Phonological processes used in Brazilian-Portuguese, age of normalization of processes, and examples.
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In this sense, the speech-language pathologists need to be able to specify more precisely the type of difficulty the child has. The search for more precise diagnoses that allow greater characterization of the clinical manifestations of children with SSD is constant, arising from the need to work according to the evidence-based practice. This practice emerged at the beginning of this century and refers to the combined use of different evidence to make the correct clinical decisions for a given individual [1]. The need to use clinical evidence to carry out a differential diagnosis, associated with the knowledge of speech-language therapists, appeared from the demand for more accurate diagnoses for the treatment of different human communication disorders. Recent studies in the area of speech and language disorders highlight the heterogeneity of SSD cases in terms of their manifestation, severity, and intelligibility [2–8].
SSD is defined in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5) [9] and ICD-10 [10] as difficulty in using age-appropriate speech sounds for an individual dialect and is the most prevalent speech and language disorder in children [11–13]. It is already known that children with SSD may present speech impairment caused by difficulty with auditory input (auditory processing of information) and/or cognitive-linguistic processing and/or motor speech processing. The interrelationship between these aspects [14–19] is the reason why studying them is of fundamental importance to better comprehend this disorder.
The greater the therapists\' knowledge about instruments that can be used to describe better SSD cases, the more accurate their clinical decisions. Therefore, comprehensive studies into aspects related to evaluating different biomedical parameters (acoustic and laryngeal symptoms and signs of oral airflow amplitude), as well as of parameters of speech disorders, articulation rate, speech inconsistency and speech stimulability, are essential to better understand the changes in children with speech disorders.
In general, the diagnosis of SSD is performed by applying language and speech tests, such as spontaneous speech, picture naming, and imitation of words and sentences. These are submitted to phonological analysis to identify changes according to child age [20]. There is no requirement for specific equipment for the application of these language and speech assessments, except for the test procedures. Additionally, a camera for filming and a good quality microphone/recorder are usually used to record data collection and ensure that they can be reanalyzed as many times as necessary.
In the following studies that are going to be presented, phonological evaluations for the diagnosis of SSD were carried out based on the Phonology Test [21] from ABFW—Infantile Language Test [22], which was developed and standardized for native speakers of Brazilian-Portuguese [23]. This test includes a picture naming task composed of 34 pictures of objects with 90 consonants, and a word imitation task composed of 39 words with 107 consonants. The test allows the evaluation of the phonetic inventory and phonological processes and the results can be analyzed according to age (for children aged 4–7 years) for both the occurrence of phonological processes (Table 1) and sounds in the phonetic inventory [21, 23].
Phonological processes | Example in BP | Elimination of phonological processes | |
---|---|---|---|
Target | Production | (in years; months) | |
Syllabic reduction | /´gato/ | [´ga] | 2; 6 |
Consonantal harmony | /sa´pato/ | [pa´pat∪] | 2; 6 |
Stopping | /´sala/ | [´tal ] | 2; 6 |
Velar backing | /´t_la/ | [´k_la] | 3; 6 |
Palatal backing | /´saco/ | [´∢ak∪] | 4; 6 |
Velar fronting | /´k la/ | [´t l ] | 3; 0 |
Palatal fronting | /´∢e℧o/ | [´se℧∪] | 4; 6 |
Liquid simplification | /´bala/ | [´ba℧ ] | 3; 6 |
/´kara/ | [´kala] | ||
/´pa a/ | [´pa℧ ] | ||
Cluster reduction | /´preto/ | [´pet∪] | 7; 0 |
/´bluza/ | [´buz ] | ||
Final consonant deletion | /´pta/ | [´p ℧t ] | 7; 0 |
/´pasta/ | [´pat ] |
Phonological processes used in Brazilian-Portuguese, age of normalization of processes, and examples.
BP, Brazilian-Portuguese.
The application of complementary tests to verify biomedical parameters has been an increasingly used resource in speech-language pathology research and clinical practice. The aim of these tests is to refine SSD diagnoses, giving the speech-language pathologist a better understanding of the specific impairments presented by a particular individual, given that SSD is a heterogeneous disorder both in terms of its cause and its manifestation. The complementary tests most frequently used in our recent research include cognitive-linguistic, auditory-perceptual, and speech production assessments. This chapter highlights the evaluation of auditory-perceptual processing by means of assessments of central auditory processing (CAP), electrophysiology of hearing—given that pure-tone, speech audiometry, and tympanometry are routinely used with children during the diagnostic phase. It also considers speech production, investigated using speech acoustics, electroglottography (EGG), aerodynamic measures, and ultrasound tongue imaging.
The auditory perception of speech allows children, through an active process, to organize their internal representations of the language to which they are exposed in order to produce the sounds of this language.
Speech perception can be defined as the process of continuous transformation of an acoustic signal into discrete linguistic units, which occurs through a multistage process permitting the extraction of acoustic information that relies on auditory processing mechanisms. Subsequently, the acoustic representation is transformed into phonetic units, and then a hierarchically organized phonological representation of phones is constructed [24]. Studies into auditory perception of speech have as their central theme the auditory comprehension of speech, but they also describe the organization of sublexical tasks, such as syllable discrimination [25].
Younger children present a need for a larger number of acoustic signals to understand the contrasts between speech sounds. The production performance of motor sequences increases and the variability in production decreases with child development. This regulation of movement and the learning of motor skills occur in a close and continuous connection between action and perception, and this connection is responsible for the development of the auditory and kinesthetic monitoring of articulatory gestures. Auditory perception as a function of language exposure selects some sound categories to be preserved, whereas others are neglected.
Difficulties in auditory perception may occur as a result of hearing loss, a change in central auditory processing or immaturity of the auditory system to process sounds properly. During their development, children gradually acquire the auditory-perceptual and speech sound production domains, as well as an understanding of the linguistic rules that govern their use in a particular language. Assessment of the auditory perception of children with SSD is of great importance insofar as problems in this area are seen by several authors as one of the possible causes of the disorder [19, 26–30]. In these cases, in addition to the standard set of audiological tests, it is possible to perform electrophysiological exams to evaluate the functional and structural integrity of the auditory pathway and the central and peripheral auditory systems [31–34]. Additional testing can also assess central auditory processing via auditory closure, figure-background, temporal ordering, and interhemispheric transfer capacities. It is worth mentioning that electrophysiological tests can be conducted at any age, but the standardization of expected responses is only possible in children aged 2 years and older, whereas evaluation of the CAP can be conducted only in children older than 7 years owing to the maturation of auditory structures, which is completed approximately at this age.
The development of motor speech control is influenced not only by biological factors, but also by intrinsic (cognitive-linguistic and sensorimotor maturation) and extrinsic (auditory and visual stimulation and perception) forces [35]. Recent studies suggest that when children begin to produce their first words, the coordination of the muscular movements involved in speech is distinct from that presented in sucking and chewing [36].
To achieve the adult standard, vocal tract growth occurs not only in geometric proportion, but also in terms of anatomical restructuring, which refers to the physical changes that occur in the vocal tract structures throughout development [37]. It is worth emphasizing that motor speech control does not occur uniformly, that is, some articulators develop toward the adult pattern before others [38]. Studies indicate that control of the mandible occurs before that of the tongue and lips, perhaps because the mandible presents only vertical movements (lower degree of freedom) as opposed to the tongue and lips, which move more complexly (higher degree of freedom) [35, 37].
With respect to velocity of articulatory movements, a study [39] indicated an increase in the velocity of the mandible and lower lip between 9 and 21 months of age, indicating that both the growth and speed of the articulators present a very early increase toward the adult standard. The specific scientific literature also shows that motor speech skills begin to be refined from the age of 8, continuing up to the age of 16 [40]. Therefore, children at the beginning of speech production do not present sufficient neuromuscular control to produce sounds and, consequently, need to adopt strategies to approach the adult speech model [37]. Articulation rate is an interesting measure to assess the pace at which speech segments are produced. Because this measure can be easily obtained (it only requires a stopwatch to mark the time in which a given sentence is produced) and rapidly calculated (division of the number of produced phones by the time), it can be widely used in speech-language pathology practice.
In addition to the articulation rate, speech-language therapists have been using measures that are more objective over the years. To this end, instruments that produce more accurate results, such as acoustic speech analysis, EGG, aerodynamic measures, and ultrasound tongue imaging, have been increasingly used. Through the visualization of a spectrogram, speech acoustics allows verification of the acoustic properties of sounds that cannot be detected auditorily. In the case of children with SSD, this helps with the characterization of the phonological substitutions and mainly with a better understanding of the distortions usually present in the production of anterior sounds.
EGG allows the verification of vocal fold functioning by placing two electrodes on the thyroid cartilage and using specific software that indicates the opening and closing of the vocal folds. Aerodynamic measures also contribute in the verification of the control mechanism of vocal fold vibration, allowing the observation of intraoral airflow pressure. This occurs because the control of voiced sounds requires, among other conditions, appropriate glottal opening and sufficient airflow through the glottis to support vibration, and increased intraoral airflow pressure decreases the pressure ratio through the glottis, reducing vocal fold vibration (a condition for the occurrence of voicing) [41]. Both EGG and aerodynamic measures show quite interesting outcomes for children with SSD who present the phonological process of devoicing of fricatives and plosives, which is very common in Brazilian-Portuguese (BP) [42, 43]. Ultrasound tongue imaging (UTI) is a tool used in articulatory analysis because it allows real time visualization of tongue movement, allowing speech-language therapists to visualize how the lingual sounds are produced, mainly in cases of substitutions of anterior sounds by posterior sounds (or vice versa) [44–48], as well as in cases of distortions [49, 50]. Thinking of ways to address these interrelationships in children with SSD, our research group has conducted different studies seeking to equip speech-language therapists with innovative knowledge regarding the evaluation and treatment of this pathology. Therefore, the purpose of this survey is to present the recent advances observed in studies conducted with speakers of Brazilian-Portuguese aiming to improve the assessment of speech sound disorders and to better understand the relationship between the different processing mechanisms involved in speech.
Speech perception is an important stage in the development of speech sounds in children [15, 25, 51, 52], and its role is described as a mediator for learning sound production. With this in mind and because of the difficulties observed in children with SSD, several studies have been conducted to investigate the central auditory processing (CAP) [18, 53] and electrophysiological responses obtained through auditory-evoked potentials in Brazilian-Portuguese speaking children with SSD. These studies seek to identify the auditory-perceptual characteristics of children with this speech disorder as well as the evidence of altered auditory processing and the lack of maturity-integrity of auditory pathways that could compromise auditory feedback, which is extremely important for phonological development.
For the identification of such characteristics, the application of tests involving these three processing mechanisms (auditory-perceptual, cognitive-linguistic, and motor speech) is important for the identification of major impairments and consequent selection of the treatment to be applied to the individual being assessed. The evaluation of CAP provides significant contributions to the diagnostics of SSD, as it helps with the identification of the speech impairments presented by children with this disorder. A CAP disorder could affect the ability to discriminate speech sounds and result in altered and/or less stable neural representations of these sounds, which may interfere with speech perception and production [54]. The CAP evaluation considers the interaction of the auditory information associated with the acquisition and organization of the phonological rules in this population, and it is important to guide speech-language pathology intervention. This contribution comes about because the central auditory processing disorder (CAP disorder)—defined as a difficulty with sound information processing—may result in language and learning disorders [55], as it interferes with the formation of a stable representation of phonemes in the brain and with speech perception, hindering the learning of phonology, syntax, and semantics [56].
There are few studies in the literature correlating SSD with CAP for either English or Brazilian-Portuguese. This can be explained by the fact that the diagnosis of SSD is most frequently performed between the ages of 5 and 7 and the application of CAP is conducted only after 7 years of age because of the maturation of the auditory structures involved, which is expected to be almost complete by this age.
A recent study [18] addressed the analysis of phonological and CAP measures in children with SSD. The study sample was composed of 21 individuals with SSD aged 7:0–9:11 years divided into 2 groups: participants with SSD and participants without CAP disorder. The assessment comprised tests of phonology, speech inconsistency, metalinguistic and motor speech abilities. The abilities assessed in the central auditory processing and the following behavioral phenomena are in Table 2.
CAP abilities | Behavioral phenomena |
---|---|
Auditory closure | Acoustic signal recognition when parts of it are omitted |
Figure-background | Identifying the speech signal in the presence of other competitive sounds |
Temporal ordering and interhemispheric transfer | Recognition of acoustic characteristics of the signal |
Abilities and behavioral phenomena assessed in the CAP.
The results indicated that children with SSD and CAP disorder showed higher occurrence of the phonological process of consonant cluster reduction and greater difficulty in phonological awareness abilities: rhyme and alliteration. In addition, the group without CAP disorder presented lower values of percentage of consonants correct-revised (PCC-R) and higher values of process density index (PDI), and consequently greater severity of SSD (Figure 1).
Values of percentage of consonants correct-revised (PCC-R), percentage of consonants correct (PCC), and process density index (PDI) in both group.
A cutoff value was established for the PDI [57], indicating that children with an index value >0.54 showed a strong tendency toward presenting a CAP disorder (sensitivity of 0.73 and specificity of 0.90). This measure effectively indicated the need for CAP evaluation in children with SSD aged 7 years and older.
In addition, the authors verified in 2016 that the greater the severity of SSD and the greater the impairment with metaphonological skills of rhyme and alliteration, the larger the number of absent sounds in the child’s phonetic inventory, and the larger the number of altered skills found in the CAP exam. Therefore, this reinforces the existing interaction between the three processing mechanisms.
Another recent study [53] was conducted to identify a cutoff value based on the PCC-R [58] metric that could indicate the likelihood of a child with SSD also having a CAPD. Language, audiological, and CAP evaluations were administered. Participants were 27 individuals with SSD aged 7–10:11 years divided into 2 groups according to their CAP evaluation. Three different auditory skills were assessed using the Brazilian versions of four CAP tests [59]. Auditory closure was assessed using the figure identification (with competitive ipsilateral noise) test; binaural integration was evaluated using the dichotic digits test; and temporal ordering was tested using both the pitch pattern sequence test and the duration pattern sequence test. The results indicated that SSD severity varied according to the number of impaired auditory skills. Greater severity of speech disorders in children was associated with a greater probability of presenting a CAP disorder. The cutoff values of 83.4% for the picture naming task (N) and 84.5% for the imitation of words task (I) successfully distinguished children with CAP disorder from those without.
In addition to the conventional audiological assessment composed of tonal audiometry, vocal audiometry, tympanometry measures, and central auditory processing exam, the central and peripheral auditory systems can be evaluated by auditory-evoked potentials (AEPs). As it is possible to assess the AEPs from the age of 2, these tests can be performed at the time of the SSD diagnosis, providing important information for the implementation of treatment in each case. The studies developed for Brazilian-Portuguese relating children with SSD and AEPs have applied both short latency potentials, using the click and speech stimuli, and long-latency potentials, with speech and tone burst stimuli.
The study of the short- and long-latency AEPs in two boys with SSD, speakers of Brazilian-Portuguese, aged 76 and 83 months [18]. The study characterized both the severity of SSD and the auditory responses. SSD severity was described by the PCC-R index calculated based on a specific test for Brazilian [21]. As for the brainstem auditory-evoked potential (BAEP), the click and speech stimuli were used, as well as the long-latency auditory-evoked potential (LLAEP) with speech and tone burst stimuli for analysis of the latency values of components P1, N1, P2, N2, and P300. The results showed PCC-R values of 84% for the younger individual and 71% for the older individual. As for the long-latency potentials with speech stimuli, the results showed alteration in the components N1, P1, N2, and P2 in both individuals, suggesting a delay in the latency of these components. This delay implies a decrease in the velocity of auditory processing of acoustic information in the cortical and subcortical regions. This change can hinder discrimination, integration, and auditory attention to verbal stimuli. In the P300 component, the individual with more severe SSD presented impaired results, suggesting that SSD severity is associated with the P300 cognitive potential.
Other research [60] investigated whether neurophysiologic responses (auditory-evoked potentials) differ between typically developing children and children with SSD, and whether these responses were modified in children with SSD after speech-language pathology intervention. Participants were 24 typically developing children and 23 children with SSD, aged 8–11 years. Of the 23 children with SSD, 12 were undergoing speech-language therapy and 11 were not. These children were re-evaluated after 12 weeks. All participants presented normal hearing thresholds and were submitted to the following procedures: conventional audiological, brainstem auditory-evoked response, auditory middle-latency response, and P300 assessments. Results of the electrophysiological responses indicated different latency between children with typical development and with SSD on both the BAEP and P300 tests. P300 responses improved in the children submitted to speech-language pathology intervention. The authors concluded that the children with SSD presented impaired BAEPs and cortical region pathways that could benefit from intervention.
Aiming to compare the neurophysiological brainstem responses for clicks and repeated speech stimuli of children with and without SSD aged 7–11 years, a group of researchers [61] observed that the early stages of the auditory processing pathway of acoustic stimuli were not similar in children with typical development and those with SSD. This finding suggests that alteration in the coding of speech sounds may be a biological marker of SSD without defining the biological origins of phonological problems (Table 3).
Click evoked—ABR | Speech evoked—ABR | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wave I | Wave III | Wave V | I–III interpeak | III–V interpeak | I–V interpeak | Wave V | Wave A | Wave C | Wave F | |
Children without SSD | 1.43 | 3.53 | 5.41 | 2.10 | 1.92 | 4.02 | 7.41 | 9.39 | 19.42 | 40.10 |
Children with SSD | 1.50 | 3.64 | 5.54 | 2.14 | 1.91 | 4.04 | 8.58 | 10.32 | 18.76 | 40.00 |
p-Value | 0.43 | 0.70 | 0.25 | 0.95 | 0.58 |
Middle-latency values for both groups in the ABR with click and speech stimuli.
*statistically significant values (significance level adopted: 0.05).
ABR, auditory brainstem responses; SSD, speech sound disorders.
The factors that positively affect child speech production throughout the developmental phase are associated with biological factors and/or learning abilities. Biological factors (modified with age) include anatomical growth and neurological and neuromuscular maturity. Learning skills (acquired with speech and language development) include motor learning (motor planning and motor programming of speech movements) and cognitive-linguistic (semantic, lexical, and phonological access) processing. For a better understanding of SSDs, many studies [62–65] have attempted to define linguistic markers by using specific instruments, such as articulation rate (AR), acoustic analysis of speech (AA), aerodynamic measures, and ultrasound tongue imaging (UTI) that could contribute diverse objective evidence.
Despite the fact that AR reflects the maturity of the motor speech system, it is not an isolated motor measure. AR incorporates aspects related to the cognitive-linguistic processing of information [39, 66], including an increased load in phonological and syntactic processing beginning at the age of 5 years [67].
Demands on oral language processing vary according to different speech tasks and depend on factors, such as attention, familiar sentence (word frequency and phonotactic probability), and size and syntactic complexity of the sentence. Previous studies have shown that children speak faster in simple speech tasks (such as repetition of syllables) than in tasks involving higher demand (such as spontaneous speech) [68]. Nip [69] noted that the velocity of articulatory movements was faster for speech tasks of low demand and slower for highly demanding ones.
Other studies have shown that children produce long sentences with higher AR in comparison with short sentences [70–72]. This phenomenon may be associated with AR control strategies, such as reducing effort to increase coarticulation, thus generating an increase in the number of phones per second produced during speech. These motor adjustments also seem to be associated with motor speech control maturity, considering that AR is only greater in longer sentences than in shorter ones for adults, but not for younger individuals [67].
The use of inappropriate AR may also hinder the articulation of sounds and reduce speech intelligibility in children with SSD, resulting in disfluency, articulatory problems, and/or language disorders, indicating difficulties in the formulation of language and/or in the recovery of words [69, 73, 74].
Studies with English [71, 73, 75] and Brazilian-Portuguese speakers [72] that analyzed AR in children with SSD indicated that these children present decreased AR compared with that of their typically developing peers. Decreased AR in children with SSD can occur due to motor speech control immaturity and/or may be caused by some form of compensation provided by these children, such as the occurrence of articulatory adjustments for certain problematic sounds in an attempt to improve speech intelligibility [73]. These studies also found no difference between boys and girls for the AR analysis.
The investigation of how linguistic complexity variables are related to age and phonological measures can provide important insights to understand the influence of biological and cognitive-linguistic factors on the development of speech production velocity, such as those measured by AR.
A recent study [76] aimed to quantify the articulation rate expected between typically developing children and those with SSD to determine whether this measure could be used as a marker to complete SSD diagnosis. The study sample was composed of 157 children, aged 60–119 months, distributed in two groups: a group of 70 participants with typical development (TDG) and a group of 87 participants diagnosed with SSD (SSDG). A phonology test developed for native speakers of Brazilian-Portuguese [21] was applied to verify phonological processes and calculate the PCC-R. AR was measured in a short sentence (ARSS) with 12 phones “The dog ran away”—[´u ka´ʃoxu fu´ʒiʷ] and in a long sentence (ARLS) with 22 phones: “Maria has a red ball”—[a ma´ɾia ´t˜e ´uma ´bɔla veɾ´meʎa]. The long and short sentences were repeated three times each, with a total of 942 analyzed repetitions. Productions containing obvious disfluencies or intraphrase pauses (>250 ms) were also excluded. AR analysis was performed using the Praat 5.1 software.
The results showed that AR values for children with SSD were lower than those for typically developing children [72, 73] and that the number of phones per second increased according to age in both groups. AR values can be used to distinguish children with SSD from those without, as well as to indicate increased difficulty in speech production in children with SSD [73]. There was a evidence that children with SSD who had PCC-R <65% performed differently to those with PCC-R ≥65% in the AR. Correlation was found between age and AR measured in the short and long sentences (biological factor) in the SSDG [67, 69, 75, 77, 78], but severity was only associated with the long sentence (learning factor) [68–70], demonstrating that the more severe the speech disorder, the lower the PCC-R value, and the slower the production of complex sentences.
AR measurement is important in two contexts in clinical practice. Firstly, it evaluates the speech of a child and verifies if the motor speech and cognitive-linguistic processing mechanisms are those expected for child development and appropriate age range. Second, it can be used as a measure of therapeutic monitoring of children with SSD [67]. Moreover, the study reported that the AR measure can be used to indicate whether modifications caused by speech-language therapy are the result of the intervention strategies selected or only a result of changes already expected during the normal maturation process of children [79, 80].
Acoustic analysis (AA) reflects the acoustic and articulatory characteristics of speech, thus contributing to a better characterization of the functioning of the motor speech system. In addition to the formant frequencies (with F1, F2, and F3 as the most frequently used in speech analysis), AA allows measurements of speech segment duration, steady-state portion from the target sound, tone burst, silence interval, friction, noise, voice onset time (VOT) of formant transition in word production, and slope analysis [81, 82]. The presence of phonetic and acoustic distinctions provides evidence that children have more knowledge about the sound system than one might imagine based on descriptive phonological analysis alone [82, 83].
Pagan-Neves [81] described the acoustic characteristics of the liquid sounds /l/ and /P/ produced by 20 children with and without SSD. Speech production of the words /se’bola/-onion, /’lãma/-mud, /ʒaka´∡ɛ/-alligator, and /ʒi’∡afa/-giraffe were acoustically analyzed according to the following parameters: F1, F2, and F3, duration and steady-state portion from the target sound, and slope analysis. The results indicated that duration of the sound /l/ was an important measure to differentiate children with SSD from those without SSD. Duration of the sound /∡/ was longer for the children with SSD, who always substituted the target sound /∡/ for the sound /l/, in comparison with the group of children without SSD, who correctly produced the sound /∡/. Slope analysis demonstrated higher values for the children without SSD for the two target sounds /l/ and /∡/, indicating that the articulation velocity from the target sound to the following vowel for the children with SSD is slower for both the sound /l/ correctly produced by these children and for the sound /∡/, which was substituted for the sound /l/. An example of the duration of the transition measurement (between the two thick blak lines) is observed in Figure 2.
Example of the duration of the transition measurement during the production of the syllable [∡].
Results demonstrated that the longer the duration for the production of the target sound, the slower the slope measure. Even though children with SSD used the duration to differentiate the production of the sound /l/ from the same sound produced in substitution for the sound /P/ in the children without SSD, their speech presents slower speeds for transition between sounds, which may interfere with the listener\'s auditory perception. This study verified that the articulation accuracy of children without SSD was greater even when considering the sound /l/, which was correctly produced by the children with SSD, reinforcing the oral motor difficulties presented by the latter.
With the objective of verifying the production and maintenance of voicing of fricatives in Brazilian-Portuguese (BP) speaking children, a group of researchers [43] described the oral airflow characteristics of six BP speaking children aged 82 and 89 months for the voiced fricatives /v, z, Z/, for weak voicing. Comparison between the reference values of the voiced fricatives produced by adult speakers of European Portuguese and the production of BP speaking children showed greater occurrence of weak voicing. This measure is a classification of the voicing category of fricatives, which determines that when there is more than 70% relative reduction in the amplitude of oral airflow oscillations between the fricative and the surrounding vowels, the fricative is classified as having weak voicing. However, children seem to have acquired the phonological rules pertaining to voicing and employ them effectively.
Another study [42] described the properties of the fricative sound /v/ using the aerodynamic measure of weak voicing in 15 children with SSD, also speakers of PB, aged 60–95 months. Of these 15 children, 8 presented devoicing in more than 25% of their productions and 7 did not present devoicing of the fricative [v]. The results showed similarities in the strategies used for the production and maintenance of the voiced fricative sound /v/ in both groups investigated.
In a study [84] that analyzed the speech of 47 children aged 60 and 95 months, 22 with SSD and 27 without, the author recorded aerodynamic and EGG measures for the sounds /v, z, ʒ /. Overall, the results showed that the children in the age range studied do not make full use of the strategies for the production and maintenance of voicing of fricatives reported for adults. This fact was verified in the group of children without SSD, in which the participants presented no significant difference between the sounds for the aerodynamic and EGG measures. The same was observed for the comparisons between children with and without SSD. Specifically in children with SSD, the aerodynamic and EGG measures suggest greater difficulty in the voicing of the /ʒ/ sound and greater ease in the voicing of the /v/ sound. Furthermore, this finding also shows that children with SSD present difficulty in controlling vocal fold abduction, confirmed by the higher abduction quotient (AQ) found when compared with that of children without SSD.
Several studies have revealed that the tongue contour visualized using ultrasound tongue imaging (UTI) during speech production can be used for various purposes. However, the specific use of these images as a complementary analysis for SSD diagnosis is still a recent issue in the literature. Although previous research has shown that ultrasound imaging of tongue shape can be used for various sounds, answering phonological questions, conducting phonetic fieldwork, and for use in speech rehabilitation [45, 85–88], the specific use of this technique as a complementary analysis for SSD diagnosis is recent. Moreover, much discussion about the qualitative and quantitative analysis of data persists, particularly concerning the most appropriate methods for comparing individuals. Few standardized measures enable analysis of tongue contour [86, 88, 89].
A qualitative study [48] of the tongue shape for the /s/ and /ʃ/ sounds in three different groups of children with and without SSD. Six participants aged 5 and 8 years, all speakers of Brazilian-Portuguese, were divided into three groups: Group 1, with two typically developing children; Group 2, with two children with SSD presenting other phonological processes except those involving the production of the /ʃ/ sound; and Group 3, with two children with SSD presenting phonological processes associated with the presence of palatal fronting (these two children produced /ʃ/ as /s/). The words /’ʃavi/ (key) and /’sapu/ (frog) were produced five times and tongue contour was individually traced for each production. Figure 3 provides an example tongue contour of a child, the front of the tongue is on the right and the tongue root is on the left.
Ultrasound tongue imaging of a child.
The study presented an initial analysis of the sounds /ʃ/ and /s/ produced by children with typical development and with SSD. The variables focused on were as follows: within-speaker variability, shape contour during the /ʃ/ sound production, shape contour of the /ʃ/ sound produced as /s/, and tongue shape during the /s/ sound production. As demonstrated in other studies conducted with English speaking adults and children [90], significant within-speaker variability was observed in articulatory patterns. General results (Figure 4) indicated that the speech variability observed in the groups of children with SSD (2 and 3) was greater than that found in the control group (1). Regardless of gender and the presence or not of the palatal fronting phonological process, the four children with SSD presented greater variability during the production of the target sounds. Analysis of the tongue contour showed that both the /s/ and /ʃ/ sounds were produced using distinct tongue contours for G1 and G2. The production of these two groups was more stable than that of G3. Tongue contour for the /s/ and /ʃ/ sounds in the children in G3 was similar, indicating that their production was undifferentiated. The authors concluded that the application of UTI to speech analysis was effective to confirm the perceptual analysis of the sound performed by the speech-language pathologist.
Overlapping images in the production of the sounds /ʃ/ and /s/ for each individual of the study sample.
Observation of the articulatory pattern in normal adults is also of great importance as it provides information that allows comparative analysis of the variations in speech production expected during child development. It is worth pointing out that children are slower and more variable and that this may be associated with coarticulation [36, 40, 71].
A recent study [46] described ultra sonographic measures for tongue contours during the production of the sounds /s/ and /∫/ in adults, typically developing children (TD), and children with SSD with the palatal fronting phonological process. Overlapping images of the tongue contours that resulted from the production of the /s/ and /∫/ sounds of 35 individuals were analyzed to select 11 spokes on the radial grid that were spread over the tongue contour (Figure 5). The difference between the mean contour of the /s/ and /∫/ sounds was calculated for each spoke. The cluster analysis produced groups with some consistency in the articulation pattern between individuals and differentiated adults from children with normal development to some extent, and from children with SSD with a high level of success. Children with SSD were less likely to show differentiation of the tongue contours between articulation of the /s/ and /∫/ sounds (Figure 6).
Example of mean tongue contours in the production of the [s] and [ʃ] sounds illustrating the 11 spokes chosen.
Overlapping of the mean tongue contours in the production of the [s] (solid line) and [ʃ] (dashed line) sounds for some subjects.
The results showed that the measures of tongue contour differ in the 11 spokes when articulation of the [s] and [ʃ] sounds was effective to differentiate the full extent of the tongue (tip/blade, dorsum, and root). The values of the differences between the tongue contours allowed differentiation of the articulation patterns in adults, children with normal development, and children with SSD with palatal fronting. Thus, UTI is effective to assist research and in the supplementary diagnosis of children with SSD, therefore, contributing to the planning and prognosis of these children and making speech-language pathology assessments more objective and reliable.
The presence of SSD in children is confirmed by the application of the imitation of words, picture naming, and spontaneous speech tasks that allow description of both the phonetic inventory and the phonological rules that children have properly mastered and those that they somehow simplify. Due to the intrinsic nature of the disorder, it is necessary to adapt the tests to the language spoken by the child. In the present chapter, we have addressed studies conducted with children who speak Brazilian-Portuguese and present SSD. These studies have contributed to diagnosis refinement and intervention practice for SSD. Identification and description of SSDs became more detailed with the possibility of applying more direct procedures with the use of noninvasive equipment for the evaluation of children with a suspected disorder. Studies that employ these procedures contribute with important information for more effective interventions with better and faster results. We strongly recommend that the methods presented at this chapter should be applied to other languages.
The main contributions of these studies are summarized as follows:
Children with speech sound and central auditory processing disorders present lower PCC-R and higher PDI values, indicating greater severity.
Studies on auditory-evoked potentials indicate differences between children with and without SSD, with increased latency in the presence of this disorder.
There is evidence that the articulation rate in children with SSD is lower than that in children without speech and language alterations, despite its increase with age. Also, children with lower PCC-R values are even slower in producing complex sentences.
Acoustic analysis—currently a procedure more easily accessed by speech-language pathologists—is also an interesting intervention strategy. The present study shows evidence that the speech of children with SSD is slower than that of children without SSD, with longer total segment duration and passage to the next sound. The study showed that by replacing the sound [ɾ] with the sound [l], children with SSD tend to produce a longer [l] sound seeking to mark the difference in production.
Aerodynamic and EGG measures present great potential to assist speech-language pathologists with understanding the mechanism of production and maintenance of voicing. The studies cited here suggest that children in the age range analyzed still do not have control of this mechanism, even when they are able to produce the voicing.
UTI assists with the identification of articulatory language gestures involved in the production of sounds. The study presented a measure of tongue contour that facilitates the identification of gestures used in the production of the [s] and [ʃ] sounds, providing speech-language pathologists with a more accurate description to use during interventions.
High-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs) and heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) have attracted many attentions in high speed and power applications due to the superior transport properties. As compared to AlGaAs pseudomorphic HEMTs (PHEMTs), InGaP-related devices have advantages, such as higher band gaps, higher valence-band discontinuity [1], negligible deep-complex (DX) centers [2], excellent etching selectivity between InGaP and GaAs, good thermal stabilities [3-5], higher Schottky barrier heights [3], and so on. Particularly, the use of an undoped InGaP insulator takes the advantages of its low DX centers and low reactivity with oxygen [6-10], which may still suffer from the high gate leakage issue. In order to inhibit the gate leakage issue, increase the power handling capabilities, and improve the breakdown voltages, a metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) structure has been widely investigated. However, it is still lacks a reliable native oxide film growing on InGaP, and very few papers have reported on InGaP/InGaAs MOS-PHEMTs. In addition, the MOS-PHEMT not only has the advantages of the MOS structure (e.g., lower leakage current and higher breakdown voltage) but also has the high-density, high-mobility 2DEG channel.
\n\t\t\tOver the past years, a study on the liquid phase oxidation (LPO) of InGaP near room temperature has been done [11-14]. The application of surface passivation to improve the InGaP/GaAs HBTs’ performance has also been first demonstrated [13]. The InGaP/GaAs HBTs with surface passivation by LPO exhibit significant improvement in current gain at low collector current regimes due to the reduction of surface recombination current, as compared to those without surface passivation. Moreover, a larger breakdown voltage and a lower base recombination current are also obtained. In this chapter, the oxide film composition and some issues are addressed. Then a thin InGaP native oxide film prepared by the LPO as the gate dielectric for InGaP/InGaAs MOS-PHEMTs application are discussed, and the comparisons between devices with and without LPO passivation on the InGaP/GaAs HBTs are also reviewed.
\n\t\tThe root mean square (rms) value of surface roughness for the In0.49Ga0.51P sample is estimated to be 1.1 nm before oxidation (i.e., as received) by AFM measurement, and can be improved to 0.95 nm after oxidation (i.e., as grown), as shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 shows the SIMS depth profiles before and after liquid phase oxidation on In0.49Ga0.51P. Although LPO on InGaP material has a much slower oxidation rate which is less than 10 nm/h, as comparing to that of the GaAs material, however, it is still feasible to grow a thin oxide film without pH control [15, 16]. The oxidation rate becomes significantly saturated when the oxidation time is longer than an hour, which is measured using a Veeco Instrument DEKTAK and confirmed by SEM.
\n\t\t\tThe XPS depth profiles of the LPO-grown oxide for In0.49Ga0.51P are shown in Fig. 3(a). Fig. 3(b) -(d)show the XPS surface spectra of the Ga-3d, In-3d, and P-2p core levels, respectively. The binding energies for all spectra are calibrated with the reference (as-received) signal. The as-received sample was dipped into a solution of HF:H2O = 1:200 for 30 s before measurement. From Fig. 3(c)-(d), in comparison with the previous paper [17], the spectrum is rather similar to that of InPO4. This is also confirmed by the values of the O-1s peak energy and energy separations between the main core levels (i.e., Ga-3d, In-3d, and P-2p) in the oxide phases [18]. This clearly suggests that the oxide film is mostly composed of InPO4-like and Ga oxide. In addition, the oxide film may appear to be etched back in the growth solution after 2 h of oxidation. The thermal stability of the oxide layer is also important in
\n\t\t\tAFM images of the In0.49Ga0.51P sample before (i.e., as received) and after (i.e., as grown) liquid phase oxidation.
SIMS depth profiles of the In0.49Ga0.51P sample before (i.e., as received) and after (i.e., as grown) liquid phase oxidation.
device fabrications because high-temperature processes are usually required. Again, XPS is utilized to also important in device fabrications because high-temperature processes are usually required. Again, XPS is utilized to analyze the surface chemistry of the oxide films, as shown in Fig. 3. After 2 h of oxidation, the RTA processes were performed in a furnace with N2 flowing at 300-700 oC for 1 min [13]; however, a peak of InPO4-like is still observed. InPO4 (bandgap energy = 4.5 eV) is chemically stable and has rather good dielectric properties [19]. As a result, the InPO4 probably acts as a capping layer for the entire oxide film to enhance the thermal stability. However, the experimental results show that high-temperature treatments (700 oC) will change the properties of Ga2O3, since the XPS energy peak of Ga2O3 shifts to a lower binding energy, and the binding energy is inferred to form the GaOx or Ga2Ox.
\n\t\ta) The XPS depth profiles of the as-grown oxide film on In0.49Ga0.51P. The (b)-(d) show the XPS surface spectra for the Ga-3d, In-3d, and P-2p core levels, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 4 schematically shows the PHEMT structure grown by the metallorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) on a semi-insulating GaAs substrate. Hall measurement indicates that the electron mobility is 4000 cm2/V s, and the electron sheet density is 2.2×1012 cm-2 at room temperature [11]. The device isolation was accomplished by mesa wet etching down to the buffer layer. The ohmic contacts of the Au/Ge/Ni metal were deposited by evaporation and then were patterned by lift-off processes, followed by RTA. The depth of gate recess is 110 nm for reference PHEMT and 100 nm for MOS-PHEMT. After etching the capping layer and the partial Schottky layer, an LPO growth solution was used to generate the gate oxide for the MOS-PHEMT at 50 oC for 30 min. Finally, the gate electrode was formed with Au. Moreover, the oxide layer, as illustrated in the figure, also selectively and simultaneously passivated the isolated surface sidewall. The gate dimension is 2×100 μm2 with a drain-to-source spacing of 5 μm.
\n\t\t\tThe schematic drawing of the InGaP/InGaAs MOS-PHEMT.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 5(a) compares the measured I-V characteristics of the MOS-PHEMT with those of the reference PHEMT fabricated under identical conditions. Clearly, good pinch-off and saturation current characteristics are obtained. Due to the higher energy barriers between the metal gate and the Schottky layer, the MOS-PHEMT can be operated at higher gate-to-source voltage (VGS) and drain-to-source voltage (VDS) than those of the conventional Schottky gate PHEMT, which can enhance the current driving capability. Fig. 5(b) compares the transconductance gm and the drain current density ID as a function of VGS at VDS = 4 V of the MOS-PHEMTs with those of the reference PHEMT. For MOS-PHEMT, the 1.8 V-wide gate voltage swing (defined by 10% reduction from the maximum gm) is higher than that of the PHEMT. The threshold voltage Vth of MOS-PHEMT shifts to the left, which is similar to the result of the one with oxide deposited on the Schottky layer [20, 21]. However, the separation region between the oxide-InGaP interface and the InGaAs channel for MOS-PHEMT is still larger than that of the reference PHEMT in this study, so the drain current density of the PHEMT is smaller than that of the MOS-PHEMT at the same bias VGS due to the decrease of the carrier concentration within the InGaAs 2DEG channel.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Measured I-V characteristics of MOS-PHEMT and PHEMT. (b) The transconductance and the drain current density versus VGS at VDS = 4 V for the MOS-PHEMT and the reference PHEMT.
In addition, if the depth of gate recess is etched to be 120 nm, the Vth becomes more positive, -0.5 V, for MOS-PHEMT with the identical processing conditions including initial pH value (5.0), temperature (50 oC), and oxidation time (30 min). For Vth shifts to the right, the separation between the oxide-InGaP layer interface and the InGaAs channel layer is decreased due to the consumption of the InGaP during the processes of gate recess and the unique properties of the LPO with the reaction of InGaP, leading to the increase of the total effect of the gate bias on the control of Vth. However, a decrease in the maximum gm, 63 mS/mm, accompanies the degradation in the saturation current, 84 mA/mm at VGS = 1 V. The result is also confirmed by a longer oxidation time, i.e., a thicker oxide layer. This drawback can be overcome by suitable device structures, such as inserting a Si-planar doping layer under the InGaAs channel to increase the carrier density.
\n\t\t\t\tThe oxide film provides an improvement in the breakdown voltage in terms of the gate leakage current of the MOS structure, supported by the typical gate-to-drain I-V characteristics, as shown in Fig. 6(a). For InGaP MOS-PHEMT, the turn-on voltage, 2.2 V, is obviously higher than that of InGaP PHEMT, 0.8 V, and the corresponding reverse gate-to-drain breakdown voltages, BVGD, are -14.1 V and -6.5 V, respectively. The turn-on voltage and the BVGD are defined as the voltage at which the gate current reaches 1 mA/mm. The gate leakage current can be suppressed at least by more than two orders of magnitude with an oxide film at VGD = -4 V. The smaller gate leakage current of MOS-PHEMT is due to the MOS structure and the elimination of sidewall leakage paths that are directly passivated during the oxidation, which is consistent with the result of Fig. 5. In addition, the gate leakage current observed in MOS-PHEMT comes from a gate leakage path at the edge of the mesa [22] that is not present in the MOS capacitor, which may contribute to the Schottky-like I-V characteristics for forward biases. Fig. 6(b) shows the gate current density as a function of reverse VGS at different VDS. Due to the high electric field existing in the gate-to-drain region, hot electron phenomena occur in the narrow band-gap InGaAs channel. Electrons can obtain higher energy to generate electron-hole pairs through the enhanced impact ionization, resulting in easy injection of the holes into the gate terminal [23]. However, in InGaP-related devices, it is more difficult for the holes generated by the impact ionization to overcome the valence band discontinuity and to reach the gate [4], so the bell shaped behavior of the impact ionization does not appear in Fig. 6. Moreover, the gate current density of MOS-PHEMT is significantly improved, which is less than 0.5 μA/mm, as compared to that of PHEMT. In other words, the electrons and holes generated by the impact ionization are decreased to further reduce the drain and gate currents owing to the oxide layer with a high barrier height.
\n\t\t\t\tIn order to have a better insight into the transient behavior of the studied devices, the gate pulse measurements were performed using a Tektronix 370A curve tracer [24]. VGS was pulsed from the Vth to 0 V with a pulsewidth of 80 μs, while VDS was swept from 0 to 4 V. The comparisons between the static and pulsed I-V characteristics for PHEMT and MOS-PHEMT are shown in Fig. 7. The drain current of PHEMT decreased by 9.8%, while the MOS-PHEMT decreased by only 0.63%. To the best of our knowledge, if the pulsewidth is too short, electrons captured by the traps do not have enough time to be fully emitted. However, if the pulsewidth is long enough, all the trapped electrons are de-trapped and will contribute to the drain current. We believe that the differences between dc and pulsed I-V become evident by applying shorter voltage pulses to the gate such as less than 10-μs pulses for PHEMT and MOS-PHEMT. Therefore, it is clear that the oxide passivation on the Schottky layer can minimize the effect of surface traps, which is consistent with the lower gate leakage current in Fig. 6.
\n\t\t\t\ta) The typical IG-VGD characteristics of PHEMT with and without an oxide film. (b) The gate current density versus reverse VGS at different VDS.
Gate pulse measurements for (a) reference PHEMT and (b) MOS-PHEMT with VGS pulsed from Vth to 0 V with a pulsewidth of 80 μs, while VDS was swept from 0 to 4 V.
The structure used for HBT is given in Table 1. The epilayers were grown by a low-pressure MOCVD system on an (100)-oriented semi-insulating (S.I.) GaAs substrate. For InGaP/GaAs HBTs, device fabrication began with emitter definition. The emitter cap layer was removed and stopped at the InGaP active layer. After removing the InGaP layer, a growth solution was used to form the base oxide (passivation) on the exposed extrinsic surface of base and the base contact was then deposited. Finally, the mesa of base was defined and etched to sub-collector before the collector contact deposition. H3PO4-based etchant was used for GaAs and InGaP. The Au/Ge and Au/Be metals were deposited by evaporation and patterned by lift-off processing to form emitter, base and collector regions, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\tLayer | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMaterial | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThickness (nm) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDopant (cm-3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cap Graded Sub-emitter Emitter Base Collector Etching-stop Sub-collector | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tInGaAs InGaAs GaAs InGaP GaAs GaAs InGaP GaAs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t45 45 130 40 100 750 20 600 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1×1019 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1×1019 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5×1018\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 3×1017 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4×1019 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1×1016 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5×1018\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 5×10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t18\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t S.I. GaAs substrate \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
S.I. GaAs substrate | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The epitaxial structure of InGaP/GaAs HBT.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 8 shows the common-emitter I-V characteristics of the HBT with and without surface passivation by LPO. Clearly, the dc current gain (β) of HBTs with passivation is improved (increased) 15% when comparing to HBTs without passivation. The higher β with surface passivation is due to the reduction of the surface recombination current in the exposed extrinsic base regions by LPO method. The common-emitter I-V characteristics of the devices with and without surface passivation at low collector current regimes are shown
\n\t\t\t\tCommon-emitter I-V characteristics of the HBTs with and without LPO passivation.
in Fig. 9. The devices with surface passivation have higher common-emitter β than those devices without passivation, due to the reduction of the surface combination velocity by using an oxide layer on the base surface. In addition, the β values with and without passivation are 13.3 and 2 at IB = 900 pA, respectively. The maximum increase of 7 fold in the current gain at collector current down to nA level.
\n\t\t\t\tCommon-emitter I-V characteristics of the HBTs (a) without and (b) with LPO passivation at low collector current regimes.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 10 illustrates the measured Gummel plots of the devices with and without LPO passivation. The collector currents are almost identical without being affected by the passivation treatment. However, a decrease of the base leakage current at low collector current levels is obviously observed after oxidation. Moreover, it is found that the recombination current at the extrinsic base region and the base-emitter perimeter are competed against one another, resulting in current reduction at lower base-emitter bias VBE = 0.4 V. The increasing β is owing to the reduction of the surface recombination current. It can also be indicated that the device with pasivation exhibits higher β than that without passivation at lower VBE bias. The comparison of β versus the collector current is shown in Fig. 11. The collector-base bias is maintained at 0 V. Clearly, the device with LPO passivation shows wider collector regimes from 10-10 A to 0.1 A. And the maximum shift of
\n\t\t\t\tTypical Gummel plots of InGaP/GaAs HBTs with and without LPO passivation.
Comparison of the β against the collector current IC. The inset shows the base-collector junction breakdown characteristics with and without LPO passivation.
5 fold in the current gain from collector current of 8.1×10-10 A to 1.6×10-10 A can be achieved. This is attributed to the surface state density are suppressed, i.e., the surface recombination current is effectively reduced. The inset shows the base-collector junction current against bias voltage for the devices with and without passivation. For the device with passivation, the breakdown voltage (23.5 V) is higher than that (21.9 V) without passivation at I = 50 μA. The smaller leakage current is owing to the reduction of the surface recombination by the native oxide passivation in the base region. Above results clearly indicate that the β at low (medium) collector current regimes and the breakdown voltage will be increased. Additionally, the base current is decreased for the devices with passivation when comparing to those without passivation, which will be beneficial to low-power electronics and communication applications.
\n\t\t\tThe InGaP/InGaAs/GaAs MOS-PHEMT with the In0.49Ga0.51P oxide as the gate insulator prepared by LPO has been demonstrated. As compared to the counterpart of the conventional InGaP PHEMT, the proposed InGaP MOS-PHEMT can further reduce the gate leakage current at least by two orders of magnitude, increase the breakdown voltage by 200%, and enhance the gate voltage swing. Also, the pulse transient measurement shows much less impact of the surface trap effects for the InGaP MOS-PHEMT. In addition, as compared to the conventional InGaP/GaAs HBTs without surface passivation, the HBTs with LPO passivation possess the characteristics of lower surface recombination currents, higher breakdown voltage and improved higher dc current gain. The HBTs with LPO passivation exhibit 700% improvement in current gain at low collector current regimes by the reduction of surface recombination current, as compared to those without passivation. Therefore, the proposed low-temperature and low-cost LPO can easily be implemented and can provide new opportunities in device applications.
\n\t\tThe authors wish to thank Nan-Ying Yang whose research made this work possible. This work was supported in part by the National Science Council of Taiwan under contract number NSC95-2221-E-006-428-MY3, NSC97-2221-E-214-063, and the MOE Program for Promoting Academic Excellence of Universities.
\n\t\tOve Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\\n\\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\\n\\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\\n\\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
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\\n\\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
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\\n\\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\\n\\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
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Using the same data set (where possible), the predictive ability of shallow depth ANNs was validated against partial least squares (PLS, a traditional chemometrics method). Spectral interference (in the form of overlaps between spectral lines) is a key problem in large-size, long focal length inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Unless corrected, spectral interference can be sufficiently severe to the point of preventing precise and accurate analytical determinations. In miniaturized, microplasma-based optical emission spectrometry with a portable, short focal length spectrometer (having poorer resolution than its large-size counterpart), spectral interference becomes even more severe. To correct it, we are evaluating use of deep learning ANNs. Details are provided in this chapter.",book:{id:"6187",slug:"advanced-applications-for-artificial-neural-networks",title:"Advanced Applications for Artificial Neural Networks",fullTitle:"Advanced Applications for Artificial Neural Networks"},signatures:"Z. Li, X. Zhang, G. A. Mohua and Vassili Karanassios",authors:[{id:"60925",title:"Prof.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Karanassios",slug:"vassili-karanassios",fullName:"Vassili Karanassios"}]},{id:"57304",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70791",title:"Data Assimilation by Artificial Neural Networks for an Atmospheric General Circulation Model",slug:"data-assimilation-by-artificial-neural-networks-for-an-atmospheric-general-circulation-model",totalDownloads:1715,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Numerical weather prediction (NWP) uses atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) to predict weather based on current weather conditions. The process of entering observation data into mathematical model to generate the accurate initial conditions is called data assimilation (DA). It combines observations, forecasting, and filtering step. This paper presents an approach for employing artificial neural networks (NNs) to emulate the local ensemble transform Kalman filter (LETKF) as a method of data assimilation. This assimilation experiment tests the Simplified Parameterizations PrimitivE-Equation Dynamics (SPEEDY) model, an atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM), using synthetic observational data simulating localizations of meteorological balloons. For the data assimilation scheme, the supervised NN, the multilayer perceptrons (MLPs) networks are applied. After the training process, the method, forehead-calling MLP-DA, is seen as a function of data assimilation. The NNs were trained with data from first 3 months of 1982, 1983, and 1984. The experiment is performed for January 1985, one data assimilation cycle using MLP-DA with synthetic observations. The numerical results demonstrate the effectiveness of the NN technique for atmospheric data assimilation. The results of the NN analyses are very close to the results from the LETKF analyses, the differences of the monthly average of absolute temperature analyses are of order 10–2. The simulations show that the major advantage of using the MLP-DA is better computational performance, since the analyses have similar quality. The CPU-time cycle assimilation with MLP-DA analyses is 90 times faster than LETKF cycle assimilation with the mean analyses used to run the forecast experiment.",book:{id:"6187",slug:"advanced-applications-for-artificial-neural-networks",title:"Advanced Applications for Artificial Neural Networks",fullTitle:"Advanced Applications for Artificial Neural Networks"},signatures:"Rosangela Saher Cintra and Haroldo F. de Campos Velho",authors:[{id:"215748",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosangela",middleName:null,surname:"Cintra",slug:"rosangela-cintra",fullName:"Rosangela Cintra"},{id:"215753",title:"Dr.",name:"Haroldo",middleName:null,surname:"Campos Velho",slug:"haroldo-campos-velho",fullName:"Haroldo Campos Velho"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50071",title:"Retrieval of Optical Constant and Particle Size Distribution of Particulate Media Using the PSO-Based Neural Network Algorithm",slug:"retrieval-of-optical-constant-and-particle-size-distribution-of-particulate-media-using-the-pso-base",totalDownloads:1977,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"An improved neural network algorithm was proposed and applied to the inverse radiative problems. A multi-strategy particle swarm optimization was applied to improve the performance of the back propagation multi-layer feed-forward neural network algorithm. Three commonly used particle size distribution (PSD) functions in a one-dimensional particle system were retrieved using the proposed algorithm. In addition, the optical constant was also estimated, and the measurement errors were considered. Results show that the proposed algorithm can be applied to the retrieval of PSDs and optical constant even with measurement errors. Finally, the proposed algorithm was applied to the simultaneous estimation of the PSDs and optical constant using the multi-wavelength and multi-thickness method.",book:{id:"5127",slug:"new-applications-of-artificial-intelligence",title:"New Applications of Artificial Intelligence",fullTitle:"New Applications of Artificial Intelligence"},signatures:"Hong Qi, Ya-Tao Ren, Jun-You Zhang, Li-Ming Ruan and He-Ping\nTan",authors:[{id:"177857",title:"Prof.",name:"Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"hong-qi",fullName:"Hong Qi"}]},{id:"50870",title:"Fuzzy Logic Control of Switched Reluctance Motor Drives",slug:"fuzzy-logic-control-of-switched-reluctance-motor-drives",totalDownloads:2397,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, the electromechanical behavior of switched reluctance motor (SRM) is first modeled by analyzing the related nonlinear differential equations. In the model, the estimation of rotor speed is also considered. After modeling, the effects of torque ripple, radial force, and acoustic noise are investigated. As we know, torque ripple and acoustic noise are two of the main disadvantages of a switched reluctance motor. Thus, a fuzzy logic current compensator is proposed both for reducing the peak of radial force and for decreasing acoustic noise effects. In the parts that torque reduces, the fuzzy logic current compensator injects additional current for each phase current to overcome the torque ripple. Also, the fuzzy logic current compensator reduces speed estimation error. The speed estimation is carried out using a hybrid sliding mode observer which estimates the rotor position and speed for a wide speed range. These new approaches have been simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK for a nonlinear model of switched reluctance motor. The simulation results indicate that proposed methods decrease the maximum radial force and the torque ripple while the maximum torque is preserved. Also, these results show that proposed methods will estimate the rotor position and speed with high precision for all speeds from near zero speeds up to rated speed. These procedures have the advantages of simple implementation on the every switched reluctance motor drive without extra hardware, low cost, high reliability, low vibration, and excellent performance at long term.",book:{id:"5127",slug:"new-applications-of-artificial-intelligence",title:"New Applications of Artificial Intelligence",fullTitle:"New Applications of Artificial Intelligence"},signatures:"M. Divandari and B. Rezaie",authors:[{id:"155417",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Divandari",slug:"mohammad-divandari",fullName:"Mohammad Divandari"}]},{id:"57042",title:"Gait Generation of Multilegged Robots by using Hardware Artificial Neural Networks",slug:"gait-generation-of-multilegged-robots-by-using-hardware-artificial-neural-networks",totalDownloads:1345,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Living organisms can act autonomously because biological neural networks process the environmental information in continuous time. Therefore, living organisms have inspired many applications of autonomous control to small-sized robots. In this chapter, a small-sized robot is controlled by a hardware artificial neural network (ANN) without software programs. Previously, the authors constructed a multilegged walking robot. The link mechanism of the limbs was designed to reduce the number of actuators. The current paper describes the basic characteristics of hardware ANNs that generate the gait for multilegged robots. The pulses emitted by the hardware ANN generate oscillating patterns of electrical activity. The pulse-type hardware ANN model has the basic features of a class II neuron model, which behaves like a resonator. Thus, gait generation by the hardware ANNs mimics the synchronization phenomena in biological neural networks. Consequently, our constructed hardware ANNs can generate multilegged robot gaits without requiring software programs.",book:{id:"6187",slug:"advanced-applications-for-artificial-neural-networks",title:"Advanced Applications for Artificial Neural Networks",fullTitle:"Advanced Applications for Artificial Neural Networks"},signatures:"Ken Saito, Masaya Ohara, Mizuki Abe, Minami Kaneko and Fumio\nUchikoba",authors:[{id:"157327",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Saito",slug:"ken-saito",fullName:"Ken Saito"},{id:"157328",title:"Dr.",name:"Minami",middleName:null,surname:"Kaneko",slug:"minami-kaneko",fullName:"Minami Kaneko"},{id:"157330",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumio",middleName:null,surname:"Uchikoba",slug:"fumio-uchikoba",fullName:"Fumio Uchikoba"},{id:"219934",title:"Mr.",name:"Masaya",middleName:null,surname:"Ohara",slug:"masaya-ohara",fullName:"Masaya Ohara"},{id:"219935",title:"BSc.",name:"Mizuki",middleName:null,surname:"Abe",slug:"mizuki-abe",fullName:"Mizuki Abe"}]},{id:"67472",title:"Object Re-Identification Based on Deep Learning",slug:"object-re-identification-based-on-deep-learning",totalDownloads:1352,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"With the explosive growth of video data and the rapid development of computer vision technology, more and more relevant technologies are applied in our real life, one of which is object re-identification (Re-ID) technology. Object Re-ID is currently concentrated in the field of person Re-ID and vehicle Re-ID, which is mainly used to realize the cross-vision tracking of person/vehicle and trajectory prediction. This chapter combines theory and practice to explain why the deep network can re-identify the object. To introduce the main technical route of object Re-ID, the examples of person/vehicle Re-ID are given, and the improvement points of existing object Re-ID research are described separately.",book:{id:"8725",slug:"visual-object-tracking-with-deep-neural-networks",title:"Visual Object Tracking with Deep Neural Networks",fullTitle:"Visual Object Tracking with Deep Neural Networks"},signatures:"Xiying Li and Zhihao Zhou",authors:null},{id:"56981",title:"Advanced Process Control",slug:"advanced-process-control",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The debutanizer column is an important unit operation in petroleum refining industries. The top product is liquefied petroleum gas and the bottom product is light naphtha. This system is difficult to handle. This is because due to its non-linear behavior, multivariable interaction and existence of numerous constraints on its manipulated variable. Neural network techniques have been increasingly used for a wide variety of applications. In this book, equation-based multi-input multi-output (MIMO) neural network has been proposed for multivariable control strategy to control the top and bottom temperatures of the column. The manipulated variables for column are reflux and reboiler flow rates, respectively. This neural network model are based on multivariable equation, instead of the normal black box structure. It has the advantage of being robust in nature while being easier to interpret in terms of its input-output variables. It has been employed for set point changes and disturbance changes. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. 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