Parameters of fuel ethanol in comparison with petrol [6].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6047",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Perspectives in Breast Imaging",title:"Breast Imaging",subtitle:"New Perspectives in",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book watches out for the issues on making moves for chest radiology in carcinoma of the chest. It focuses on all parts of radiological approaches to manage the breast illness, be it light (optical), sound (ultrasound), interest, microwave, electrical impedance, blend of these modalities, and a section of the incredibly intense issues on computer-aided detection. The dedication of the eminent analysts in this book has incorporated a lot of energy for the people who are adequately drawn in with the clinical organization of this ailment and also for the students of radiology and surgery alike. This book will definitely be appreciated and well taken by the surgeons, radiologists, and other professionals involved in this field. The contributions are excellent in terms of diagnostic approach by radiological means and would certainly be a step forward in making it possible to reach to a conclusive diagnosis of breast cancer much before it becomes inoperable. The chapters included will further our knowledge and to the best of my belief will make things easier and definable in terms of diagnosis of breast cancer.",isbn:"978-953-51-3558-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3557-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4631-5",doi:"10.5772/67606",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-perspectives-in-breast-imaging",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2b3268435a9bd92c63ad53721f0c0262",bookSignature:"Arshad M. Malik",publishedDate:"October 4th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6047.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13907,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:42,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:85,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 31st 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 17th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 18th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 18th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"63407",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"arshad-malik",fullName:"Arshad Malik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63407/images/system/63407.jpeg",biography:'Dr. Arshad Malik completed his fellowship in 1997 and has worked in different positions. Presently, he is working as a professor of surgery at the Karachi Institute of Medical Sciences. He is the author of 48 publications, with 5 chapters in different books, and editor of 5 books. His chapter on "Early Appendicectomy in Appendicular Mass" has been downloaded 30,000 times throughout the world. He has also presented scientific papers at podium presentations of different high-ranked clinical meetings in more than 20 countries.',institutionString:"Qassim University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Qassim University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1008",title:"Radiology Diagnosis",slug:"radiology-diagnosis"}],chapters:[{id:"55957",title:"A Case of an Invasive Lobular Carcinoma with Extracellular Mucin: Radio-Pathological Correlation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69389",slug:"a-case-of-an-invasive-lobular-carcinoma-with-extracellular-mucin-radio-pathological-correlation",totalDownloads:1456,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A case of 77-year-old female with an invasive lobular carcinoma with extracellular mucin is presented. She felt palpable mass in her left breast. Then, she came to our hospital for further examination. Mammography of right in full view revealed architectural distortion in left upper portion. And ultrasonography demonstrated low-echoic mass about 2 cm in diameter and invasion of the fat tissue was observed. Hence, malignancy was suspected and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed. MRI findings showed irregular shaped and margined mass with small T2-high-signal intensity. These findings suggested invasive carcinoma with mucin. Because the cancer lesion was not large, partial mastectomy was performed. Interestingly, pathological diagnosis was invasive lobular carcinoma with extracellular mucin. Extracellular mucinous lesion was concordant with small T2-high-signal intensity. This type of carcinoma was previously reported only in three cases, and rare but important, because the treatment and prognosis might change by histological subtypes. We suggest one of the MRI special features of our case is not only irregular shaped and margined mass but also small T2-high-signal intensity. These MR findings might be one of the valuable findings for the diagnosis and differentiation between this type of carcinoma from other tumors.",signatures:"Shinya Tajima, Keiko Kishimoto, Yoshihide Kanemaki, Ichiro Maeda,\nAkira Endo, Motohiro Chosokabe, Takafumi Ono, Koichiro Tsugawa\nand Masayuki Takagi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55957",authors:[{id:"85421",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",surname:"Tajima",slug:"shinya-tajima",fullName:"Shinya Tajima"},{id:"381024",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiko",surname:"Kishimoto",slug:"keiko-kishimoto",fullName:"Keiko Kishimoto"},{id:"381025",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihide",surname:"Kanemaki",slug:"yoshihide-kanemaki",fullName:"Yoshihide Kanemaki"},{id:"381026",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichiro",surname:"Maeda",slug:"ichiro-maeda",fullName:"Ichiro Maeda"},{id:"381027",title:"Dr.",name:"Akira",surname:"Endo",slug:"akira-endo",fullName:"Akira Endo"},{id:"381028",title:"Dr.",name:"Motohiro",surname:"Chosokabe",slug:"motohiro-chosokabe",fullName:"Motohiro Chosokabe"},{id:"381029",title:"Dr.",name:"Takafumi",surname:"Ono",slug:"takafumi-ono",fullName:"Takafumi Ono"},{id:"381030",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichiro",surname:"Tsugawa",slug:"koichiro-tsugawa",fullName:"Koichiro Tsugawa"},{id:"381031",title:"Dr.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Takagi",slug:"masayuki-takagi",fullName:"Masayuki Takagi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56220",title:"Near-Field Radar Microwave Imaging as an Add-on Modality to Mammography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69726",slug:"near-field-radar-microwave-imaging-as-an-add-on-modality-to-mammography",totalDownloads:1815,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"According to global statistics, there is a high incidence of cancer in western countries; and, due to the limited resources available in most health care systems, it seems like one of the most feasible options to fight against cancer might be strict prevention policies—such as eliminating carcinogens in people’s daily lives. Nevertheless, early cancer detection and effective treatment are still necessary, and understanding their efficacy and limitations are important issues that need to be addressed in order to ultimately enhance patients’ survival rate. In the case of breast cancer, some of the problems faced by conventional mammography have been addressed in the literature; they include high rate of false-positive and false-negative results, as well as the possibility of overdiagnosis. New technologies, such as digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT), have been able to improve the sensitivity and specificity by using 3D imaging. However, the low contrast (1%) existing between tumors and healthy fibroglandular tissue at X-ray frequencies has been identified as one of the main causes of misdiagnosis in both conventional 2D mammography and DBT. Near-field radar imaging (NRI) provides a unique opportunity to overcome this problem, since the contrast existing between the aforementioned tissues is intrinsically higher (10%) at microwave frequencies. Moreover, the low resolution and highly complex scattering patterns of microwave systems can be enhanced by using prior information from other modalities, such as the DBT. Therefore, a multimodal DBT/NRI imaging system is proposed to exploit their individual strengths while minimizing their weaknesses. In this work, the foundation of this idea is reviewed, and a preliminary design and experimental validation of the NRI system, used as a DBT complement, is introduced.",signatures:"Ashkan Ghanbarzadeh Dagheyan, Ali Molaei, Richard Obermeier,\nAida K. Martinez and Jose Martinez Lorenzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56220",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56220",authors:[{id:"196074",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ali",surname:"Molaei",slug:"ali-molaei",fullName:"Ali Molaei"},{id:"202140",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ashkan",surname:"Ghanbarzadeh Dagheyan",slug:"ashkan-ghanbarzadeh-dagheyan",fullName:"Ashkan Ghanbarzadeh Dagheyan"},{id:"205828",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Angel",surname:"Martinez Lorenzo",slug:"jose-angel-martinez-lorenzo",fullName:"Jose Angel Martinez Lorenzo"},{id:"381698",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Obermeier",slug:"richard-obermeier",fullName:"Richard Obermeier"},{id:"381699",title:"Dr.",name:"Aida K.",surname:"Martinez",slug:"aida-k.-martinez",fullName:"Aida K. Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"55898",title:"Microwave Imaging for Early Breast Cancer Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69562",slug:"microwave-imaging-for-early-breast-cancer-detection",totalDownloads:2530,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"We overview the research trend on microwave imaging for early breast cancer detection. The technologies have two categories: ultra-wide band (UWB) radar that reconstructs the scattering power distribution in the breast and inverse scattering problem that reconstructs the dielectric properties distribution. We have developed a clinical equipment using UWB radar and carried out clinical test 4 years ago. Through the experiments, we concluded that the UWB radar was insufficient for the clinical equipment, because the UWB radar cannot discriminate cancerous tumor and other lesions. Therefore, we have been studying inverse scattering. It is a challenging task to develop an equipment using inverse scattering technologies. We have proposed a microwave mammography that has four features: (1) sensor with breast fixing by absorption, (2) small sensor with multipolarization, (3) image reconstruction program linking the commercial EM simulator, and (4) hybrid imaging method using UWB radar and inverse scattering.",signatures:"Yoshihiko Kuwahara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55898",authors:[{id:"4682",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshihiko",surname:"Kuwahara",slug:"yoshihiko-kuwahara",fullName:"Yoshihiko Kuwahara"}],corrections:null},{id:"55605",title:"Microwave Breast Imaging Techniques and Measurement Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69199",slug:"microwave-breast-imaging-techniques-and-measurement-systems",totalDownloads:1751,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electromagnetic waves at microwave frequencies allow penetration into many optically non-transparent mediums such as biological tissues. Over the past 30 years, researchers have extensively investigated microwave imaging (MI) approaches including imaging algorithms, measurement systems and applications in biomedical fields, such as breast tumor detection, brain stroke detection, heart imaging and bone imaging. Successful clinical trials of MI for breast imaging brought worldwide excitation, and this achievement further confirmed that the MI has potential to become a low-risk and cost-effective alternative to existing medical imaging tools such as X-ray mammography for early breast cancer detection. This chapter offers comprehensive descriptions of the most important MI approaches for early breast cancer detection, including reconstruction procedures and measurement systems as well as apparatus.",signatures:"Lulu Wang, Hu Peng and Jianhua Ma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55605",authors:[{id:"206537",title:"Prof.",name:"Hu",surname:"Peng",slug:"hu-peng",fullName:"Hu Peng"},{id:"206538",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianhua",surname:"Ma",slug:"jianhua-ma",fullName:"Jianhua Ma"},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"56218",title:"Advances in Breast Thermography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69198",slug:"advances-in-breast-thermography",totalDownloads:1626,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Thermography‐based breast cancer screening has several advantages as it is non-contact, non-invasive and safe. Many clinical trials have shown its effectiveness to detect cancer earlier than any other modality. Historically, thermography has only been used as an adjunct modality due to the high expertise required for manual interpretation of the thermal images and high false‐positive rates otherwise found in general use. Recent developments in thermal sensors, image capture protocols and computer‐aided software diagnostics are showing great promise in making this modality a mainstream cancer screening method. This chapter describes some of these advances in breast thermography and computer‐aided diagnostics that are poised to improve the quality of cancer care.",signatures:"Siva Teja Kakileti, Geetha Manjunath, Himanshu Madhu and\nHadonahalli Venkataramanappa Ramprakash",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56218",authors:[{id:"205829",title:"Dr.",name:"Geetha",surname:"Manjunath",slug:"geetha-manjunath",fullName:"Geetha Manjunath"},{id:"207615",title:"Mr.",name:"Siva Teja",surname:"Kakileti",slug:"siva-teja-kakileti",fullName:"Siva Teja Kakileti"},{id:"207616",title:"Mr.",name:"Himanshu",surname:"Madhu",slug:"himanshu-madhu",fullName:"Himanshu Madhu"},{id:"207617",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramprakash",surname:"Hv",slug:"ramprakash-hv",fullName:"Ramprakash Hv"}],corrections:null},{id:"56090",title:"Incorporating Breast Asymmetry Studies into CADx Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69526",slug:"incorporating-breast-asymmetry-studies-into-cadx-systems",totalDownloads:1109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is one of the global leading causes of death among women, and an early detection is of uttermost importance to reduce mortality rates. Screening mammograms, in which radiologists rely only on their eyesight, are one of the most used early detection methods. However, characteristics, such as the asymmetry between breasts, a feature that could be very difficult to visually quantize, is key to breast cancer detection. Due to the highly heterogeneous and deformable structure of the breast itself, incorporating asymmetry measurements into an automated detection system is still a challenge. In this study, we proposed the use of a bilateral registration algorithm as an effective way to automatically measure mirror asymmetry. Furthermore, this information was fed to a machine learning algorithm to improve the accuracy of the model. In this study, 449 subjects (197 with calcifications, 207 with masses, and 45 healthy subjects) from a public database were used to train and evaluate the proposed methodology. Using this procedure, we were able to independently identify subjects with calcifications (accuracy = 0.825, AUC = 0.882) and masses (accuracy = 0.698, AUC = 0.807) from healthy subjects.",signatures:"José María Celaya Padilla, Cesar Humberto Guzmán Valdivia, Jorge\nIssac Galván Tejada, Carlos Eric Galván Tejada, Hamurabi Gamboa\nRosales, Juan Rubén Delgado Contreras, Antonio Martinez-Torteya,\nRoberto Olivera Reyna, Jorge Roberto Manjarrez Sánchez, Francisco\nJavier Martinez Ruiz, Idalia Garza-Veloz, Margarita L. Martinez-\nFierro, Victor Treviño and Jose Gerardo Tamez-Peña",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56090",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56090",authors:[{id:"77859",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Trevino",slug:"victor-trevino",fullName:"Victor Trevino"},{id:"189187",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",surname:"Celaya-Padilla",slug:"jose-maria-celaya-padilla",fullName:"Jose Maria Celaya-Padilla"},{id:"201427",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Issac",surname:"Galvan-Tejada",slug:"jorge-issac-galvan-tejada",fullName:"Jorge Issac Galvan-Tejada"},{id:"201428",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eric",surname:"Galvan-Tejada",slug:"carlos-eric-galvan-tejada",fullName:"Carlos Eric Galvan-Tejada"},{id:"201430",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar Humberto",surname:"Guzman-Valdivia",slug:"cesar-humberto-guzman-valdivia",fullName:"Cesar Humberto Guzman-Valdivia"},{id:"201431",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamurabi",surname:"Gamboa Rosales",slug:"hamurabi-gamboa-rosales",fullName:"Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales"},{id:"201432",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Ruben",surname:"Delgado-Contreras",slug:"juan-ruben-delgado-contreras",fullName:"Juan Ruben Delgado-Contreras"},{id:"207154",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Gerardo",surname:"Tamez-Peña",slug:"jose-gerardo-tamez-pena",fullName:"Jose Gerardo Tamez-Peña"},{id:"211714",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Martinez-Torteya",slug:"antonio-martinez-torteya",fullName:"Antonio Martinez-Torteya"},{id:"211741",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Olivera Reyna",slug:"roberto-olivera-reyna",fullName:"Roberto Olivera Reyna"},{id:"211742",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Roberto",surname:"Manjarrez Sánchez",slug:"jorge-roberto-manjarrez-sanchez",fullName:"Jorge Roberto Manjarrez Sánchez"},{id:"211743",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Martinez Ruiz",slug:"francisco-javier-martinez-ruiz",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martinez Ruiz"},{id:"211745",title:"Dr.",name:"Idalia",surname:"Garza-Veloz",slug:"idalia-garza-veloz",fullName:"Idalia Garza-Veloz"},{id:"211746",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita de la Luz",surname:"Martinez-Fierro",slug:"margarita-de-la-luz-martinez-fierro",fullName:"Margarita de la Luz Martinez-Fierro"}],corrections:null},{id:"55825",title:"Initial clinical evaluation of observer performance using a tablet computer with a 4K high-resolution display for detection of breast cancer by digital mammography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69074",slug:"initial-clinical-evaluation-of-observer-performance-using-a-tablet-computer-with-a-4k-high-resolutio",totalDownloads:1210,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Purpose:To compare observer performance using medical‐purpose 5‐megapixel liquid crystal display monitors (5‐MP LCDs) and a tablet PC with a 4K high‐resolution display for detection of breast cancer by digital mammography. Materials and methods: Mammograms from 40 patients with primary breast cancer (18 mass, 16 microcalcifications, 3 artificial distortions, and 3 focal asymmetries) and 60 control patients were consecutively collected. Four experienced radiologists assessed 100 mammograms to rate using the BI‐RADS lexicon. The BI‐RADS assessments were subjected to receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Also, the observers assessed the image quality in terms of brightness, contrast, sharpness, and noise using 5‐step Likert scale. Results: The average under the curve (AUC) values for use of the 5‐MP LCDs and 4K monitors were 0.921 and 0.936; the difference between them was small and not significant. In terms of image quality, the 4K was rated better for brightness, contrast, and sharpness. Conclusion: Observer performance for detecting breast cancer on a 4K tablet PC with a high‐resolution display is similar to that using a 5‐MP LCD. This appears adequate for displaying mammograms of diagnostic quality and could be useful for patient consultations, clinical demonstrations, or educational and teaching purposes.",signatures:"Ryusuke Murakami, Nachiko Uchiyama, Hitomi Tani and Shinichiro\nKumita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55825",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55825",authors:[{id:"82546",title:"Dr.",name:"Nachiko",surname:"Uchiyama",slug:"nachiko-uchiyama",fullName:"Nachiko Uchiyama"},{id:"200712",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryusuke",surname:"Murakami",slug:"ryusuke-murakami",fullName:"Ryusuke Murakami"},{id:"201368",title:"Dr.",name:"Hitomi",surname:"Tani",slug:"hitomi-tani",fullName:"Hitomi Tani"},{id:"201369",title:"Prof.",name:"Shinichiro",surname:"Kumita",slug:"shinichiro-kumita",fullName:"Shinichiro Kumita"}],corrections:null},{id:"55910",title:"Diagnostic System in Electrical Impedance Mammography: Background",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69195",slug:"diagnostic-system-in-electrical-impedance-mammography-background",totalDownloads:1217,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electrical impedance mammography (EIM) belongs to nonlocal techniques of image creation. It is based on a number of data collection methods, including the cross-sectional approach, the back-projection method with the weight function applied horizontally and vertically, and the static image method. The analysis of data acquired by applying the above methods enabled to work out the EIM diagnostic system. It involves the following diagnostic categories: structural percentile limits and the mammary gland structure, age-related percentile limits and age-related electric conductivity, outlying values statistics and early diagnostics of breast cancer, D-statistics and distortion of the mammographic scheme in the presence of breast cancer, diagnostic table, and the assessment of the electrical impedance image.",signatures:"Alexander Karpov, Andrey Kolobanov and Marina Korotkova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55910",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55910",authors:[{id:"201936",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Karpov",slug:"alexander-karpov",fullName:"Alexander Karpov"},{id:"380898",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Kolobanov",slug:"andrey-kolobanov",fullName:"Andrey Kolobanov"},{id:"380899",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Korotkova",slug:"marina-korotkova",fullName:"Marina Korotkova"}],corrections:null},{id:"56836",title:"An Innovative Concept of 3D X-Ray Imaging Systems for Painless Breast Cancer Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70385",slug:"an-innovative-concept-of-3d-x-ray-imaging-systems-for-painless-breast-cancer-detection",totalDownloads:1197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is a life-threatening disease and considered one of the most common forms of cancer among women worldwide. Early and accurate detection with mass screening programmes helps improve a woman’s chances for successful treatment. The current and the most effective technique used for screening and diagnosis of breast cancer is the X-ray mammography. The photon transport detection of such technique is mostly based on a forward scattering mechanism as well as makes use of attenuation and penetration coefficients. The painful compression and the double X-ray exposure of both patients’ breasts carried out during the imaging process remain unavoidable. In addition, the conventional 2D mammography has two major limitations: sensitivity in detecting breast cancers (~ <80%) and the high recall rate (~10%). It suffers from certain limitations, most important of which is tissue overlap and false diagnoses arising thereof. To overcome this and as an alternative, a new 3D imaging method for breast cancer screening and diagnosis, namely, tomosynthesis, has recently been used. In such method, a limited number of low-dose 2D projection images of a patient are used to reconstruct the 3D tissue information. Tomosynthesis systems incorporate an X-ray source that moves over a certain angle to acquire images. This tube motion is a major limitation because it degrades image quality, increases the scan time and causes prolonged patient discomfort. Therefore, the goal of this work was to overcome all of the above limitations by developing an innovative proof of concept for painless 3D X-ray mammography to be hopefully used as a screening and as diagnostic methods for breast cancer detection by utilizing the scattered X-ray photon information. Most imaging modalities required a wide spectrum of capabilities, which span biomedical sciences, physical sciences and clinical medicine; thus, the ongoing methodology aims to establish a collaborative cross-disciplinary research engaging together with scientists in universities and clinicians in hospitals. Consequently, we hope that this work provides the potential to score some successes in clinical imaging science. In order to do this and since it is generally not possible or feasible to use real components to build and optimize a system repeatedly, a Monte Carlo simulation was used. The first phase focused on realistic computer simulation of the proposed imaging system to find the optimum setup as well as to aid in the analysis of the effect of various factors on the system performance. Thus, the main focus was on 3D mammography imaging simulation setup. Five main steps have been carefully checked and successfully produced: (a) the production of X-ray radiation or source after careful and detailed physics check. This includes the interaction between the X-ray photons and the object (the 3D breast phantom) that is used on scan as well as the detector system and its associated electronics modelled. (b) Next is the realistic modelling of anthropomorphic breast phantoms to check if the effectiveness of prediction of the simulation is successfully achieved. A computer simulation model is developed to estimate the radiation dose to the breast that would be incurred using mammography. 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However, much of the available data is clustered in a limited number of environments, full immersion environments in particular. The report of the National Research Council in the United States (US) [1] revealed that the limited number of environments for corrosion research has resulted in inability to create a meaningful national database of corrosion data useful to industry, government and academia. Aside from the issue of full immersion, atmospheric and alternate immersion aqueous environments, there are also completely different environments such as non-aqueous and high-temperature environments. Ethanol is an example of non-aqueous environments for which a better ability to predict its influence on various engineering materials is paramount due to its planned widespread use.
\nOne of the key drivers for the development of biofuels globally is the concern about universal climate change, which is mainly instigated by combustion of fossil fuels. Considerable scientific evidence abounds indicating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as the reason for accelerating global warming. Biofuels are not only renewable and viable energy sources but are toxic-free and so more environmentally friendly than conventional petroleum-based fuels [2, 3]. Biofuels are also biodegradable and therefore their inadvertent spillage is of no significant environmental hazard [2, 3, 4]. While biodiesel and PPO are appropriate for diesel engines, fuel ethanol can replace petrol [5, 6, 7]. The properties of fuel ethanol are shown in Table 1 and compared with the properties of fossil petrol.
\nFuel | \nDensity | \nViscosity | \nFlashpoint | \nCalorie value | \nCalorie value | \nOctane number | \nFuel equivalence | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
kg/L | \nmm2/s | \n°C | \nat 20°C MJ/kg | \nMJ/l | \nRON | \nl | \n|
Petrol | \n0.76 | \n0.6 | \n<21 | \n42.7 | \n32.45 | \n92 | \n1 | \n
Fuel ethanol | \n0.79 | \n1.5 | \n<21 | \n26.8 | \n21.17 | \n>100 | \n0.65 | \n
Parameters of fuel ethanol in comparison with petrol [6].
The anti-knocking property of the fuel is influenced by the octane number while its energy yield is about one third lower than petrol. Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH) is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid obtained from some energy crop that comprises high quantities of sugar or substance that can be converted into sugar like starch or cellulose from grains [6]. In the US the most common source is from corn and grain. In Brazil, it is sourced from sugarcane [8].
\nHowever, ethanol can also be produced naturally (fermented) from any carbohydrate source, such as wheat, cane, beet and fruits like grapes and apples [8]. While grain and synthetic alcohols are technically the same (the molecule is identical), there are differences in the amounts of contaminants (butanol, acetone, methanol, organic acids) in each. According to Paul and Kemnitz [9], for ethanol to be used as fuel, water must be removed. If fuel ethanol is vended with zero water content, it would be referred to as anhydrous ethanol. Typically, denatured alcohol holds about 1% water besides additional constituents. Fuel ethanol with <0.5% water is considered “anhydrous ethanol” [8]. Ethanol with higher water content is usually referred to as “hydrated ethanol”. Such hydrated ethanol is uncommon in the US but has been used as a fuel in Brazil.
\nDuring the past 8 years, a substantial testing effort on the structural integrity of metallic and non-metallic materials in fuel ethanol has been undertaken by various organizations. Though SCC has not been extensive, it has caused several failures in a number of user facilities. Various factors have been associated with ethanol SCC of carbon steels which include: conditions that promote crack initiation and growth, dissolved oxygen concentration levels, chloride concentration, corrosion potential, water content, and the chemical species of the ethanol itself.
\nThere have been a substantial number of notched slow-strain rate (N-SSR) tests conducted with the aim of studying stress corrosion crack initiation (SCCI) and propagation mechanisms in fuel ethanol [10]. It is worth noting that significant concerns currently exist regarding the SCC behavior of pipeline steels as well as terminal facilities used to handle fuel ethanol.
\nA corrosion failure such as stress corrosion cracking is an insidious form of corrosion which has far more adverse effects. Usually there is no prior warning before failure due to SCC. A 2004 survey of causes for failure in refining and petrochemical plants in Japan shows that a majority of the failures were due to corrosion, with the highest percentage due to SCC [11, 12]. The chart in Figure 1 shows percentages of failures by type of material of construction [11]. Stress-corrosion failures can affect public health as in pollution due to escaping product from corroded equipment or due to the corrosion product itself. Sudden failure could result into fire, explosion, release of toxic products and construction collapse [1, 12, 13].
\nComponent failure frequencies [
Commencing just about 2002, a number of ethanol storage tanks at blending terminals which have been used for a period of <2 years suffered leaks owing to SCC [14, 15]. Afterwards, more than 35 incidences of SCC failures in tanks, associated piping, and fittings have been discovered by an industry survey [14]. All failures so far have been in blending terminals, occurring in several regions in the United States. No SCC case has been reported by ethanol producers, transportation trucks, service stations and rail cars. Brazil has manufactured and distributed ethanol for quite a few years and has not likewise reported any SCC. Because of these failures, there was concern about the ability of pipelines to safely transport ethanol to and from blending terminals.
\nAs soon as fuel ethanol is produced at a manufacturer’s facility, it is held in storage tanks pending its release for distribution. Generally, manufacturers add the denaturant before or in the course of onsite storage. In addition, an inhibitor is added during storage or just preceding discharge of the shipment for supply. This may be one reason for SCC experience at some downstream facilities and no reported failures at manufacturer facilities. On entering the distribution system, fuel ethanol can be transported by numerous means, which include pipeline, barge, tanker truck and railroad tanker car [16].
\nThe duration that fuel ethanol spends in the sequence can fluctuate significantly from days to months, subject to several factors: the obtainability of intermediate distribution storage, the site of the manufacturing facility, the transportation mode used, and the location of gasoline blending terminals. Fuel ethanol is held in storage tanks as soon as it comes into a gasoline blending facility. Contingent on usage and traffic requirements, the residence period in these tanks also differs. In certain cases, it can be held for months in the course of a period of dormancy [16].
\nHowever, in certain instances, at gasoline blending facilities, the residence period in the storage tank is relatively short as incoming ethanol supplies and outgoing shipments of blended gasoline are a proximate frequent process. Nevertheless, observations of SCC have been restricted to the lot of the supply chain encompassing the intermediate liquids storage through the gasoline blending facility and possibly will be linked to circumstances that develop in the distribution system or variations that transpire in the fuel ethanol [16].
\nResearch carried out by the American Petroleum Institute (API) has shown that SCC of steel in fuel ethanol environment is a subject matter where awareness of the issue is growing dynamically as a result of documentation of experiences and research works in progress. Findings by API point out that documented catastrophes of ethanol process equipment dates back to no less than the early 1990s. Establishments undergoing what they contemplate as cases of SCC in fuel ethanol have been stimulated to confirm these issues through appraisal and documentation of service conditions, along with metallurgical examination of the failed or cracked components.
\nThe appearance of cracks caused by other cracking environments is similar to SCC cracks of steel in fuel ethanol. Instances of SCC in steel equipment exposed to fuel ethanol are presented inFigures 2–4. The cracks are characteristically branched and may possibly be transgranular, intergranular or mixed mode.
\nLocations of ethanol SCC near fillet welds used to make the branch connections to piping B [
Photograph of cracked steel elbow welded to the flange [
SCC failures showing (a) SCC in steel tank bottom, (b) SCC in steel air eliminator vessel, (c) leak in piping resulting from a crack adjacent to the weld, (d) multiple crack initiations and through-thickness propagation in piping [
Both transgranular and intergranular cracking may well occur in laboratory testing subject to the composition of ethanol. However, greater number of cracks documented from field failures display intergranular cracking. While analyzing a field catastrophe, intergranular cracking suggests ethanol SCC, but transgranular or mixed mode cracking might likewise be present [16].
\nInstances of SCC of steel components in fuel ethanol have been conveyed in the following kinds of equipment in gasoline blending facilities and fuel ethanol distribution:
Welds and adjacent metal in tank bottoms, detached roofs besides related seal components;
Fittings, facility rack piping, and accompanying equipment (for example, air eliminators);
Nozzle welds and vertical seam in lower tank shells situated off bottom;
Pipeline used to convey fuel ethanol from terminal to end user facility.
The blend of low cost and strength brands carbon steel as the principal material of construction for equipment used in the conveyance, handling and storage of fuel ethanol [16]. Generally, carbon steel is thought as compatible with fuel ethanol from the perspective of corrosion since its corrosion rates are characteristically low. On the other hand, the corrosion rate can occasionally escalate with agitation, the presence of contaminants, and the level of dissolved oxygen content of the ethanol. In the API program, the field corrosion rate measurements in fuel ethanol point out that the corrosion rates of carbon steel were typically very low.
\nInvestigation of the corrosion and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) mechanism of steel in fuel ethanol is still in the early stages and several countries are considering increasing biofuel production as an approach to secure future energy supplies and mitigate global warming. When these come to the market, the infrastructure will play a key role in ensuring safe, reliable, and efficient distribution of these fuels to the end users [14]. Pipeline is the most effective transportation method in meeting these requirements. Hence, there is dire need of evaluating and predicting the influence of fuel ethanol on various steel grades which can be used for such pipelines.
\nA most recent study [18], jointly funded by API and Renewable Fuels Association (RFA), using the slow strain rate test method (SSRT), found that SCC of steel can take place in fuel ethanol meeting the ASTM D4806 standard specification (see Table 2). From the study, the inhibitor, Octel DC1-11 was discovered to lower the corrosion rate of steel in ethanol but had no effect on SCC. In addition, the team found that in addition to water, the most important factor that caused SCC in fuel ethanol appeared to be dissolved oxygen. When dissolved oxygen was minimized through nitrogen purging, no SCC occurred in the presence of all other species at their maximum levels. But on introducing oxygen, the reverse occurred. Furthermore, corrosion potential was used to monitor the potential for SCC of steel exposed to ethanol. One short coming of the study was that the results obtained are limited to fuel ethanol of ASTM D4806 standard and the study of the effect of stress level on SCC was left out. Hence, parameters for estimating risk of SCC from known defects in the studied environment were not obtained.
\nProperty | \nUnits | \nSpecification | \nASTM designation | \n
---|---|---|---|
Ethanol | \n%v min | \n92.1 | \nD5501 | \n
Methanol | \n%v max | \n0.5 | \n— | \n
Solvent-washed gum | \nmg/100 ml max | \n5 | \nD381 | \n
Water content | \n%v max | \n1 | \nE203 | \n
Denaturant content | \n%v min, %v max | \n1.96, 5.00 | \nD4806 | \n
Inorganic chloride | \nppm (mg/l) max | \n40 (32) | \nE512 | \n
Copper content | \nMg/kg max | \n0.1 | \nD1688 | \n
Acidity as acetic acid | \n%m (mg/l) | \n0.007 (56) | \nD1613 | \n
pH | \n– | \n6.5–9.0 | \nD6423 | \n
Appearance | \nVisibly free of suspended or precipitated contaminants (e.g., clear and bright) | \n
Quality specifications of fuel ethanol per ASTM D4806 [16].
Other studies include those of Beavers et al. [19] and Lou et al. [20]. While [19] examined pitting corrosion in simulated fuel grade ethanol (SFGE) solutions on carbon steel, [20] examined the addition of chemical additives to SFGE to provide scavenging of oxygen in solution or inhibition of SCC in fuel grade ethanol (FGE) using slow strain rate (SSR) techniques. The latter study found a dependence of ethanol SCC on electrochemical potential that was consistent with observations from previous API studies (i.e., increased susceptibility to SCC with increasing corrosion potential). Based on this study, three active techniques of non-chemical deaeration were recognized. Altogether, the three methods reduced the corrosion potential below −100 mV Ag/AgCl EtOH and alleviated SCC.
\nAlso, Beavers and Gui [21] summarized the results of research studies involving factors affecting ethanol SCC of carbon steel as water content, level of aeration, aging during storage, blend ratio with gasoline, steel type and welding. In addition, Gui et al. [22] carried out studies on the influence of ethanol composition on SCC susceptibility of carbon steel by evaluating ethanol SCC in field FGE samples and correlating the results in terms of SCC severity to compositional differences in the FGE samples. Carbon steel was found to be susceptible in all FGE samples conducted in two laboratories but with a varied degree of susceptibility in one FGE sample compared with the others.
\nFurthermore, Venkatesh et al. [10] evaluated the SCC behavior of pipeline steel in multiple ethanol environments. The program used N-SSR testing and field samples of FGE obtained from Brazilian sources. Severity of cracking was assessed based on crack growth rates determined from N-SSR testing and KISCC values based on a fracture mechanics treatment of the N-SSR test data. In another study [23], the effects of inorganic chloride in ethanolic solutions on the SCC behavior of carbon steels was assessed by varying the inorganic chloride concentrations between 0 and 70 mg/L using additions of sodium chloride (NaCl) to SFGE. The results indicated that both crack density and crack growth rate increased with chloride concentration. Two laboratory testing programs were used to evaluate the SCC behavior of steel in fuel ethanol and butanol [24]. The first part of the program revealed that cracking of API 5L X42 carbon steel compact tension specimens in FGE solutions (client supplied and synthetically prepared) required high K (stress intensity) values to initiate cracks. Highest crack growth rates were observed in SSR tests and in tests conducted in SFGE and under aerated conditions. Fracture mechanics tests and tests involving an actual field sample of FGE resulted in lower crack growth rates.
\nThe second part of the program evaluated ASTM A36 carbon steel for SCC in the reagent grade butanol and anhydrous butanol solutions using SSR testing. The tests showed no evidence of SCC. Likewise, Cao [25] studied the corrosion and stress corrosion cracking of carbon steel in simulated fuel grade ethanol using SSR techniques and accurately controlled fracture mechanics conditions. Goodman and Singh [26] evaluated the influences of chemical composition of ethanol fuel on carbon steel pipelines using SSR testing on carbon steel samples in five FGE environments. SCC was discovered in two of the as-received FGE environments and in FGE environments to which NaCl was added.
\nFurthermore, substantial information has been gathered from reviews, reports and summaries of studies investigating the compatibility of fuel ethanol with metallic materials. Nevertheless, care must be taken in interpretation of the information [27]. Examples are:
a Concawe [28] report recommending carbon steel and aluminum for ethanol/petrol handling situations; and
a laboratory study conducted by Minnesota Pollution Control Agency [29] evaluated 19 metallic species, including four types of aluminum alloy and brass in E10 and E20 blends, three aluminum alloys were adjudged as satisfactory as was brass.
Unfortunately, it is known from field experience that E10 blends can severely corrode aluminum components, leading to catastrophic failure [27, 30]. Also, carbon steel can suffer severe corrosive attack if the fuel contains water [27, 31]. Likewise, brass components in carburetors are known to corrode when exposed to E10. The carburetor manufacturer who reported this, conducted compatibility testing of its products with petrol/ethanol blends and has identified corrosion of metallic components as an issue, requiring replacement of brass components with more resistant, but more expensive, alloys.
\nQinetiq reports the Brazilian experience with ethanol blends [27, 32]. According to Stephen [27], in order to make vehicles more durable when employing ethanol blends, various fuel system components require modifications among which are:
zinc steel alloy fuel lines changed to cadmium brass;
tin and lead coatings (terne plate) of fuel tanks changed to pure tin; and
cast iron valve housings changed to iron cobalt alloy (QINETIQ , 2010).
Beavers et al. [33] carried out a recent research that was funded by the Pipeline Research Council, in which methods for prevention of internal SCC in ethanol pipelines were evaluated. The methods assessed include the addition of inhibitors and oxygen scavengers to ethanol and other ways and means of deaeration. On the other hand, Beavers et al. [34] studied the effects of ethanol-gasoline blends, metallurgical variables, inhibitors and dissolved oxygen on the stress-corrosion cracking of carbon steel in ethanol. Slow strain rate (SSR) and fatigue precracked compact tension (CT) tests were employed to characterize the influence of environmental and metallurgical variables on SCC of carbon steel. Metallurgical factors, including steel grade within a range of pipeline grades, welds, and heat-affected zone, do not seem to have a noteworthy effect on the degree or frequency of SCC. In terms of environmental factors, it was observed that SCC of carbon steel does not take place even in a completely aerated state, if the ethanol-gasoline blends contain below approximately 15 vol.% ethanol; susceptibility to SCC and crack growth rate are greater in 50 vol.% ethanol gasoline blend (E-50) than in either lower or higher ethanol concentration blends; oxygen scavenging can be an effective method to inhibit SCC; water content exceeding 4.5 wt.% prevents SCC in ethanol; and fatigue precracked CT tests display comparable inclinations to SCC susceptibility as SSR tests.
\nMaldonado and Kane [35] studied the stress corrosion cracking of carbon steel in fuel ethanol service and postulated that the hygroscopic nature of ethanol is an important aspect with potential relevance to its corrosivity. Also, ethanol possesses high potential for oxygen solubility; therefore, the availability of oxygen for involvement in the corrosion reaction is anticipated to be largely greater.
\nThe authors in [36] presented an evaluation of fatigue crack propagation in three steels namely; A36, X52 and X70 steels in a SFGE. By using a fracture mechanics approach to determine crack propagation rates, all the three materials were found to be prone to enhanced fatigue damage in fuel-grade ethanol environments. Figure 5 shows a macroscopic view of the fracture surface of X52 steel after testing in SFGE. A model for determining crack growth rates in ethanol fuel was further proposed by the authors.
\nMacroscopic view of X52 fracture surface after testing in SFGE [
A recent study [37] investigated the corrosion of martensitic stainless steel in ethanol-containing gasoline mixture as a function of water, chloride and acetic acid concentrations. The results obtained showed that, water and chloride ions (Cl−) are the primary corrosion causing factors in EtOH/gasoline mixtures; critical water content depends on EtOH/gasoline-ratio; pitting corrosion occurred at tremendously low chloride concentrations; increasing chloride concentration enhanced pit propagation, with slight influence on pit densities and higher concentrations of acetic acid lead to a greater attacked area, with negligible impact on the depth of pit propagation.
\nAnother study [38] investigated the influence and role of minor constituents (organic acids, water and chloride) of fuel grade ethanol on corrosion behavior of carbon steel using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and electrochemical experiments. The results showed that iron (II) acetate is generated on oxide film due to its high solubility in FGE environments. Chloride stimulated anodic dissolution at those sites where iron (II) acetate occurred.
\nAlso, in 2016, Rangel et al. [39] carried out a study on the SCC susceptibility of API X-80 pipeline steel in SFGE. Water contents of 0, 1, 5, 10 and 20 vol.% and chloride content of 0, 10 and 32 g/L were investigated. Results have shown that X-80 carbon steel in the as-received condition was susceptible only when 5% water and 10 g/L NaCl were present. Heat treatments suppressed this susceptibility. Conditions that increased the corrosion rate also increased the SCC susceptibility, which, together with metallographic observations and noise in current measurements, indicated that SCC in this environment is caused by a film rupture, dissolution mechanism.
\nRecently, an investigation on the fracture behavior of micro-alloyed steel and API-5L X65 steel in simulated fuel ethanol environment was carried out [40]. Micro-alloyed steel was found to exhibit better fracture resistance than API-5L X65 steel in air and in solution. API-5L X65 in solution showed faster crack extension than MAS-in solution. It was also observed that Jstr (fracture toughness derived from stretch zone geometry) obtained for the two steels shows a similar trend with Ji (initiation fracture toughness) which is found at the parting of the blunting line on their J-R curves and as a result appropriate for signifying the initiation toughness of the two steels in solution. On the whole, fuel ethanol decreases fracture resistance in X65 and micro-alloyed steels (Figure 6).
\nFracture surface of micro-alloyed steel and API-5L X65 steel after J tests in E20 SFGE [
All of the findings point to the fact that SCC of metals do occur in FGE environment, whether simulated or field FGE due to several factors which have been mentioned. Most of the SCC tests were carried out using SSR techniques to assess the fracture toughness of the materials in fuel ethanol environment.
\nEthanol fuels have gradually developed into a remarkable alternate energy source. Ethanol-based biofuel can be used to power engines and run cars, hence it is now the main alternative to automotive fossil fuels. The combination of gasoline with ethanol results into the fuel currently called “
Most of the gasoline sold in the United States contain some percentages of ethanol.
\nThe kinetics of corrosion behavior, fracture behavior and crack growth depends on the material-environment system. It is important to state that function, material, shape and process do interact. The specification of process limits the materials you can use and the shapes they can take. In other words, the process of employing fuel ethanol in the fuel industry and its associated corrosion and stress corrosion failures has invariably placed a limit on the materials that can be used as pipes, storage tanks and the required automotive parts.
\nThe structural integrity assessments carried out in fuel ethanol is of optimal benefit to designers in the fuel, automotive, aviation, and chemical industries. Material compatibility with fuel ethanol, based on corrosion rates, stress intensity factor, fracture toughness and crack propagation resistance, amongst others have been reviewed. A designer must give considerable attention to these parameters in order to ensure reliable performance of materials.
\nRequirements for design, materials and inspection are then established in a conventional manner relative to the estimates of progressive crack extension behavior presented in literature.
\nMy thanks go to Professor John Ade Ajayi for helping me find a career path in Failure Analysis and Structural Integrity. The mentorship role of Professor C.A. Loto in my career cannot be overemphasized.
\nCovenant University is gratefully acknowledged for open access funding.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
Semi-solid processing as the name suggests is the processing of non-dendritic material between its liquidus and solidus temperatures. In recent years, much work has been conducted in exploring this field with respect to understanding the mechanisms involved. The inherent properties of semi-solid materials at the semi-solid processing temperature such as lower heat content, relatively higher viscosity comparable to liquids and low flow stresses, enables the semi-solid process to show distinct advantages over fully liquid and/or fully solid-state processes. Some of the important benefits of this technique are low mold erosion, low energy consumption, improved die filling, less gas entrapment, lower solidification shrinkage, reduced macro-segregation and fine microstructure. Therefore, this process is rapidly gaining commercial importance [1, 2, 3]; A non-dendritic microstructure can be obtained by stirring, either mechanically or electro-magnetically; grain refining; low superheat melt processing; solid state mechanical treatment and reheating [4, 5, 6, 7]; The manufacturing industries widely focused on the semi solid routes to produce components with superior mechanical and metallurgical properties. Slope casting process is one of the simplest techniques to produce semi solid slurry [8]. Slope cating process is pouring of molten metal through a slope channel into a mold. This slope channel help as a site for nucleation and fragmentation of dendrites due to shearing force between different layers of flowing stream [9]. Slope casting process depends on different process parameters like slope length, slope angle, pouring temperature etc. [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. In recent years Aluminum alloys are using mostly in the automotive industries. Among the Aluminum alloys, the Al-Si alloys have good casting characteristics like high fluidity and good cast-ability which makes them advantageous for both small and complicated castings. Every year lakhs of Aluminum alloy components are produced through semi solid processing route. The present study mainly focuses on review of various explorations made by researchers with different process parameters of the Slope casting process and explain the mechanisms that lead to microstructural changes which leads to good mechanical properties.
The processing of alloy between liquidus and solidus (mushy zone) range is known as the semi solid process, it was first discovered in 1970s, by spancer at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); found that at semi solid range of alloy behaves thixotropically (Decreases in viscosity if it is sheared but it will thicken again if it is allowed to stand)and by applying continuous stirring on the semi solid state produced no dendritic and spheroidal microstructure [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The semi solid casting route gives enormous advantages like dendritic free structure leads to globular structure as seen in Figure 1, less defects such as porosity, shrinkage, gas entrapment and macro-segregation. Better advantages than conventional casting that superior quality, low forming temperature, superior mechanical properties with microstructural refinement. The semi-solid process results in a non-dendritic microstructure due to forming at a temperature between solidus and liquidus temperature as shown in phase diagram, Figure 2. In semi solid process, temperature has a pivotal role on the resultant microstructure like orientation of grain, morphology of grain during solidification of alloys [22, 23, 24]. Semi-solid processing is used for all the shape forming processes which take advantage of the semi-solid range of the alloys for processing. Rheology and Thixotropy, two basic phenomena play a major role, In semi-solid processing. The apparent viscosity of a material in the liquid state varies with change in shear rate In Rheology. This gives the liquid like slurry to be processed even at sufficiently high solid fraction [25]. Thixotropy, is the ability of a material to Decreases in viscosity if it is sheared but it will thicken again if it is allowed to stand [26]; A material with a non-dendritic structure is the best suitable material for semi-solid processing. it is believed that, in the semi-solid state, the non-dendritic equiaxed grains easily slide/glide on each other on the application of a shear force [27].
Using semi solid process technique dendritic structure changes to globular [
Phase diagram of Al-Si alloy [
Thixotropy behavior can be define as when the material state is partially solid with 40–50% solid fraction and is sheared applied by external force, then its viscosity will decrease due to the break/detachment of the coalescence material, and it will flow like a liquid, for a certain time if it is allowed to stand, equiaxed coalescence will increase the viscosity of the material, by that it being able to support its own weight in the same way as if it was solid [28].
To describe mechanism for non-dendritic structure in semi solid process many theories have been proposed. These mechanisms include dendrite arm fragmentation, dendrite arm root re-melting, and growth control mechanism. Hv Atikson et al. [20], Vogel et al. [29]; proposed that under shearing forces dendrite arms bends due to its plasticity, which introduce large misorientations inside the dendrite arms and dislocations introduced; rearrangements of dislocations occur to form grain boundaries at the melting temperature. The energy of the grain boundaries becomes more than twice the liquid/solid interfacial energy when the misorientations between grain boundaries are more than 20°, then separation of the dendritic arms observes due to wetting of the grain boundaries by liquid metal. Schematically illustrated in Figure 3.
Schematic illustration of the steps of the mechanism of dendrite fragmentation: (a) undeformed dendrite; (b) after bending; (c) formation of high-angle boundary; and (d) fragmentation through wetting of grain boundary by liquid metal [
Hellawell et al. [30]; proposed grain multiplication theory, Thermal convention and shearing force have a direct effect at the roots of secondary dendrite arms, melting off rather than breaking off secondary arms observed, and grain multiplication, schematically illustrated in Figure 4. Evolution of structure during solidification with shear force depends on the cooling rate and shear rate, with increase in shear and cooling rate gives non dendritic/globular structure that that the particle shape and size vary irreversibly with shear and colling rate. Illustrate in Figure 5.
Schematic diagram of dendrite multiplication theory [
Evolution of structure during solidification with shear force: (a) initial dendritic fragment; (b) dendritic growth; (c) rosette; (d) ripened rosette; and (e) spheroid [
The semi solid casting process mainly classified into the thixo casting and rheo casting and these processes are farther divided into many process techniques show in below (Figure 6).
Classification of semi solid processes [
Thixo casting mainly consists of three separate stages the production of a pre-cast billet having the special equiaxed microstructure, the re heating of these billets to the semi-solid temperature and the casting of the components 3. Illustrated in Figure 7.
feedstock preparation;
Reheating of the billet; and
The casting process.
Thixo casting and thixo forging [
Rheo-casting is single step process to produce semi solid alloy start with liquid alloy, introduced directly into a mold without any intermediate solidification step. The semisolid slurry produced by means of different process like slope casting, new rheo casting etc. and directly introduced into a die. While thixo-forming is a route consists of reheating and forming process (Figure 8).
Rheo casting process [
Slope casting process is a rheo casting process used for the produce semi solid slurry, it consists with simple equipment and operation technique, the process carried out by pouring molten metal through channel with certain angle into a die where subsequent solidification takes place [32]. The solidification of molten alloy along a slope channel involves heat transfer, fluid flow, adhesion behavior. When the molten metal flowing through the slope channel with an angle and length [33, 34, 35, 36, 37], heat transfer takes between the slope channel wall and melt in contact, where generation of nuclei takes places, due to the effect of gravitation force and flow of stream the nuclei produced on slope wall are detached from the slope plate and subsequently flow through the melt stream, solid fraction of metal(semi solid slurry) observed at end of slope channel [38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. shear stress acting on the slurry layers and melt flow inertia restricted dendritic growth usually observed in conventional casting alloys. Illustrated in Figure 9. Slope casting process is a simple technique, but it can be prone to gas pick up and oxide formation which will impact negatively on mechanical properties [44, 45].
Line illustration of slope casting process [
Two mechanisms have been suggested to explain the formation of non-dendritic microstructure during flow along slope casting process. According to Haga and Kapranos et al. [46, 47], dendritic fragmentation mechanism plays an important role in slope casting process during microstructural evolution. The fragmentation of weak dendritic arms observed when the partially solidified melt collides under gravitational forces on the inclined/slope channel. Motegi et al. [48] proposed, crystal separation theory, where granular crystals nucleate and grow on the slope wall and are washed away from the wall by fluid motion illustrated in Figure 10.
Crystal separation theory (a). The generation of nuclei at slope plate wall (b). Segregation of granular crystal (c) flow through the melt [
The shear force is main factor for dendritic arm fragmentation but its effect is related to the velocity boundary layer [21] as shown in Figure 11.
Schematic diagram of the shear stress variation and velocity distribution inside the boundary layer during the flow of melt in cooling slope casting process [
The process parameters in the slope casting of semisolid slurry preparation are [21, 31, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49]:
Pouring temperature,
Slope angle,
Slope length,
Slope plate temperature,
Vibration of slope,
Mold vibration etc.
It is the most influencing parameter in slope casting process, T hogo et al. [36] investigated the effect of melt temperature and mold material found that pouring temperature have the great effect on the microstructure and it accounts nearly 35% of the total effect. Y Birol et al. [37] investigated the effect of pouring temperature and slope length, reported that the melt superheat required longer cooling lengths for higher pouring temperatures. Pouring with lower temperature causes formation of solid shell (formation of a thin layer of metal due to the primary nuclei that stick to the slope channel that reduces the effectiveness of the slope channel in generating nuclei) and pouring with the super-heated temperature may not get sufficient time to cool to range to produce solid nuclei on the slope plate, the main reason is that each parameter corelate each. Similar observation reported by Wen Liu et al. [39], if pouring temperature is too high a small number of primary α-aluminum phase will precipitate and some coarse primary α-aluminum phase. If the pouring temperature is too low the melt will cool rapidly and solidify. P. das et al., the temperature of the cooling plate has no prominent effect on microstructure, nevertheless a slurry with approximately 10% fraction solid can easily be obtained at the end of the plate.
Most of studies, slope length ranges from 200 to 800 mm, H. bidhiman et al. [41]. reported that increase in slope length that means melt flow time through channel increases it may cause the temperature drop and formation of the oxidation and solid shell as we above discussed it causes decrease in rate of heat transfer which leads to the decrease of the nucleation rate of primary solid phase, too short length does not give the proper nuclei formation and the time for the dendritic fragmentation. Slope length and slope angle are interrelated. If slope angle high need slope length should be more otherwise melt does not get sufficient time for shearing. The slope length effect on final microstructure accounts nearly 30% from studies. P. das et al. [40].
Most studies the angle ranges from 15 to 60°, the small angle is unable to give the melt to flow and shear effect on the slope plate will be less and the higher angle may cause the high velocity which does not give time to melt formation semi solid slurry and dendritic fragmentation. Farshid Taghavi and Ghassemi [42] reported the angle of slope channel had remarkable effects on the size and morphology of α-Al phase. By increasing the angle of the slope channel, the effect of shear stress and the rate of heat transfer increase. As a result, more solid particles are detached from the layer of slope channel. On the other part, duration time of shear stress and heat transfer between the melt and surface of inclined plate decrease by increase in the angle. As we above discussed in 3.2.2. the slope length and slope angle corelated to each other.
Very few studies on effect of vibration slope on microstructural changes. Slope vibration frequency ranges from 10 to 60 Hz. Studies by Shaya Safari et al. [44], Wen Liu et al. [39] conclude that There was no solid shell formation on the surface of slope channel by using slope vibration. The combine effect of vibration and slope channel causes increase in the amount of nucleation and nuclei due to uniform cooling rate. The mechanism in vibration slope channel is proposed that vibrating force and gravity result in Bending stress introduced in between the growing dendritic and liquid. Because of the viscous resistance of liquid, with respect to the dendritic particles and liquid phase there is a difference of the transport velocity, which causes crash among the grains and the scrub of the liquid on dendritic particles. The weak dendrite arms breakoff and form fine grains. Vibration helps the heat transfer mechanism in possible direction. The stirring caused by vibration gives rise to local temperature fluctuation of liquid phase around the primary α-al phase and Re melting of dendritic arms at the necks occurs. Which favorable to form short and homogenous small primary dendrites, equiaxed and rosette non dendritic grains.
Researchers extended work on Slope casting process by subsequent heat treatment of casts after slope casting for better mechanical properties through spheroidization of grains and removal of defects like internal stress and porosity. Yucel Birol et al. [37] worked on the cooling slope casting and thixo forming of hypereutectic A390 alloy. Reported that The thixoformed part after slope casting process was metallurgically sound, free from porosity and revealed a uniform dispersion of fine Si particles in a homogeneous matrix. Increase mechanical properties observed. Nursen Saklakoglu et al. [33]: investigated on the microstructural evolution of ETIAL 160 aluminum feed stock produced by the cooling slope casting process experiments done with pouring temperatures of 605 and 615°C respectively subsequent isotheral heating at 565°C at 5 and 10 mins respectively, slope casting process results the primary α-aluminum dendrites has changed into α-aluminum rosette. Subsequent heat treatment helps to modify the rosette to globular structure. P das et al. [40]; too long a heating time will cause structural coarsening, while too short a heating time will lead to incomplete spheroidization of solid particles. Thus, there is a need to get optimum reheating parameters of the semi-solid alloys processed via slope casting.
Composite materials produced using slope casting technique were reported by researchers. P. Das, [40] has studied about the semi solid microstructure of Mg2 Si/Al composite by cooling slope casting process, reported that, the morphology of primary Mg2Si obtained non-dendritic and size of α Al was changed to 10 from 200 μm, Toshio Haga et al. [36]. Reported that slope casting has a significant influence on the shape and grain morphology of the Metal matrix composites (MMCs). The properties of the MMCs produced by slope casting were found to be higher than those of the MMCs produced by using conventional stirring.
Distinguished the literature into table according to the optimum process parameters used in Slope Casting Process of Semi-Solid Alloys and Composites shown inTable 1 and post parameters in Table 2.
Author & year | Alloy | Process parameters | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Length of slope in (mm) | Slope angle in (degrees) | Pouring temperature in (centi grade) | Slope material, coating material and cooling medium | Slope vibration in (Hz) | Mold vibration in (Hz) | Mold material | ||
S. R. Mukkollu et al. (2020) [43] | Al-4%cu-2%mg alloy | 500 | 30 | X | Mild steel | X | 20(ultrasonic) | steel |
Kerem Altug Guler et al. (2019) [35] | AA7075 | 650 | 30 & 60 | 660 | Copper plate | X | X | Steel |
N. K. Kund (2019) [21] | A356 | — | — | — | — | — | — | Steel |
Sahaya Safari et al. (2018)[44] | AlMg2Si | 400 | 45 | 880 | Copper plate, boron nitride and water | 40 | X | Cast-iron |
Adnan Mehmood, et al., (2016) [50] | A356 | 800 | 15, 30, 45, 60 &75 | 800 | Stainless steel and oil | × | × | Stainless steel |
S. Deepak Kumar, et al. (2015) [51] | A356& A356–5TiB2 | × | 60 | 650 | Mild steel and water inside | x | x | Mild steel |
S. DeepakKumar et al. (2015) [52] | Al-7Si alloy | 400 | 15, 30, 45 and 60 | 630, 640 and 650 | water | X | X | Mild steel |
Amir. A. Abdelsalam, et al. (2015) [53] | A356/Al2O3 | 500 | 60 | X | low carbon steel, hard chrome and water | X | X | Steel |
Saffari, et al. (2015) [54] | Al-Mg2Si | 1000 | 45 | X | Copper plate and boron nitride | 40 | X | X |
S. Deepak Kumar, et al. (2015) [55] | A356 and A356-5TiB2 | 400 | 60 | 640 | Mild steel & water | X | X | Mild steel |
S. Deepakkumar, et al. (2014) [32] | A356 alloy | 400 | 60 | 640 | zirconia, and water | X | X | Mild steel |
Amitesh Kumar, et al. (2014) [56] | High chromium cast iron | 1000 | 15 | X | Mild steel coated with graphite | X | X | Sand |
Prosenjit Das, et al. (2014) [57] | A356 alloy | 500 | 30, 60 and 45 | X | Stainless steel, boron nitride and oil | X | X | Mild steel |
Hamed Khosravi, et al. (2013) [58] | A356 alloy | 100, 300 and 500 | 30, 45 and 60 | 660, 680 and 700 | Boron nitride | X | X | Mild steel |
K. S. Alhawari. (2013) [28] | A356 and Al2O3 | 300 | 60 | 650 | Steel, boron nitride | X | X | Steel |
P. Das, et al. (2013) [59] | A356 alloy | — | 60 and 45 | — | Boron nitride | X | X | Steel |
R. Ritwik, et al. (2013) [60] | AlSi7Mg alloy | — | 10 | — | — | X | X | Steel |
Prosenjit Das et al. (2012) [40] | A356 | X | 60, 45 | 925 | Oil, boron nitride coating | X | X | Mild steel |
N. Saklakoglu (2011) [34] | A380 | 350 | 60 | 615, 630, 650 | water cooled, boron nitride | X | X | Steel |
Zongning Chen (2011) [26] | Al-12Si and K2 TiF6 and KBF4 | X | X | 650 | Water cooled | X | X | Copper |
Wen Liu et al. (2011) [39] | ZAlSi9Mg | 400–900 | 60 | 590–620 | Copper plate and water | 0–50 Hz | X | X |
Jun X et al. (2011) [45] | A356 alloy | 300, 500, 700 | 30, 45, 60 | 650, 670, 690 | Mild steel and water cooled | X | X | X |
H. Budiman et al. (2011) [61] | A356 alloy | 250 | 60 | 610–630. | Mild steel, boron nitride | X | X | Steel |
T. Haga et al. (2010) [62] | A356 | 30, 50, 100, 200 and 300. | 15, 30, 45 and 60 | 620 | Mild steel. Coated with BN | X | X | Steel |
S. Gencalp Saklakoglu (2010) [63] | A380 alloy | 500 | 60 | 630 | Mild steel. Coated with BN | 5.75 Hz. | X | Steel |
W. Wierzchowski et al. (2010) [64] | hypoeutectic gray cast iron and high-chromium cast iron | 600 | 0–15 | TP = TL + 20 K | Copper plate, boron nitride | X | X | X |
Farshid Taghavi and Ghassemi (2009) [42] | A356 alloy | 20, 40, 60 | 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 | 680 | Copper plate | X | X | Steel |
H. Budiman et al. (2009) [41] | Al-Si alloy | 250 | 60 | 620 | Mild steel, boron nitride and water | X | X | Steel |
Nursen Saklakoglu (2008) [33] | ETIAL 160 | 300 | 60 | 605, 615 | Steel Plate Coated With BN And water | X | X | Steel |
Yucel Birol (2008) [17] | A390 alloy | 500 | 60 | — | Steel plate and water cooled | X | X | Steel |
Q. D. Qin and Zhao, (2007) [27] | Al/mg2Si composite | X | X | X | Alumium plate | X | X | Steel |
E. Cardoso Legoretta et al. (2008) [65] | A356 alloy | 150, 200 | 45, 60 | +20 K–30 K | Mild steel coated with boron nitride and Cold water | X | X | Satinless steel |
Yucel Birol (2007) [17] | A357 alloy | 200, 300, 400 | 60 | 620–640 | Steel plate coated with the boron nitride and water | X | X | Mild steel |
Alex Muumbo et al. (2003) [66] | Cast iron | — | 5–15 | +20 k | Boron nitride coated | X | X | Mild, graphite, sand |
Tetsuchi Motegi (2002) [48] | Al-Si-Mg alloy | 80, 160, 200, 240 | 40, 60, 80 | 656, 666, 676, 686, 696 | Copper plate | X | X | X |
Toshio Haga (2002) [67] | A356 | 300 | 60 | 602, 630, 650 | Mild steel coated with BN | X | X | X |
Toshi Haga (2001) [36] | Al-6 Si | 300 | 60 | 600 | Mild steel coated with BN | X | X | Mild steel with out insulator and with insulator |
Process parameters.
Author & year | Tensile test | Hardness | Grain size & shape factor | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
S. R. Mukkollu et al. (2020) [43] | x | ✓ | x | Refined microstructure can be obtained by if cooling slope integrated with ultrasonic acoustic cavitation. |
Kerem Altug Guler et al. (2019) [35] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Castings with the slope angle of 60 are superior to 30. |
N. K. Kund (2019) [21] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Cooling slope leads to globular and non-dendritic microstructure. |
Sahaya Safari (2018) [44] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | The hardness, values of the as-cast VCS sample are higher than those of its CS |
Adnan Mehmood, et al., (2016) [50] | ✓ | X | ✓ | Tensile and hardness are highest at the sloping plate at the angle of 600 |
S. Deepak Kumar et al. (2015) [51] | X | ✓ | ✓ | A cooling slope length of 400 mm, a low cooling slope angle of 150 was effective in dendrite fragmentation |
Amir. A. Abdelsalam, et al. (2015) [53] | X | X | ✓ | Stir casting and cooling slope casting (SC/CSC) exhibited higher Porosity and water-cooling using SC/CSC technique effect the average size of the α-Al grains. |
S. Deepak Kumar, et al. (2014) [32] | — | ✓ | — | Pouring temperature, which accounts for 42.08% of the total effect, followed by cooling length 40.4% and slope angle 17.44% respectively. |
K. S. Alhawari. et al. (2013) [28] | — | ✓ | — | The hardness and wear resistance of the MMC s produced by cooling slope casting were found to be higher those of MMCs produced by using conventional stirring. |
R. Ritwik, et al. (2013) [60] | — | — | — | The spheroidization effect of the alpha aluminum dendrites increases with the increase in the angle of inclination. |
Prosenjit Das, et al. (2012) [40] | — | — | ✓ | 925 K pouring temperature, 60 slope angle, 500 mm cooling length and wall temperature of 333 K has been identified as the ideal processing condition, which is in good correlation with the numerical findings |
Prosenjit Das et al. (2012) [40] | X | X | ✓ | Spheroids and rosettes of primary Al phase has been obtained through the angle 600 |
N. Saklakoglu (2011) [34] | X | X | Wear test conducted. | Cooling slope does not given substantial changes in friction characteristics compared to gravity casting, isothermal treatment reduced after cooling slope casting decreased the friction. |
Zongning Chen (2011) [26] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | The grain size of alpha aluminum phase can be globularized using the cooling slope |
Wen Liu et al. (2011) [39] | X | X | ✓ | Vibration effects the nucleation by increase the pressure subsequently temperature and the dendritic arms are sheared due to the vibration. |
Jun X et al. (2011) [45] | X | X | X | Optimum globular microstructure with uniform distribution of A356 alloy is obtained with slope angle 45, plate length 500 mm and pouring temperature 650 |
H. Budiman et al. (2011) [41] | X | X | ✓ | The cooling slope casting produced smaller equiaxed α-aluminum grains with better shape factor than the conventional stirring. |
T. Haga et al. (2010) [62] | X | X | X | The cooling distance affects the cooling of the melt and adhesion of solidified metal. The melt temperature becomes lower as distance becomes longer. The adhesion of the solidified metal occurs when the cooling distance becomes longer than the suitable distance. |
Farshid Taghavi and Ghassemi (2009) [42] | X | X | ✓ | The refined and globular microstructure with a uniform reproductive distribution of A356 was obtained at an angle of 40 and a length of 40 cm |
H. Budiman et al. (2009) [41] | X | X | ✓ | The water circulation influence on volume fraction liquid/solid grain size and shape factor. |
Nursen Saklakoglu (2008) [33] | X | X | ✓ | Pouring at 300 mm at slope of 60 yielded more globular grains than that obtained with CS |
Q. D. Qin and Zhao, (2007) [27] | X | X | ✓ | with increase in the isothermal holding time from 30 to 600 min the mean size of alpha-aluminum grains increases and its morphology becomes more globular |
E. Cardoso Legoretta et al.(2008) [65] | X | X | X | Most of the nucleation has occurred in the upper part of the slope, the area of the impact zone plays an important role in determine the resulting microstructure and that this dominate over the cooling length |
Yucel Birol (2007) [17] | X | X | X | The dissipation of the melt superheat required longer cooling lengths for higher pouring temperatures. |
Post process parameters.
A considerable review of the literature on slope casting of semisolid Aluminum alloys suggest the following:
The slope casting process is a simple and cost-effective way of producing feed stock material (non-dendritic or globular) microstructure.
slope casting process mainly depends on the process parameters like slope length, slope angle which mainly controls the shear force on metal flow subsequently the better morphology structure obtained.
Reheating and isothermal holding temperature after slope casting observed better mechanical properties from different studies.
Using slope casting process feed stock material produced with globular microstructure is not only in cast aluminum alloys but also in aluminum metal matrix composites.
slope casting is best and simple process to produce the semi solid material and by using subsequent process after slope casting technique can play a prominent role in foundry industries.
Due to vibration on slope plate, multiple nucleations and dendritic fragmentation occur which leads to spheroidization.
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Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. 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Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83011",title:"E-Waste Management in Different Countries: Strategies, Impacts, and Determinants",slug:"e-waste-management-in-different-countries-strategies-impacts-and-determinants",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106644",abstract:"Over the last two decades, the electronic equipment has increased dramatically around the world, which causes increasing in e-waste as well. This increasing has affected the environment badly. E-waste disposal has become one of the most critical issues and concerns have raised of it because most of these products do not biodegrade easily and they are toxic. Different strategies have been followed in many countries in order to solve the e-waste problem. Understanding these strategies can help to plan better for e-waste management correctly. Awareness of people about the e-waste impacts is crucial, because it can ensure people participation in managing the e waste process. This research has carried out in order to introduce to the e-waste impacts on environment and human health, and the importance of people awareness about these impacts. In addition, it shows many strategies that have been used in different countries to manage the e-waste, choosing the successful one to focus in order to benefit from it. Furthermore, a surveying has been carried out to exam people awareness in Iraq about the e-waste impacts. Finally, recommendations to manage e-waste successfully have been added.",book:{id:"11533",title:"Advances in Green Electronics Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11533.jpg"},signatures:"Shireen Ibrahim Mohammed"},{id:"83044",title:"Fatigue Behavior of Reinforced Welded Hand-Holes in Aluminum Light Poles with a Change in Detail Geometry",slug:"fatigue-behavior-of-reinforced-welded-hand-holes-in-aluminum-light-poles-with-a-change-in-detail-geo",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106342",abstract:"Welded aluminum light poles often contain hand-holes. These hand-holes are used to give access for electrical wiring installation and maintenance purposes. Wind load may cause light poles to be loaded in a cyclic manner. This cyclic loading can cause localized fatigue cracking around the hand-hole. Fatigue failure around hand-holes has been observed in the field, but studies surrounding the resistance of the hand-holes are few and far between. This study included four-point bending fatigue tests on welded aluminum poles containing hand-holes. Eight welded aluminum specimens, each with two hand-holes, were tested in fatigue. These 16 details were loaded at the same stress range. Each specimen had a slightly different geometry or treatment applied to the hand hole. These different details mimicked traditional reinforced hand holes, similar to those evaluated in previous studies. Changes in the treatment and/or geometry included milling the inside of hole, milling the inside of the hole as well as the cast insert prior to welding, and milling the cast insert itself prior to welding. Among the 16 details tested, 15 failed as a result of fatigue cracking. It was found that specimen failure would originated in the throat of the fillet weld and then proceeded to propagate into the reinforcement ring/casting. A finite element analysis was used in addition to the experimental study.",book:{id:"12056",title:"Structural Health Monitoring",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12056.jpg"},signatures:"Cameron R. Rusnak and Craig C. Menzemer"},{id:"83048",title:"Structural, Magnetic, and Magnetodielectric Properties of Bi-Based Modified Ceramic Composites",slug:"structural-magnetic-and-magnetodielectric-properties-of-bi-based-modified-ceramic-composites",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106569",abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce a promising composite material, which can be used as a potential candidate in the field of charge storage, sensors, and spintronic devices. The structural, magnetic, and magnetodielectric properties of the pure cum composite samples are investigated. The Rietveld refinement of the X-ray data confirmed the presence of a single (A21am) and mixed phases (A21am + R-3c + Pbam) in the pure and composite sample, correspondingly. The SEM microstructure suggests the contrasting nature of the homogeneous and heterogeneous distribution of grains in the corresponding pure and composite sample. The magnetic properties of the composite sample increase due to the enhanced exchange interaction between the different magnetic ions. The frequency-dependent dielectric subjected to a constant magnetic field indicates the signature of magnetodielectric (MD) coupling for both the samples. The field variation of the MD loop shows the symmetric hysteresis loop in the composite due to the addition of magnetostrictive La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 and the non-collinear antiferromagnetic Bi2Fe4O9 phase. The maximum value of MD% (~0.12%) is enhanced by ~13 times in the composite than in the pure sample. Therefore, the improved MD coupling and symmetric switching of the MD loop of the composite make it a suitable candidate for low power consumption storage devices.",book:{id:"11117",title:"Smart and Advanced Ceramics and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11117.jpg"},signatures:"Rasmita Jena, Kouru Chandrakanta and Anil Kumar Singh"},{id:"83032",title:"Introductory Chapter: Solar Photovoltaic Energy",slug:"introductory-chapter-solar-photovoltaic-energy",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106259",abstract:null,book:{id:"9862",title:"Solar Radiation - Measurements, Modeling and Forecasting for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammadreza Aghaei, Amir Nedaei, Aref Eskandari and Jafar Milimonfared"},{id:"83028",title:"Construction and Modification of Copper Current Collectors for Improved Li Metal Batteries",slug:"construction-and-modification-of-copper-current-collectors-for-improved-li-metal-batteries",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106540",abstract:"Metallic Lithium have gained great attention for its high theoretical specific capacity. But continuous growth of Li dendrites upon cycling might cause low coulombic efficiency and serious security issues. Construction of advanced 3D Cu current collectors to regulate Li plating/stripping and improve battery performance is considered as one effective promising strategy. In this chapter, we will discuss the roles and requirements of current collectors in lithium metal batteries. Then methods (dealloying, powder-sintering and 3D printing) employed for construction of 3D Cu current collector and implementation of surface modification (lithiophilic sites and coating layers) will be illustrated. At last, future opportunities of Cu current collectors will be lifted out.",book:{id:"11179",title:"Lithium-Ion Batteries - Recent Advanced and Emerging Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11179.jpg"},signatures:"Shunrui Luo and Kai Pei"},{id:"83021",title:"Valorization of Forest Waste for the Production of Dio-oils for Biofuel and Biodiesel",slug:"valorization-of-forest-waste-for-the-production-of-dio-oils-for-biofuel-and-biodiesel",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105366",abstract:"Biomass is a renewable energy source to generate heat and electricity through the enhancement of various organic materials. Cistus slow pyrolysis of seeds and shells was carried out in a fixed bed reactor to determine the effect of pyrolysis temperature, heating rate, and particle size on the performance of pyrolysis. Therefore, pyrolysis experiments were performed at different temperatures, ranging from 300 to 500°C, with heating rates varying from 10 to 70°C.min−1 for shells and 7 to 28°C.min−1 for seeds. The particle sizes of samples range from 0.3 to 3.5 mm for shells and 0.075 to 1.2 mm for seeds. The highest yield of liquid products (53.31% for shells; 52.24% for seeds) was obtained at a pyrolysis temperature of 450°C and a heating rate of 40°C.min−1 for shells and 21°C.min−1 for seeds. The functional groups and chemical compounds present in the bio-oil obtained under optimal conditions were identified by FTIR. The calorific value of the bio-oil was equal to 37.05 and 37.93 MJ.kg−1 for shells and seeds, respectively. The obtained results show that the bio-oil from the pyrolysis of Cistus shells and seeds could be used as a renewable fuel or a source of pharmaceutical and chemical raw material.",book:{id:"11533",title:"Advances in Green Electronics Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11533.jpg"},signatures:"Hammadi el Farissi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:806},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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