the volume proves to be impossible without the relative ordering of part of them. Thus, it should be followed by separation in two phases, one of which exhibits ordered macromolecules and the other that ensures that molecules are randomly oriented relative to each other. As the concentration of polymer continues to increase, the share of the ordered phase grows, and eventually the system becomes one-phased again while all macromolecules are relatively ordered [1, 14, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37].
The first molecular theory of nematic ordering was offered by Onsager in 1949 [38] for a solution of long rigid cylindrical rod-shaped molecules of length
orientation order in solutions of long rigid rod-shaped molecules is a phase transition of the first order occurring at a low concentration of rod-shaped molecules in solution (φ2
at φ2 < φ2
order parameter
Another approach to solving the problem of LC ordering in the solution of rigid rod-shaped molecules was developed by Flory in 1956 based on the lattice theory of solutions [39]. He introduced the following equation to describe free energy change:
where φ1 and φ2 are the volume fractions of solvent and polymer, respectively;
As a result of the minimization of free energy of the system Δ
Based on Flory’s theory, a phase diagram of rigid-chain polymer solution was constructed.
The limits of the separation region in the case of athermic solution at
Flory’s lattice theory, despite its artificial character, can be successfully applied to the solving of a number of certain problems when other approaches require too complicated computations. The examples of phase diagrams based on experimental results are given below.
The phase diagram of PBG-DMF systems, experimentally found by Miller et al. [40] by methods of polarizing microscopy, viscometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), exhibits the rather close agreement with Flory’s theoretical diagram as shown in Figure 5. The experimental diagram represents a dashed region having been defined with low accuracy (Figure 6) [40]. According to Flory’s calculations, this region testifies to the coexistence of two anisotropic phases.
Phase diagram for a system of rigid-chain polymer-solvent based on Flory’s theory (dashed line shows a deviation from the theoretical behavior corresponding to the temperature effect on the phase composition).
Phase diagram of poly-y-benzyl-
In the diagram of poly-carbobenzoxylysine-DMF system (Figure 7) [40], the narrow region of the coexistence of isotropic and anisotropic phases is observed, which becomes broader only at very low temperature values. Though the rather high freezing point of DMF prevents obtaining experimental values in the region where the compositions of coexisting phases approach pure solvent and pure polymer correspondingly, the tendency toward transition to this area is quite obvious.
Phase diagram of polycarbobenzoxylysine-DMF system [
The diagram in Figure 8 was obtained by Iovleba et al. [41]. One can see that it represents the part of the theoretical diagram associated with the narrow region of the coexistence of isotropic and anisotropic phases.
Phase diagram of poly-p-benzamid (PBA)-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) systems (+3% mass. LiCl) [
The phase diagrams were constructed for the following systems: PBA-DMAc [42], PBG-benzyl alcohol [43], PPTA (poly-p-phenylene terephtalamid)-H2SO4-water [44], PBG-m-cresol [45], соpolymer of p-phenylenediamine with terephthalic acid-H2SO4, and соpolymer of p-phenylene-diamine with 4,4′-(diphenyl dicarbonic) acid-H2SO4 [46], PBG-dichlorine acetic acid [47].
While examining polymer LC systems, one cannot but refer to the studies dedicated to exploring the LC states of cellulose and its derivatives [48]. Cellulose is one of the most widespread natural polymers used intensively in various industries. The liquid crystalline state in solutions and melts of several cellulose derivatives was discovered in the 1980s. A number of studies of molecular structure of cellulose and its derivatives revealed that they have a helical conformation in the ordered regions being stabilized by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. If during the dilution of the aforesaid polymers the intermolecular H-bonds remain, the molecules continue to be rigid-chained and therefore are able to produce the ordered structures and form a mesophase. If during the dilution the intermolecular H-bonds are disrupted, the macromolecules become flexible and as a result cease to be ordered. Thus, to maintain the LC solution of cellulose and its derivatives, so-called chiral forming solvents are used to disrupt only the intermolecular H-bonds (DMF, DMAC, 1,4-dioxane, chlorinated hydrocarbons) [48].
Figures 9 and 10 show the phase diagrams of solutions of cellulose derivatives.
Segment of the phase diagram of the cellulose tricarbonylate-methyl ethyl ketone system [
Phase diagram of the hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC)-water system [
Systematic studies of liquid crystalline phase transitions in solutions of cellulose esters were carried out at the polymer chair of Ural Federal University [12, 13, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. The objects of this study were hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) of the Klucel-JF trademark (Hercules, United States); cyanoethyl cellulose (CEC), cyanoethylnitrocellulose (CENC), cyanoethyl, hydroxyethyl cellulose (CEHEC), and methyl cellulose (MC) (Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia); and hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) and ethyl cellulose (EC) (Hercules-Aqualon and ACROS–USA). Their characteristics are presented in Table 2.
According to [39], the critical volume fraction of a polymer φ* at which the LC phase is formed is related to the asymmetry of a macromolecule
Figure 11 shows the boundary curves for the HPC-1-DMAA, HPC-3-DMAA, HPC-1-ethanol, HPC-2-ethanol, HPC-3-ethanol, HEC-1-water, and HEC-3-water systems. These curves separate transparent isotropic solutions (I) from opalescent anisotropic solutions (II) (ω2 is the mass fraction of the polymer). It is shown that a rise in polymer molecular mass leads to a shift of the boundary curve to the region of lower concentrations. It should be noted that the Flory’ theory does not consider influence of the chemical structure of polymer and solvent molecules on phase LC transitions.
Boundary curves of (1) HEC-4 (
Figure 12 illustrates the data on phase transitions for the HPC-1-DMF and EC-1-DMF systems [52]. It is seen that the boundary curve of the EC-1-DMF system is in the region of lower concentrations than the boundary curve of the HPC-1-DMF system. Replacing the branched hydroxylpropyl radical with the ethyl radical enhances interaction between the units of neighboring macromolecules of the EC polymer, thereby facilitating formation of the LC phase. A lower polarity of EC-1 molecules worsens interaction with the polar DMF solvent.
Boundary curves of (1) EC-1(
Figure 13 shows the boundary curves of the EC-1-ethanol, EC-1-DMF, HPC-ethanol, and HPC-2-DMSO systems. It is shown, that, as for DMF solutions in Figure 12, in the case of ethanol solutions, the replacement of the hydroxypropyl radical with the ethyl radical in cellulose ether units causes a decrease in the concentration of formation of the LC phase.
Boundary curves of (1) EC-1(
A similar dependence is shown for the EC-1-DMF and HPC-2-DMSO systems. The boundary curves for the HPC-ethanol, HPC-DMAA, and HPC-DMSO systems change with temperature (Figures 11–13). At high temperatures the thermal motion of the molecules can disturb the liquid-crystalline order. Consequently, a high concentration of the polymer is required to retain the liquid-crystalline order. The boundary curves of the HEC-water (Figure 11), EC-DMF, and EC-ethanol systems (Figure 13) do not depend on temperature and are located in the region of lower concentrations. It is caused by a strong interchain interaction and a higher packing density of these macromolecules. The linear ethyl and hydroxyethyl radicals in the units of neighboring macromolecules can produce a denser packing with each other than the branched propyl radicals of HPC [53, 54]. The IR study of cellulose ether films showed [55] the formation of intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds with different strengths. It was shown that HEC is a more associated polymer than CEC and CEHEC. CEC is a less associated compound. CEHEC occupies the intermediate position. Methyl cellulose is also associated but to a lesser extent. As a result, large supramolecular particles are formed in EC and HEC solutions, which do not decompose under heating (Table 3).
Cellulose ether | Molecular mass | Degree of substitution, α |
---|---|---|
HPC-1 | 3.0 | |
HPC-2 | 3.3 | |
HPC-3 | 3.0 | |
HPC-4 | 3.0 | |
CEC | 2.6 | |
HEC-1 | 2.5 | |
HEC-2 | 2.5 | |
HEC-3 | 2.5 | |
HEC-4 | 2.5 | |
EC-1 | 2.6 | |
EC-2 | 1.5 | |
CENC | [η] = 2.79 dL/g (DMAA, | 0.19 |
MC | 2.0 | |
CEHEC | 2.0 |
Characteristics of research objects.
System (ω2 = 0.05) | ( | |
---|---|---|
CEC-DMAA | 110 | 60 |
CEC-DMF | 300 | 60 |
HPC-1-ethanol | 320 | 64 |
HPC-1-water | 180 | 64 |
HEC-1-water | 1780 | 45 |
HEC-1-DMF | 2480 | 45 |
HEC-2-DMF | 1600 | 51 |
HEC-2-DMAA | 1800 | 51 |
EC-2-DMAA | 580 | 80 |
Diameters
The value of
Figure 14 shows the boundary curves of the CENC-DMAA, CENC-DMF, CEC-DMF, and CEC-DMAA systems. It is shown that, in the CENC solutions, the LC order appears at a lower concentration of the polymer. The introduction of a nitro group into CEC chain units increases the rigidity of chains; so the degree of asymmetry of macromolecules grows and the LC phase is formed at lower concentrations of the polymer.
Boundary curves of (1) CENC-DMAA, (2) CENC-DMF, (3) CEC (
The boundary curves for the aqueous solutions of HPC-1 and HEC-1 are given in Figure 15.
Boundary curves of (1–3) HPC-1(
Obviously that the replacement of the hydroxypropyl radical with the hydroxyethyl one causes a substantial change in the phase diagram: first, the LC phase in HEC solutions is formed at lower concentrations. This is caused by the linear character and a smaller size of the hydroxyethyl radical compared with the hydroxypropyl one. So, interchain interaction is enhanced. Secondly, the LCST is absent in the HEC solutions. HPC contains 10–15% of the crystalline phase and 90–85% of the vitrified cholesteric LC phase [56, 57]. The degree of crystallinity of HEC is almost zero. Structural changes during dissolution of HPC in water may be caused by the melting of crystalline domains and relaxation of the metastable glass-like structure. For HEC, only relaxation of the metastable glass-like structure can be observed. The interactions of HPC with water are determined both by the salvation of macromolecules by water owing to the formation of hydrogen bonds [58] and the “hydrophobic hydration” of water itself [59]. The latter process includes the compaction of water structure during penetration of nonpolar molecules or their fragments into voids in its structure. Methyl and methylene groups of HPC are nonpolar fragments. Therefore, intermolecular distances in water decrease, the interaction between its molecules becomes stronger, the exothermic effect of dissolution grows, and the entropy of mixing decreases [60]. The interactions of both types contribute to the negative enthalpy and entropy of mixing of HPC with water. Phase separation of the HPC-water system during heating may be caused by the melting of the densified water structure around hydrophobic fragments of the polymer [61]. The interactions of HEC with water can also be determined both by the solvation of macromolecules by water and by the “hydrophobic hydration” of water itself. However, since there are no methyl groups in HEC molecules to a lesser extent the LCST is absent for this system.
Figure 16 shows the boundary curves of the HEC-2-DMAA, EC-DMAA, and HPC-1-DMAA systems.
Boundary curves of (1) HEC-2 (
The solutions of HEC, EC, and HPC in DMAA follow the same shift in the boundary curves as water and ethanol solutions because of the reasons described above. The replacement of the hydroxyethyl radical in HEC with the ethyl radical in EC causes the weakening of interaction owing to a decrease in the possible formation of hydrogen bonds and, as a result, owing to a rise in concentration of LC phase formation. Note that the boundary curves for the solutions of HEC and EC are in the region of lower concentrations than the solutions of HPC. This is connected with the presence of bulky branched hydroxypropyl radicals in molecules. The boundary curves for the HEC-1-DMF, CENC-DMF, CE-DMF, and HPC-1-DMF systems are presented in Figure 17. For the solutions of these polymers in DMF, the same regularities as for the solutions in DMAA are observed.
Boundary curves of (
Figures 18–20 show the boundary curves for HPC and CEC solutions. The position of the boundary curves on the composition significantly depends on the solvent nature. The better the solvent, to a lesser degree it deteriorates the initial structure of the polymer. Therefore, the LC phase in solution will form at a higher polymer concentration. A more polar solvent should be better for polar cellulose ethers.
Boundary curves of (1) HPC-1 (
Boundary curves of (1) HPC-2 (
Boundary curves of (1) CEC (
Table 4 compares the second virial coefficients and dipole moments of solvent molecules. An increase in the polarity of solvent molecules entails a rise in second virial coefficients, suggesting the improvement of thermodynamic interaction of the components.
Solvent | Dipole moment, D | |
---|---|---|
DMAA | 7.5 | 3.86 |
Water | 3.1 | 1.68 |
Formamide | 8.4 | 3.7 |
Second virial coefficients and dipole moments of solvent molecules for cellulose acetate solutions [62].
Here and in Figures 19 and 20, I refers to the region of isotropic solutions, and II refers to the region of anisotropic solutions.
Figure 13 shows that the boundary curve of the HPC-2-ethanol system is in the region of lower concentrations than the curve of the HPC-2-DMSO system. This may be caused by different polarities of solvent molecules. The dipole moment of ethanol molecules μ = 1.69 D [63] is lower than the dipole moment of DMSO μ = 3.96 D [63]. A more polar solvent DMSO destroys the initial structure of the polar polymer to a greater extent; therefore the sizes of supramolecular particles decrease and a higher concentration of polymer is needed for formation of the LC order in solutions. A similar behavior is observed for the EC solutions. The dipole moment of DMF molecules μ = 3.81 D [63] is higher than the dipole moment of ethanol molecules μ = 1.69 D, and the LC state forms in the EC -DMF system at a higher polymer concentration. Table 5 compares the thermodynamic parameters of interaction for the cellulose ether-solvent systems and the physical properties of the solvents [60, 63].
Polymer | Solvent | ||
---|---|---|---|
MC | Chloroform | 1.06 | 1400 |
H2O | 1.83 | 1350 | |
Ethanol | 1.69 | 1200 | |
CEC | Chloroform | 1.06 | 1400 |
H2O | 1.83 | 1250 | |
Acetone | 2.85 | 1400 | |
Ethanol | 1.68 | 900 | |
CEHEC | Chloroform | 1.06 | 1400 |
TFAA | 2.28 | 4250 | |
H2O | 1.83 | 1150 | |
Dioxane | 0.45 | 1250 | |
Acetone | 2.85 | 1700 | |
HEC | Chloroform | 1.06 | 1300 |
H2O | 1.83 | 1700 | |
Ethanol | 1.68 | 1050 | |
Dioxane | 0.45 | 300 |
Dipole moments and minimum Gibbs energies of mixing of cellulose ethers with low-molecular-mass liquids.
The dissolving capacity of water is due to the possibility to form hydrogen bonds between its molecules and molecules of polymers. For HEC containing the maximal amount of hydroxyl groups, water is the best solvent.
The good interaction with chloroform and water is characteristic of MC, the least associated polymer with a small nonpolar substituent and unsubstituted hydroxyl groups. CEC and CEHEC containing polar nitrile groups with donor properties [64] have a high affinity for chloroform and a low affinity for water despite the presence of unsubstituted hydroxyl groups. Owing to a high packing density and, as a result, strong interchain interaction, CEC does not dissolve but only limitedly swells in water. This may suggest an insignificant role of hydrogen bonds in dissolving cyanoethylated ethers. This assumption is confirmed by a low affinity of CEC for ethanol. Dioxane being the electron donor for polymer molecules [64] capable of H bonding has a low thermodynamic affinity for HEC and CEHEC.
With some exceptions, the higher the dipole moment of solvent molecules, the more negative the Gibbs energy of mixing, i.e., the better the solubility of the cellulose ethers. Thus, in a first approximation, the dipole moment can be used as an estimate of solvent quality for cellulose ethers.
An important specific task to be solved within the priority direction of science and technology—industry of nanоsystems and materials—as well as in critical technology—nanotechnologies and nanomaterials—is the study of the process of self-assembly of supramolecular systems. Such systems include the solutions of rigid chain polymers, the molecules of which exhibit an ability for self-organization leading to the formation of liquid crystalline phases. Informative methods employed for the research of solution structures are the optical methods: the method of Rayleigh light scattering, the method of dynamic light scattering, the method of measurement of optical density (turbidimetry). The chapter presents the results of the examination of solution structure using the turbidity spectrum method, which makes it possible to determine the size of supramolecular particles in solutions in a wide composition range. The method was introduced by Heller et al. [65, 66, 67] and further developed by Klenin et al. [68]. According to this method, the typical dependence of logarithm of optical density
Figure 21 shows the concentration dependencies of optical density
Concentration dependencies of the optical density for HEC-2-DMF (1) and HEC-1-DMF (2) systems: (I) isotropic solutions, (II) anisotropic solutions.
The concentration dependencies of the calculated average weighted radii of supramolecular particles at 298 K are given in Figure 22. The similar dependences were obtained for the HEC-1-water, HEC-3-water (2), HPC-water HEC-1-DMF, HEC-2-DMF, HEC-2-DMA, and EC-DMAc systems.
Concentration dependencies of the sizes of light scattering particles for the systems: CEC-DMF (1), CEC-DMAc (2), HPC-1-ethanol (3). (1′, 2′, 3′) the phase boundaries [
According to Table 3 and Figure 22 for the systems: CEC-DMAc, CEC-DMF, HPC-ethanol, HPC-1-water, HEC-3-water at polymer concentration of up to ω2 ≈ 0.05, the diameters of light scattering particles do not exceed 320 nm, for the EC-DMAA system, they are of 580 nm and for the HEC-1-water, HEC-1-DMF, HEC-2-DMF, and HEC-2-DMAc systems, they vary from 1600 to 2500 nm. The calculated values (
The sharpest increase of particle sizes is observed in the LC phase. It should be noted that for all studied systems, the rw = f(ω2) curves exhibit a horizontal section in a certain concentration range indicating the constant size of supramolecular particles. The obtained data made it possible to suggest the following mechanism of self-assembly of cellulose ester macromolecules preceding LC transition. In diluted solutions there exist associates, including several macromolecules. Within the concentration range up to ω2 ≈ 0.05, supramolecular particles of a stable-sized “packet” are formed. The term “packet” has been used in physics for a long time. For example, the wave packet is a certain summation of waves limited spatially and by time. Thus, in quantum mechanics, the description of a particle as a wave packet contributed to the acceptance of statistic interpretation of the square of absolute value of wave function.
Here the term “packet” means a stable supramolecular particle with essentially stable dimensions, which is a nuclei of the new LC phase. These supramolecular particles contain both polymers and conjugated solvents. As is shown in Figure 22, in the region of moderately concentrated solutions, the “packet” dimensions remain virtually unchanged within a certain concentration range, depending on the system. As the concentration of polymer in solutions further increases, the number of packets also increases while their size does not change. The transition of the system to a fully LC state is induced by the aggregation of packets with the formation of large particles thousands of nanometers in size. It is obvious that these large particles include a great number of macromolecules.
To study the influence of magnetic field on the size of supramolecular particles, a cell with the polymer solution was placed in a gap between the electromagnet poles and kept at a field intensity of 9 kOe for 50 min. The optical density was measured within 5–10 min after the magnetic field was turned off.
It was shown that the EC-DMAc, HEC-1-DMF, and HEC-1-water systems exhibit an increase in optical density after magnetic-field treatment. The increase in the optical density of solutions is indicative of the occurrence of an additional association of macromolecules because they are oriented by their axes concerning lines of magnetic field.
It was revealed that the magnetic field leads to the increase in the radii of light-scattering particles in solutions. The concentration dependences of the sizes of supramolecular particles for the EC-DMAc, HEC-1-DMF, and HEC-1-water systems are presented in Figures 23–25.
Concentration dependence of radii of light-scattering particles in the EC-DMAc system: (1) before and (2) after magnetic-field treatment. H = 9 kOe [
Concentration dependencies of radii of light-scattering particles in the HEC-1-DMF system: (1) before and (2) after magnetic-field treatment. H = 9 kOe [
Concentration dependencies of radii of light-scattering particles in the HEC-1-water system: (1) before and (2) after magnetic-field treatment. H = 9 kOe [
Experiments in the magnetic field were performed using a setup generating a constant magnetic field with a strength up 15 kOe [12]. A sealed ampoule with a polymer solution, which was transparent at elevated temperatures, was placed into a gap between magnet poles. The vector of the magnetic field strength was directed normal to the solution layer (∼5-mm thick). The solution was cooled using a thermostating jacket, and the onset temperature of opalescence development was recorded. This temperature
The phase diagrams were obtained under magnetic field for the systems: HPC-ethanol, HPC-DMAc, HPC-water, CEC-DMAc, CEC-DMF, PBG-DMF. The LC solutions of the cellulose esters exhibited the increase in the temperature of phase LC transition in the magnetic field and the preservation of the increased temperature for many hours after the magnetic field was switched off. This means that the cellulose ether-solvent systems are the “systems with memory.” Figures 26–28 show the results of the experiments [12].
Time dependence of
Time dependencies of
Time dependence of
It is observed that the magnetic field increases the temperature of LC phase transition. On the basis of the data from other studies, it seems to be induced by the change in the liquid crystalline type, in particular, by the LC cholesteric → LC nematic phase transition.
Figures 26–28 show that in the course of the time, the phase LC transition temperature increased by the magnetic field goes back down to the initial value (prior to the exposure to magnetic field). This means that the thermal motion destroys the field-induced orientation of macromolecules. The higher the temperature of thermostatic control of the solutions, the more intensive the thermal movement and the faster the recovery of the initial structure of solutions.
The boundary curves of the cellulose ether-solvent systems in the magnetic field are presented in Figures 29–32 [12] (I is the region of isotropic solutions, II is the region of anisotropic solutions).
Boundary curves of HPC-1-ethanol.
Boundary curves of CEC-DMF system.
Boundary curves of CEC-DMAс system.
Boundary curves of HPC-1-water.
Figures 29–32 show that the magnetic field leads to the boundary curve shift to the region of the higher temperatures. Thus, the anisotropic (II) region extends and isotropic region (I) gets narrow, and in the case of the HPC-1-water system, the region of amorphous phase separation becomes narrow. The observed effects are related to the change in macromolecule orientation under a magnetic field.
The shift of the boundary curves of the studied systems depends on the intensity of the magnetic field and polymer concentration, as discussed below.
Figure 33 shows the diagrams of Δ
Dependence Δ
The similar behavior is observed for all given systems (except for the HPC-1-water system): the greater the intensity of the magnetic field, the more the macromolecule orientation and the higher the temperature of the LC phase transition. For the HPC-1-water system, the inverse dependence is observed: the higher the value of
The effect of the polymer concentration on magnetic-field-induced changes in phase transition temperatures is due to two factors: (1) as concentration increases, the number of macromolecules capable of orientation in the magnetic field grows; as a consequence, the temperature of the phase LC transition should increase; (2) polymer concentration growth leads to the increase in viscosity and in the interchain interaction that hampers the development of the orientation processes and weakens the impact of the magnetic field. In general, the dependence of ∆
It should be noted that for the solutions of the lower-molecular-weight sample HPC, the value of ∆Т is significantly larger. This proves the better orientation of smaller molecules in the magnetic field, which coincides with the results of the other studies (Figure 34) [12].
Concentration dependence of Δ
The solutions of cellulose derivatives exhibit the formation of the cholesteric liquid crystals [1]. The exposure of solutions in magnetic field induces the transition of the cholesteric liquid crystal to the forced nematic liquid crystal. And such transition has a threshold character with the critical intensity of the magnetic field
System | −χ·107 |
---|---|
HPC-1 | 18.1 |
HPC-1-DMAc (ω2 = 0.5) | 6.9 |
HPC-1-water (ω2 = 0.5) | 3.4 |
HPC-1-СН3СООН (ω2 = 0.3) | 71.3 |
CEC | 5.3 |
CEC-DMAc (ω2 = 0.5) | 6.7 |
Magnetic susceptibility of the systems.
All calculated values of χ are negative. Therefore, the studied systems show the diamagnetic properties that agree with their chemical structure. The value of
Plot of Δ
Plot of Δ
Figure 35 explicitly shows that the smaller the HPC molecules, the better they are oriented in the magnetic field and the higher the Δ
System | ||
---|---|---|
HPC-DMAc | 0.34 | 2.2 |
CEC-DMAc | 0.28 | 2.0 |
Calculated values for
The classification of liquid crystals is considered. The phase diagrams of the polymer-solvent systems with liquid crystalline phase separation are described. It has been shown that, as the molecular mass of cellulose ether increases, the boundary curve separating the isotropic region from the anisotropic one on the phase diagram shifts to the region of higher temperatures and lower concentrations of the polymer. The replacement of the hydroxypropyl radical in cellulose ether units with ethyl or hydroxyethyl radicals leads to a decrease in the concentration of LC phase formation. The introduction of nitro groups into the units of CEC chains increases the rigidity of chains; therefore the degree of asymmetry of macromolecules grows and the LC phase is formed at lower concentrations of the polymer. The higher the polarity of solvent molecules, the more negative the Gibbs energy of mixing and the higher the second virial coefficients, that is, the better the interaction between the components. Thus, in a first approximation, the dipole moment can be used as an estimate of solvent quality for cellulose ethers. The rigid macromolecules orient easily in the external fields. This results in: the type of liquid crystal changes from the cholesteric to the nematic one; the domain structure is formed in the solutions; the concentration dependency of Δ
The processes of self-assembly of nanomolecules are most intensive in the solutions of rigid-chain polymers. This process has a “packet” mechanism. In diluted solutions there exist isolated macromolecules, which, within the concentrations of 2–5% (depending on the polymer molecular weight), form supramolecular particles: “packets,” which remain stable (do not change dimensions) in a sufficiently wide range (from 10 to 30%). With a further increase in the polymer concentration, the number of packets (nuclei of the new LC-phase) increases while their sizes are conserved. The system transition to the fully LC state is caused by the aggregation of packets and the formation of large particles.
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\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
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\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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