Green inhibitors used for corrosion inhibition of steel, steel alloys, aluminum, aluminum alloys, and other metals and alloys.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10482",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Tooth and Developmental Dental Defects - Compositional and Genetic Implications",title:"Human Tooth and Developmental Dental Defects",subtitle:"Compositional and Genetic Implications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The unique tissues of human teeth, enamel, and dentin have been studied by scientists to understand their structure, physical and chemical properties, and the developmental machinery behind these extraordinary properties. During the developmental process, genetic, and environmental factors or the interplay between them may cause defects in dental hard tissues, impairing their biology and function. These defects have long been studied to provide better dental care and to find novel treatment options. Understanding the mechanical, chemical, and structural differences in developmental dental defects is also crucial for a routine dental practice, as many of these lesions do not have pathognomonic properties. This book focuses on the qualitative and quantitative properties of the sound enamel and dentin as well as the affected human tooth structures. It examines how genetics impact oral and dental health, the role of fluoride and trace elements in mineralization and the related clinical implications, and the impact of different approaches to diagnose and treat these developmental disorders.",isbn:"978-1-83969-105-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-104-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-106-5",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"human-tooth-and-developmental-dental-defects-compositional-and-genetic-implications",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"82a91346a98d34805e30511d6504bd4c",bookSignature:"Ana Gil de Bona and Hakan Karaaslan",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10482.jpg",numberOfDownloads:798,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 22nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 11th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"203919",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Gil De Bona",slug:"ana-gil-de-bona",fullName:"Ana Gil De Bona",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203919/images/system/203919.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ana Gil de Bona received her Ph.D. in Molecular Biology and Microbiology from Complutense University of Madrid, Spain. Her research mainly focused on the study of the proteomic profile of the extracellular vesicles and the secretome in virulent and avirulent strains of Candida albicans. She continued her scientific career at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, USA, working in yeast genetics and proteomics. Her current research at the Forsyth Institute, USA, is focused on understanding the changes in tooth enamel in healthy and defective teeth to find better diagnostics tools and treatment approaches. She has authored peer-reviewed research articles and reviews and has presented her work at national and international scientific meetings.",institutionString:"The Forsyth Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"328519",title:"Dr.",name:"Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Karaaslan",slug:"hakan-karaaslan",fullName:"Hakan Karaaslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/328519/images/system/328519.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hakan Karaaslan completed his endodontic training at Hacettepe University, Turkey, where he received his DDS. His post-graduate thesis work focused on the mineral content and structure of dentin exposed to bleaching agents. Pursuing his interest in understanding the development and structure of dental hard tissues, he worked at Dr. Tim Bromage’s Lab at New York University on the incremental nature of enamel. At the Forsyth Institute, USA, Dr. Karaaslan currently investigates developmental dental defects, in particular molar hypomineralization, furthering his passion for hard tissue biology. As an endodontist and a clinician, he also seeks to understand the pulpal aspect of enamel defects and translate basic science findings into clinical therapeutics.",institutionString:"The Forsyth Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"}],chapters:[{id:"77993",title:"Organic Matrix of Enamel and Dentin and Developmental Defects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99542",slug:"organic-matrix-of-enamel-and-dentin-and-developmental-defects",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The anatomical crown of the tooth is covered by enamel and root is covered by cementum. The dentin forms the major part of the tooth. The dentin structure is very similar to that of the bone both physically and chemically which is why many scientists have wondered about using its properties for developing a novel bone graft material. In contrast with hard and brittle enamel dentin is viscoelastic. The organic structure of dentin which is about 35% is composed of mainly type I collagen embedded in mucopolysaccharides ground substance. Approximately half of the non-collagenous composition consists of hyperphosphorylated proteins. The acidic glycoproteins, Gla-proteins, serum proteins, proteoglycans etc. composes the remaining part. The dentin matrix consists of many similar proteins as that of bone like dentin phosphoprotein, dentin sialoprotein etc.. The matrix also consists of many growth factors. Any external disturbance like an infection, trauma, calcium or phosphorous metabolic changes can lead to defective amelogenesis. Mutational changes can lead to defect in dentin. An early diagnosis can result in a satisfactory treatment plan contributing to functional and esthetical compensation.",signatures:"Eui-Seok Lee, Puneet Wadhwa, Min-Keun Kim, Heng Bo Jiang, In-Woong Um and Yu-Mi Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77993",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77993",authors:[{id:"163039",title:"Dr.",name:"In-Woong",surname:"Um",slug:"in-woong-um",fullName:"In-Woong Um"},{id:"265741",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Mi",surname:"Kim",slug:"yu-mi-kim",fullName:"Yu-Mi Kim"},{id:"343998",title:"Dr.",name:"Heng Bo",surname:"Jiang",slug:"heng-bo-jiang",fullName:"Heng Bo Jiang"},{id:"350196",title:"Prof.",name:"Min-Keun",surname:"Kim",slug:"min-keun-kim",fullName:"Min-Keun Kim"},{id:"350215",title:"Prof.",name:"Eui-Seok",surname:"Lee",slug:"eui-seok-lee",fullName:"Eui-Seok Lee"},{id:"350216",title:"Dr.",name:"Puneet",surname:"Wadhwa",slug:"puneet-wadhwa",fullName:"Puneet Wadhwa"}],corrections:null},{id:"80264",title:"Fluoride and Other Trace Elements in Dental Hard Tissue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102043",slug:"fluoride-and-other-trace-elements-in-dental-hard-tissue",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fluorides and other trace elements are a part of various biological and chemical responses in the human body. They collaboratively work with all proteins, enzymes, and co-enzymes to carry out the different functions and in redox reactions. The dietary substances may not have an adequate amount of these essential trace elements, resulting in the development of dental soft and hard tissue disorders associated with their deficiencies. To tackle this, dietary supplements will be needed. So, the current chapter has thoroughly addressed the importance of trace elements in dental hard tissues. This has also discussed the effect of fluoride and other trace elements on dental hard tissues, as there is limited literature available in this area. This will provide an overall understanding of how trace elements are an essential part and their importance in oral diseases control and prevention.",signatures:"Y.B. Aswini, Vikrant Mohanty and Kavita Rijhwani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80264",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80264",authors:[{id:"250405",title:"Dr.",name:"Y.B.",surname:"Aswini",slug:"y.b.-aswini",fullName:"Y.B. Aswini"},{id:"355033",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",surname:"Rijhwani",slug:"kavita-rijhwani",fullName:"Kavita Rijhwani"},{id:"486351",title:"Dr.",name:"Vikrant",surname:"Mohanty",slug:"vikrant-mohanty",fullName:"Vikrant Mohanty"}],corrections:null},{id:"77898",title:"Developmental Dental Defects and Tooth Wear: Pathological Processes Relationship",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99420",slug:"developmental-dental-defects-and-tooth-wear-pathological-processes-relationship",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many conditions or pathologies can modify teeth surfaces and cause several functional and esthetic problems. Congenital dental defects and tooth wear are two of the most important reasons of dental tissue changes. Nowadays, the prevalence of tooth wear is increasing because of a high incidence of non-physiological tooth wear especially in young people. However, distinguishing dental defects originated from tooth wear or developmental dental defects is crucial to plan the most suitable treatment. Then the aim of this work is to present the different pathological conditions caused by these two etiological factors as well as the underlying biochemical mechanisms and incorrect habits related.",signatures:"Francesco Grande and Santo Catapano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77898",authors:[{id:"199397",title:"Prof.",name:"Santo",surname:"Catapano",slug:"santo-catapano",fullName:"Santo Catapano"},{id:"338112",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Grande",slug:"francesco-grande",fullName:"Francesco Grande"}],corrections:null},{id:"78407",title:"Failure of Tooth Development: Prevalence, Genetic Causes and Clinical Features",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99419",slug:"failure-of-tooth-development-prevalence-genetic-causes-and-clinical-features",totalDownloads:145,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In dental practice may be encountered a wide variability in the clinical dental phenotype of tooth number. Failure of tooth development at the bud stage causes tooth agenesis and reduction in tooth number in the dental arch which involves various complications. Tooth agenesis is one of the most common developmental anomalies of human permanent dentition and tends to run in families, may aggregate within families, suggesting a genetic cause. Tooth agenesis can occur in association with a variety of craniofacial syndromes, but it is also found as an isolated trait (familial or sporadic). Other tooth anomalies, such as tooth shape and size, delayed eruption of teeth, malposition, short roots or taurodontism, have been noted in association with non-syndromic tooth agenesis as well. Both the deciduous and permanent dentitions may be affected by missing teeth. Variations in the number of missing teeth can be determined by a mutation in one gene, by mutations in multiple genes, induced by local or systemically acting environmental factor, caused by a combination of gene mutations and environmental factors acting together, or by damage to chromosomes. As the number of missing teeth increases, so does the severity of clinical consequences and the impact on oral health–related quality of life.",signatures:"Emilia Severin, George Gabriel Moldoveanu and Andreea Moldoveanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78407",authors:[{id:"301455",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilia",surname:"Severin",slug:"emilia-severin",fullName:"Emilia Severin"},{id:"345738",title:"Dr.",name:"George Gabriel",surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"george-gabriel-moldoveanu",fullName:"George Gabriel Moldoveanu"},{id:"345739",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"andreea-moldoveanu",fullName:"Andreea Moldoveanu"}],corrections:null},{id:"79312",title:"Influence of Elements on Gene Expression in Human Teeth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101162",slug:"influence-of-elements-on-gene-expression-in-human-teeth",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several elements (Ca, Fe, Sr, Mn, Mg, P, Zn, Se, B, Pb, Ni, Ti, etc.), classified mainly under three groups namely beneficial, harmless and harmful elements, are measured in human teeth for multiple purposes since they involve in metabolic activities as well as influence gene expression. There are sufficiently available studies reporting roles of the elements in both up and down-regulation of gene expression leading to tooth repair, regeneration, differentiation, biomineralization and demineralization in the dental stem cells. Considering the importance of tooth developmental and protective roles, the association of the elements with gene expression presented in the present review may facilitate for improvement of their selection as one of the criteria for strengthening teeth for a longer life through nutritional sources and dental material formulation.",signatures:"Sukumar Athimoolam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79312",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79312",authors:[{id:"338370",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukumar",surname:"Athimoolam",slug:"sukumar-athimoolam",fullName:"Sukumar Athimoolam"}],corrections:null},{id:"76590",title:"Gene and Cell Therapy in Dental Tissue Regeneration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97757",slug:"gene-and-cell-therapy-in-dental-tissue-regeneration",totalDownloads:174,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advanced therapies hold substantial promise for the treatment of periodontal conditions. Gene therapy has the potential to transfer “therapeutic” genes, which express proteins such as bone morphogenetic proteins, osteoprotegerin, and tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase, which is deficient in patients with hypophosphatasia, a condition that affects mineralization of teeth and bone. Transferred genes may also express platelet-derived growth factor, which modulates the growth of periodontal tissue and the alveolar bone. As regards cell therapy, several clinical trials have shown that mesenchymal stem cells, when used with different kinds of scaffolds to enable the required three-dimensional environment, possess a bone regeneration potential that is particularly useful in such disorders as osteoporosis and osteonecrosis, or for regenerating alveolar bone (osseointegration) prior to placing a dental implant. However, much work is still required before these new therapies become true alternatives in routine clinical dental practice. Medical advances require investments, which are usually influenced by the priorities of both politicians and society at large. 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\r\n\tThis book will explore how gender and sexual minorities have created communities of meaning and political expression around the world. Through a series of case studies, historical considerations, and reflections, different communities of gender and sexual minority groups will be explored. The book will give an overview of the wide variety of experiences that people who identify as gender and sexual minority group members have used in the formation of community, both online and in person. We will see that some of these creations of the community are a reaction to the exclusion by the larger society in which members are embedded. We will also see that people create a community in the face of oppression, engage in dialogue and activities (political and social), and create meaning in their identities. We will witness how these spaces give voice to change, resilience, and survival. For all of us who are queer and trans, community means at a minimum the place in which we can thrive and be seen.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-612-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-611-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-613-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e08bb222c250dcebf093b7ab595a14a7",bookSignature:"Dr. Deborah Woodman",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11777.jpg",keywords:"Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, Queer, Online Communities, Rural Communities, Historical Communities, Rural Communities, Urban Communities, Political Communities, Identity Based",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 29th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 16th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An active member of the queer community in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada, this work combines my research interests in the rural communities and my volunteer work advocating for members of the Queer and Trans communities.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"463750",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Woodman",slug:"deborah-woodman",fullName:"Deborah Woodman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/463750/images/system/463750.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deb Woodman (she/her) teaches at Algoma University, Ontario, Canada in the department of Sociology and Anthropology housed in the Faculty of Cross Cultural Studies. She identifies as a member of the Queer community and has been engaged with volunteer work for years, creating curriculum for Queer/Trans community events as well as working with public agencies. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55532",title:"Unusual Presentations of Adrenal Masses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69393",slug:"unusual-presentations-of-adrenal-masses",body:'\nThe diagnosis of unusual adrenal gland masses over the past years has been facilitated by advances in imaging and molecular histopathology. This chapter of unusual adrenal masses as a result of infection, benign or malignant tumors provides the most comprehensive review and recent information on this topic. The epidemiology, clinical presentation, radiologic and pathologic features of atypical adrenal masses as well as their current management will be discussed.
\nThe adrenal gland can be infected by several pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites. Infections of the adrenal gland are important, but an underreported clinical entity. Such infections can cause either direct adrenal tissue damage during microbial replication and toxin production or indirect damage through alteration of host’s immunologic and endocrine response to an infection from a distant site. Disparities in pathogen tropism, adrenal anatomy, and host immune integrity contribute to active disease progression and adrenal dysfunction. Timely diagnosis and management of such adrenal infections significantly improves outcome, thereby highlighting the importance of clinical suspicion in the clinic setting [1].
\nIn one reported series, the incidence of adrenal involvement was 6% of patients with active tuberculosis [2]. Adrenal glands are infected through a hematogenous route [3]. Clinical manifestations may take years to appear while others may have asymptomatic infections. Tuberculosis must be suspected in patients with a fever along with adrenomegaly [4]. At least 90% of the adrenal gland must be involved with parenchymal destruction before clinical features of adrenal insufficiency appear [5]. Stress and inflammation are thought to be underlying reasons for adrenal enlargement in patients with tuberculosis without microbial seeding of the glands. While few studies have demonstrated elevated basal and stimulated cortisol levels [6], others have shown lower cortisol levels [7].
\nImaging studies help in the evaluation of affected adrenal glands (Figure 1). Most patients with active or recently acquired disease (within 2 years) have bilateral adrenal enlargement, while the remaining with remote infection or inactive disease have calcifications and/or gland atrophy [5, 8]. In one study, 91% of patients with adrenal tuberculosis who underwent CT had bilaterally enlarged adrenal glands, while 2% had normal sized glands. Among those with adrenal enlargement, mass-like lesions were noted in 49% while enlargement with preserved contours was found in the remaining 51% of patients; more than half of them had peripheral rim enhancement. With longer duration of disease, calcifications and contour preservation were seen more frequently, whereas peripheral rim enhancement and mass-like enlargement seen less significantly on CT images [9]. Adrenal glands may also be enlarged in patients with extra-adrenal tuberculosis. Although not needed in cases of extra-adrenal tuberculosis, an adrenal biopsy may be diagnostic in patients with suspected adrenal tuberculosis without extra-adrenal disease [3, 10].
\nRadiological features of adrenal tuberculosis. (a) Adrenal enlargement with high contrast uptake and rim enhancement demonstrated on CT scan; (b) Adrenal enlargement shown on a coronal FS T1 MRI scan; (c) Adrenal enlargement shown on an axial FS T1 MRI scan; (d) Significant reduction of the volume of the adrenal glands with no pathological contrast uptake on a CT scan after treatment.
Treatment includes multiple antituberculosis medications. Studies have demonstrated reduction of gland size after successful treatment of extra-adrenal tuberculosis [11]. In patients with adrenal insufficiency, antituberculosis medications do not effectively restore adrenal function after treatment. Furthermore, steroid replacement therapy may need to be increased as rifampicin induces glucocorticoid metabolism in the liver [12].
\nAdrenal involvement is usually found in patients with disseminated histoplasmosis. The clinical, pathologic and radiologic presentation is similar to that of tuberculosis with diagnosis confirmed by adrenal gland biopsy [13, 14]. In one series, primary adrenal insufficiency was reported in 41% of patients [15]. Populations at risk for adrenal histoplasmosis include immunocompromised, posttransplant and elderly patients [16]. CT usually demonstrates bilaterally enlarged adrenal glands, whereas pathologic examination reveals necrotizing granulomas and caseous necrosis. Differential diagnosis of bilateral adrenomegaly includes lymphoma, metastasis, sarcoidosis, adrenal hemorrhage, and infections like tuberculosis, histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis and blastomycosis. However, central hypodensity and peripheral rim enhancement of the adrenal glands by CT narrows the differential diagnosis to histoplasmosis and tuberculosis only [17]. Recommended antifungal therapy includes amphotericin B followed by itraconazole (for disseminated disease), and glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid replacement for adrenal insufficiency.
\nCryptococcal infections most commonly present as pneumonia or meningitis with adrenal glands only usually involved in immunocompromised patients with disseminated cryptococcal infection [18]. However, cases of isolated adrenal gland involvement have been reported [19]. CT can demonstrate enlarged adrenal glands [20], and diagnosis is confirmed by a biopsy that shows budding yeasts with capsules on smear examination with India ink or methenamine silver stain (Figure 2). In most cases, cryptococcal antigen titers are elevated and used as a biomarker for disease resolution [21]. Intensive Amphotericin B therapy followed by oral fluconazole consolidation (usually 6-month course) is an effective multidrug treatment regimen [22, 23]. In contrast to adrenal tuberculosis and histoplasmosis, adrenal insufficiency is often improved with resolution of this infection. Adrenal cryptococcal infection resistant to antifungal therapy may respond to adrenalectomy [24].
\nMicroscopic examination of cryptococcal infection. Methenamine silver stain shows the yeast, some of which demonstrate budding (40x). (Courtesy: Ref. [
Parasitic infections of the adrenal glands are rarely reported, and their prevalence depends on the organism, residence in endemic areas and host immune integrity [1]. The nature of adrenal gland involvement varies significantly depending on the microbe. Case reports have shown adrenal involvement with a wide range of pathogens that includes
Echinococcal infections of the adrenal glands are uncommon, accounting for 6–7% of all cysts [25–27]. Adrenal involvement is usually secondary, and part of generalized echinococcosis [25, 28]. Most cases are discovered incidentally, although some cases present with nonspecific dull aching flank pain [29]. Adrenal hydatids can cause hypertension, known as “the Goldblatt phenomenon”, due to irritation of functional tissue of the adrenal gland by the growing cyst [30].
\nImaging studies are helpful in characterizing infected adrenal cysts, and ultrasonography (US) is particularly helpful in securing the diagnosis. US of the adrenal cyst can demonstrate location, size and number along with cyst features that include floating membranes, daughter cysts, multiple septa and hydatids. The WHO/IWG-E classification for diagnosis and treatment of echinococcal cysts is based on US imaging characteristics that classify cysts into six subtypes (CL, CE1 to CE5) and three relevant groups: active (CE1 and 2), transitional (CE3) and inactive (CE4 and 5) [31]. On CT, unilocular or multilocular cysts are identified with debris, calcified walls, small daughter cysts and increased tissue density of hydatid membrane, which shows contrast enhancement [32]. CT provides information regarding the cyst number, origin and residual parenchyma of the affected organ, and relationship of the cyst with adjacent structures. Serological tests are marred by low sensitivity and specificity. Latest immunodiagnostic tests detect echinococcal antigens in hydatid fluid fraction. These tests detect
Multiple therapeutic options include medical therapy, percutaneous intervention, open and minimally invasive laparoscopic and robotic surgeries. Surgical excision usually results in definitive cure. Medical therapy is usually implemented as an adjunct to surgical excision. Antiparasitic medications as primary treatment is recommended for cases with disseminated hydatidosis, brain or bony echinococcosis or in patients with poor surgical risk [32]. Preoperative oral therapy with albendazole (10–15 mg/kg per day) with or without praziquantel (50 mg/kg) for 4 weeks before surgery may kill scolices, make the cyst inactive, decrease cyst material antigenicity, reduce cyst wall tension and thereby reduce the risk of spillage [26]. In liver echinococcosis, studies have shown a lower risk of recurrence following surgery in cases that had received preoperative albendazole versus those who did not (4 vs. 19%), respectively [36]. Limitations of medical therapy include serious drug-related adverse effects such as leukopenia, hepatotoxicity, allergic reactions and alopecia [37], and limited experience in its use in genitourinary echinococcosis.
\nSurgical management involves adrenal hydatid cyst excision by laparoscopic or open techniques [29]. It is difficult to determine whether complete excision of adrenal is mandatory as data is limited. In a series of nine cases, adrenalectomy was performed in patients with adrenal cysts with no recurrence at a median follow-up of 16 months (range: 6–64 months) [25]. In another study, transperitoneal laparoscopic aspiration with instillation of scolicidal agent with partial cystectomy for an adrenal hydatid cyst was performed (Figure 3). The cyst densely adhered to the renal vessels and complete excision involved risk of nephrectomy. Betadine soaked gauze pieces were packed around the cyst. The cyst was aspirated followed by instillation of scolicidal agent that was maintained for 10 min. A 10-mm trocar was introduced into the cyst, and its contents, including the germinal layer, were suctioned and followed by partial cyst wall excision. No recurrence was noted at 6-months follow-up. The authors concluded that total adrenal gland excision may be needed only in cases with complete gland destruction [38]. Complete evacuation of cyst contents and prevention of viable scolices spillage intraperitoneally remains a key principle in the management of adrenal hydatid cysts.
\nLaparoscopic management of adrenal hydatid cysts. Intraoperative photograph showing cyst aspiration by directly inserting a trocar into the cyst and laparoscopic cyst dissection after aspiration. (Courtesy: Ref. [
Visceral leishmaniasis can present with cystic adrenal disease in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals [39, 40]. Rarely, amebic species have been found in cystic lesions of the adrenal gland [1].
HIV infection affects the adrenal gland in several ways. Apart from direct infection, opportunistic infections and antiretroviral medications also have a significant effect on adrenal glands that can lead to adrenal insufficiency. Cases with HIV infection can harbor adrenal tumors like Kaposi’s sarcoma secondary to co-infection with oncogenic human herpesvirus type 8 (HHV8), and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (high-grade malignant B phenotype) secondary to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection [45, 46].
\nThis section describes uncommon benign and malignant adrenal tumors and current concepts in their management.
\nLeiomyoma of the adrenal glands is extremely rare tumors with less than 20 cases reported in the literature [47]. Although benign tumors, they may mimic malignant adrenal tumors on radiologic imaging. Age at presentation in patients ranges from 2 to 72 years with 61% usually occurring in women. Tumor size varies from 3 to 11 cm in diameter [48]. Usually asymptomatic and nonfunctional, such tumors present as adrenal incidentalomas and occasionally as calcified masses [49]. Some patients may present with vague, nonspecific flank or upper abdominal pain. Many cases of adrenal leiomyomas have been reported to occur in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), or latent Epstein-Barr infection [48, 50]. Associated smooth-muscle tumors and Kaposi’s sarcoma may arise from a common stem cell under the influence of some unknown factor produced during HIV infection [51]. Grossly, cut sections often demonstrate a whorled appearance. Light microscopy shows spindle-shaped cells arranged in fascicles and whorls (Figure 4) [47]. Immunohistochemistry helps in establishing a diagnosis as the tumor cells show diffuse and strong positivity for smooth muscle actin [52]. Prognosis is good following complete surgical resection. With the advent of minimally invasive surgery, laparoscopic resection is feasible with good perioperative outcomes [49]. Large tumors, however, do pose challenges for adjacent vital organ preservation during surgical resection.
\nHistopathologic images of adrenal leiomyoma. (A) Normal adrenal gland seen at the periphery with encapsulated tumor arranged in long and short fascicles (H&E, ×40). (B) Higher magnification showing fascicles of benign spindle-shaped cells with minimal nuclear atypia (H&E, × 200). (C) Neoplastic cells showing strong positivity with smooth muscle actin (immunoperoxidase, ×200). (Courtesy: Ref. [
Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor (IMT) was first described in 1939. Previously known as plasma cell granuloma or inflammatory pseudotumor, the term “inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor” was introduced in 1986 [53–55]. Although found in the adrenal glands, the most common site of IMT is the lung followed by the orbit [55].
\nCytogenetic and molecular advancements have confirmed the neoplastic nature of IMT and their recurrence potential [56, 57]. They exhibit cytogenetic clonality, the involvement of chromosomal region 2p23, occasional aggressive local behavior, and metastasis described in most locations, in both sexes and at all ages [58, 59]. Mean tumor size at the time of presentation ranges from 5 to 10 cm. IMT usually present as an adrenal incidentaloma, although 10–20% of patients have a fever, weight loss or flank pain [60]. These lesions do not demonstrate specific imaging features [60]. Enhanced CT may show heterogeneity or homogeneity of a hypo-, iso- or hyperdense adrenal mass [61].
\nGrossly, IMT appears firm, fleshy or gelatinous with a white or tan cut surface. Few may also demonstrate calcification, hemorrhage, and necrosis [59]. Histopathology reveals plump fibroblast or myofibroblast proliferation along with prominent infiltrate of chronic inflammatory cells, especially plasma cells. The presence of these plasma cells helps distinguish these adrenal tumors from fibromatosis and fasciitis. The epithelioid variant of IMT is rare with an aggressive clinical course [62]. Histologic markers of aggressive behavior include the presence of ganglion-like cells, cellular atypia, aneuploidy, and p53 overexpression [63]. On immunohistochemistry, these adrenal tumors usually express actin with occasional positivity for desmin and keratin. Thirty to 40% of tumors have ALK protein overexpression as a result of ALK gene rearrangement. Clinical correlation has shown that most patients with tumor metastasis were negative for ALK overexpression [64].
\nComplete surgical resection is essential since malignancy cannot be excluded preoperatively. Ten to 25% of patients have been reported to have a local recurrence following complete surgical excision. These tumors are considered to be low-grade sarcomas with less than 5% incidence of metastasis. Nevertheless, their biological behavior cannot be predicted based on their morphologic appearance [60].
\nPrimitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs) are associated with a family of small round cell tumors. Initially described a century ago by Arthur Stout in a 42-year male with an ulnar nerve tumor, it was not until 1973 when Hart and Earle coined the term “primitive neuroectodermal tumor” for such unspecialized small round cell tumors [65, 66]. PNETs are classified as central (arising from the central nervous system) and peripheral [67]. Peripheral PNETs that arise from the adrenal glands are extremely rare with less than two-dozen cases reported in the literature. They usually present as a large (>10 cm), nonfunctioning adrenal mass often associated with abdominal pain and metastasis. These solid and/or cystic lesions can rapidly grow and are difficult to differentiate from adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) radiologically [67, 68]. CT can show irregular bordered, diffusively growing, and unevenly enhancing adrenal masses [67].
\nBoth PNETs and Ewing’s sarcoma share a unique translocation “t(11;22)(q24q12): fusion gene designated EWS/FLI-1” [69]. FLI-1 is a member of ETS family of transcription factors [69]. Microscopic examination along with immunohistochemistry helps establish the diagnosis. On light microscopy, classic features include small round cell tumors arranged in nests/rosettes (Figure 5). These cells have little endoplasm with dark stained nucleus high in nucleoplasm [67]. Among all the markers, Mic-2 (CD-99) is the most sensitive and specific marker (nearly 100%), which is a cell surface glycoprotein coded by genes on X and Y-chromosomes [70]. Other common markers of neural differentiation include neuron-specific enolase (NSE), S-100 protein, neurofilaments, synaptophysin (Syn), chromogranin A (CgA) and vimentin. The most reliable findings for pathologic diagnosis of PNETs are the existence of rosettes, and two or more positive results of the aforementioned neural markers [67, 71–73].
\nMicroscopic picture of adrenal primitive neuroectodermal tumor. (A) Hematoxylin and eosin stains for adrenal primitive neuroectodermal tumor (20×). (B) CD99 Immunohistochemical stains for adrenal primitive neuroectodermal tumor (20×). (Courtesy: Ref. [
Since adrenal PNETs are an uncommon clinical entity, an effective treatment protocol is not yet established. Surgical excision remains the mainstay for local disease control. Adrenalectomy is usually followed by adjuvant radiochemotherapy [74]. A recommended regimen is the alternating use of CAV (cyclophosphamide: CTX; adriamycin: ADM; and vincristine: VCR), and IE (ifosfamide: IFO; and etoposide: ETO) protocols as PNET rapidly develop resistance to a particular regimen [75]. In general, 5-year survival of patients with PNETs is 58–61% with a median survival of 120 months. Local or distant metastasis at the time of diagnosis is associated with poor outcome [70].
\nAdrenal oncocytomas are rare tumors. Although considered benign and nonfunctional, these adrenal masses are malignant in 20% and hormonally active in 10–20% of patients [76]. Adrenal oncocytomas have been described in a wide age group (27–72 years) and usually discovered as incidentalomas [77]. Women are more commonly affected [78] with a predominance of the left adrenal gland (3.5:1) [79].
\nSuch adrenal tumors are classified as either benign, borderline malignant potential or malignant using the Lin-Weiss-Bisceglia system that includes the major criteria of high mitotic rate > 5 per 50 HPF, atypical mitoses, venous invasion; and minor criteria that include large size and weight, necrosis, capsular invasion, sinusoidal invasion [80]. The presence of one major criterion indicates malignancy, and one to four minor criteria indicates uncertain malignant potential. The absence of all major and minor criteria indicates a benign adrenal tumor.
\nMicroscopically, tumor cells have abundant eosinophilic granular cytoplasm due to the accumulation of mitochondria with a central pyknotic nucleus [81]. They may be arranged in trabecular, tubular, papillary or solid patterns. The classic central stellate scar of renal oncocytoma may not be seen. Immunophenotyping, in general, reveals diffuse positivity for vimentin, melan-A, synaptophysin and alpha-inhibin [82].
\nDue to its large size and lack of characteristic preoperative imaging features for benignity, surgical resection remains the principal management for adrenal oncocytomas [79]. Surgical excision is a challenging task in giant adrenal oncocytomas (Figure 6). Although not infiltrating, the large size of these tumors can alter the orientation and position of adjacent viscera and major blood vessels.
CT in preoperative planning in case of giant adrenal oncocytoma. Coronal section of contrast enhanced CT demonstrating a giant left adrenal oncocytoma with left kidney lying in transverse plane at iliac crest. The left renal vessels are stretched over the inferolateral aspect of the adrenal mass. CT-angiography shows multiple feeding vessels to the tumor.
First described in 1905, adrenal myelolipoma is a rare adrenal tumor with a prevalence of <1% in autopsy series [84]. These adrenal tumors have an overall incidence of 0.05–0.2%, and account for about 2.5–5% of all adrenal incidentalomas. Both women and men are equally affected, and they are usually unilateral and rarely arise from extra-adrenal sites such as the retroperitoneum, thorax, and pelvis [85]. Symptomatic patients may present with abdominal pain or uncommonly with massive hemorrhage and shock, or with fever and abscess [85]. Tumor size varies widely from a few centimeters to >30 cm [84]. Although the tumor is metabolically inactive, there is a 10% incidence of associated endocrine disorders such as Cushing’s and Conn’s syndromes, congenital adrenal hyperplasia and diabetes [86].
\nThese adrenal lesions are also rarely associated with thalassemia and sickle cell anemia [87, 88]. For reasons not yet understood, myelolipomas in patients with thalassemia are usually giant and bilateral. Such association might be due to excess erythropoietin production [89]. Various mechanisms have been proposed regarding its pathogenesis. These tumors are believed to arise from metaplasia of reticuloendothelial cells of blood capillaries within the adrenal glands in response to inflammation, necrosis, infection, or stress [84]. Studies have shown nonrandom X-chromosome inactivation in hematopoietic lineage and fat cells, and balanced translocations between 3q25 and 21p11 suggestive of clonal origin [90, 91]. Tumor tissue consists of an admixture of mature adipose tissue, normal trilineage hematopoietic elements, and an overabundance of megakaryocytes. Unlike normal bone marrow, their cellularity varies widely that does not decrease with advanced age. These lesions do not contribute to hematopoietic cells in circulation due to stromal irregularities and lack of capillary venous sinuses [90]. In most cases, this diagnosis can be made accurately on cross-sectional imaging. CT demonstrates a well-circumscribed lesion with a variable amount of mature adipose tissue with low attenuation value (around-30 Hounsfield units) with higher density myeloid component that enhances on contrast administration (Figure 7). Nearly one-fourth of cases have calcifications while many have hemorrhagic areas [85]. Rare differential diagnoses include adrenal lipomas, teratomas, liposarcomas, metastasis and upper polar renal angiomyolipoma. Percutaneous biopsy may be helpful when the diagnosis is in doubt [92].
\nAdrenal myelolipoma. (A) Enhanced CT abdomen showing a 35 × 19 cm right suprarenal mass with areas of macroscopic fat densities (−19 HU) along with focal areas of enhancement. (B) Histopathology showing mature adipocytes admixed with hematopoietic cells suggestive of myelolipoma.
Surgical resection is the mainstay of definitive treatment; however, it is reserved for symptomatic or large adrenal myelolipomas. Small and asymptomatic adrenal lesions can be followed as they remain stable or even decrease in size over long periods of time [92]. In one study, the calculated doubling time of adrenal myelolipomas ranged from 4.6 to 95.1 months (mean 31.9 months) that confirmed the relatively slow growing nature of these tumors [93]. Spontaneous rupture of these lesions is a rare event and usually, occurs in lesions > 10 cm [94].
\nSchwannomas are benign, well-encapsulated tumors arising from the nerve sheaths of cranial and peripheral nerves [95]. Initially described by Verocay and later subclassified by Antonini in 1920, they account for 1–5% of all retroperitoneal tumors [96, 97]. Adrenal schwannomas are very rare and restricted to a few case reports. In the adrenal glands, these tumors are believed to arise from Schwann cells surrounding the nerves innervating the adrenal medulla [98]. They may present either as incidentalomas or with abdominal pain. Nonfunctional by nature, positive biochemical evaluation of an adrenal incidentaloma excludes the diagnosis of a schwannoma [96]. CT scan reveals a well-circumscribed, homogeneous, round-oval mass with calcification or cystic degeneration [99]. MRI findings are nonspecific and demonstrate solid tumors with low signal intensity on T1WI and heterogeneously high intensity on T2WI [100]. 18FDG–PET is helpful in differentiating benign from malignant adrenal masses based on standardized uptake value (SUV) [101].
\nTreatment of choice for adrenal schwannomas is complete surgical excision. Histologic examination reveals characteristic Antoni α and Antoni β areas seen under the microscope, and also nuclear free zones known as Verocay bodies that confirm the diagnosis of Schwannoma. The role of immunohistochemical markers including S-100 and vimentin cannot be overlooked as they are used for final confirmation in addition to the typical pattern described above [97, 98]. They also stain positive for laminin and collagen IV, and negative for desmin, keratin, actin, CD34 and CD117 [97]. A positive stain for calretinin is helpful in differentiating Schwannoma from neurofibroma [102]. Although prognosis is usually good following complete surgical resection, the possibility of local recurrence and malignant formation in benign Schwannomas does remain [103].
\nAdrenal ganglioneuromas are extremely rare benign neuroectodermal tumors composed of ganglion and Schwann cells [104]. These tumors are predominantly found in younger populations with 50% of patients between 10 and 29 years of age [104]. Although benign, isolated case reports of ganglioneuroma undergoing malignant transformation, cases of peripheral nerve sheath tumors arising within ganglioneuromas, and composite tumors of ganglioneuroma with pheochromocytoma have been reported in the literature [104, 105]. Most ganglioneuromas are asymptomatic, however, some patients with these tumors may present with diarrhea as they have been reported to secrete vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) [104, 105]. These tumors can grow to large size with blood vessel encasement without compromising the vascular lumen [105]. The biologic and radiologic features that should raise the suspicion of ganglioneuroma include: no adrenal hormone hyperactivity; presence of punctuate calcifications, no vascular involvement, nonenhanced CT attenuation of <40 Hounsfield units (HU); a homogeneous, hypointense mass on T1-weighted MRI; heterogeneous, hyperintense adrenal mass on T2-weighted MRI; and poor, delayed enhancement on dynamic MRI [106]. Histopathology reveals mature ganglion cells and Schwann cells among a fibrous stroma. Complete surgical resection of these adrenal masses is the treatment of choice. Although adrenal ganglioneuromas may encase major vessels at the time of surgery, organ preservation is feasible, as these tumors do not infiltrate them [107].
\nAdrenal lipomas are rare adrenal masses with the majority predominantly occurring in men with a range from 35 to 78 years of age [108]. These lesions account for 0.7% of all lipomatous adrenal tumors [109]. These tumors are more common on the right side with a size ranging from 1 to 20 cm [110]. Although usually asymptomatic, patients with larger tumors may experience abdominal pain whereas few patients may present with an acute abdomen due to retroperitoneal bleeding [111], and a smaller minority with hypertension [112]. These adrenal masses are thought to arise from metaplasia of either stromal or adrenal cortical cells [113]. CT demonstrates a well-defined adrenal lesion with fat densities without enhancing hematopoietic tissue as seen in myelolipomas. Microscopic examination reveals well-demarcated lesions composed of mature adipose lobules with occasional focal areas of calcification due to degenerative changes [113]. Surgical excision is curative. Although the laparoscopic approach is preferred, it is difficult to perform in giant adrenal lipomas and those complicated by rupture, bleeding or sarcomatous changes [114].
\nCystic pheochromocytomas are rare adrenal masses thought to arise as a result of bleeding, necrosis, and liquefaction within solid pheochromocytomas. Patients with such adrenal lesions are more likely to be asymptomatic with occasional nonspecific abdominal symptoms and may have a normal biochemical profile when compared to solid tumors [115, 116]. CT often reveals a thick walled cystic lesion with presence or absence of septa within the adrenal mass, and persistent wall enhancement after contrast administration [115]. Surgical excision is the most definitive treatment of pheochromocytomas regardless of whether the tumor is cystic or not [117]. It is essential to consider this diagnosis in the differential as normotensive patients with unsuspected cystic pheochromocytoma have been reported to have intraoperative hypertensive crises during surgical excision [118].
\nExtramedullary plasmacytoma (EMP) is defined as an extraosseous proliferation of neoplastic plasma cells. These adrenal tumors are cytogenetically identical to plasma cell myeloma but occur as isolated lesions [119]. Solitary EMP of the adrenal glands is extremely rare with fewer than a dozen cases reported in the literature. These adrenal masses usually occur in men than women (3:1) within the age range of 50–60 years [120]. The most common site of solitary EMP is the head and neck region followed by the gastrointestinal tract [121]. Although plasma cell proliferation caused by trauma might ultimately lead to clonal cell infiltration, pathogenesis of such tumors remains unclear [122]. Preoperative imaging of these lesions has heterogeneous hyperintensity on T2-weighted images.
\nDefinitive diagnosis of adrenal plasmacytoma is based on the pathologic confirmation of a solitary plasma cell tumor, with or without a monoclonal gammopathy, and the absence of plasma cell myeloma on bone marrow biopsy [119]. Pathologic examination reveals dense and diffuse infiltrate of atypical plasma cells with very few admixed lymphocytes. Immunohistochemistry shows monoclonal immunoglobulin light chain expression. The diagnosis of solitary EMP can be confirmed after excluding systemic disease by serum and urine protein electrophoresis, immunoelectrophoresis, skeletal imaging survey, and bone marrow biopsy. Staging bone marrow biopsy is essential to exclude plasma cell myeloma [121].
\nA standard treatment protocol has not been established for adrenal EMP. In cases with solitary lesions, complete surgical resection with or without radiotherapy has been reported with good outcomes in term of disease-free status [122–124]. In one report, bilateral adrenal EMP was treated by chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation with no recurrence at 47 months follow-up [125].
\nPrimary adrenal lymphoma is defined as a malignant neoplastic proliferation of lymphoid cells exclusively within the adrenal tissue. The adrenal glands are involved in up to 24% of patients with disseminated lymphoma [126]. Isolated primary adrenal lymphoma is rare, and constitutes 3% of extranodal lymphoma [127]. Bilateral adrenal involvement is reported in 70% of patients [128]. Most cases are found in the elderly with a male to female ratio of 2:1. The most common subtype found in the adrenal glands is diffuse large B-cell lymphoma [126]. Multi-agent chemotherapy that includes cyclophosphamide, hydroxyl-doxorubicin (adriamycin), vincristine (oncovin), and prednisolone (CHOP) along with rituximab for CD20 positive cases represents the cornerstone of management [129]. When an isolated adrenal mass, diagnosis is usually made following adrenalectomy. However, adjuvant chemotherapy is given to prevent disease recurrence [126]. Prognostic factors that include age, elevated serum lactate dehydrogenase, adrenal insufficiency and tumor size may have a significant impact on treatment outcome and survival. Prognosis for patients has slightly improved with recent chemotherapeutic agents. Although a median survival of nearly 3 months was previously reported [130], most recent data in the literature suggests disease free status of 12 months [126].
\nAdrenal hemangiomas are rare benign tumors. These lesions arise from the endothelial cell lining of blood vessels. Adrenal hemangiomas are believed to be congenital in origin with enlargement of >10 cm at the time of presentation as a result of vascular ectasia [131]. They are usually detected in 6 to 7th decade of life. Women are twice more commonly affected than men, and most cases occur unilaterally [132]. Patients are usually asymptomatic, although spontaneous life-threatening hemorrhage from adrenal hemangiomas has been reported [133]. Cases of bilateral adrenal hemangioma can also occur [134]. CT reveals heterogeneous, hypodense lesions with a high-density rim of tissue at the periphery [131]. Contrast-enhanced CT scans show peripheral spotty contrast with centripetal enhancement; this enhancement pattern is pathognomonic for hemangiomas. Certain patterns of calcification have also been reported, and include either speckled calcifications throughout the lesion or centrally located calcifications with an irregular, stellate branching pattern [135]. MRI reveals marked hyperintensity on T2-weighted images and focal hyperintensity on T1-weighted images with focal areas of hemorrhage [136]. Pathologic examination reveals multiple dilated vascular channels lined by single layer of endothelium with areas of hemorrhage, necrosis, and calcification [131]. Tumor size and symptoms help determine the need for surgical intervention in patients where characteristic imaging features make the diagnosis of adrenal hemangioma; lesions < 3.5 cm can be safely observed by serial imaging studies [137]. Surgical excision is recommended for larger lesions, symptomatic patients or in those patients where imaging features are atypical.
\nSince the adrenal glands are situated in the retroperitoneum, various vital organs lie in close vicinity. Giant benign adrenal tumors pose challenges for safe surgical resection with preservation of vital organs such as kidneys, spleen, mesenteric and great vessels. One such technique is
Knowledge of unusual adrenal masses is essential for those clinicians involved in the management of adrenal disorders. This chapter has provided a comprehensive review of the pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and management of uncommon adrenal masses.
\nAuthors confirm the copyright permission for use of pictures throughout the chapter.
\nCorrosion is an unstoppable phenomenon, in order to avoid or reduce the corrosion of metallic materials; the corrosion inhibitor is one of the most effective and flexible means of corrosion prevention and mitigation [1].
According to ISO 8044, the corrosion inhibitor is a chemical substance added to the corrosion system at a concentration chosen for its effectiveness; this causes a decrease in the corrosion rate of the metal without significantly modifying the concentration of any corrosive agent contained in the aggressive medium [2]. In addition, this role can be assured by other ways such as modification of the pH and incorporation of some metals like zinc in the chemical composition of the materials. In fact, such a definition cannot be perfect; however, it avoids to consider inhibitors as additives.
From this definition, a corrosion inhibitor must therefore verify some fundamental properties:
Decreasing the corrosion rate of the metal while retaining the physicochemical characteristics of the latter
Stable in the presence of other constituents, in particular with respect to certain biocides
Stable in the temperature range used
Effective at low concentrations
Inexpensive compared to the savings it allows to achieve
Compatible with the current standards of nontoxicity and environmental pro-tection
A corrosion inhibitor can be used as method of protection:
As a
As a
As a
Various authors have classified the corrosion inhibitors differently. Some authors prefer to group the inhibitors by their chemical functionality (organic or inorganic), others by their electrochemical reaction. Figure 1 presents the classification of the corrosion inhibitors.
Corrosion inhibitor classification.
The corrosion inhibitors can be classified in the liquid phase as a cathodic, anodic, or mixed.
Effect of addition of the cathodic inhibitor.
Anodic inhibitors can actually cause pitting and accelerate corrosion when concentrations fall below minimum limits. This kind of problem is not encountered in the case of cathodic inhibitors (Figure 3).
Effect of addition of the anodic inhibitor.
Effect of addition of the mixed inhibitor.
Each type of inhibitor is characterized by its action mode: adsorption, barrier, reinforcing of the oxide layer, passivation, and formed insoluble complex.
In the case of the interposition of a barrier between the metal and the corrosive medium, which is essential in acidic backgrounds, the role of adsorption of the compounds on the surface is essential.
The reinforcement of a pre-existing barrier, in general the oxide or hydroxide layer formed naturally in a neutral or alkaline medium, may consist of an extension of the oxide to the surface or of the precipitation of salts with weak places of the oxide, these salts being corrosive agents.
The formation of the barrier by interaction between the inhibitor and one or more species of the corrosive medium is a type of mechanism which is also specific for neutral or alkaline media.
Obviously, taking into these general notions, the mechanism of action of an inhibitor can be considered under two aspects: a mechanistic aspect (intervention in the fundamental corrosion processes) and a morphological aspect (intervention of the inhibitory molecule in the interfacial structure). It is also clear that the mechanism of action will differentiate strongly depending on the pH characteristics of the medium.
Volatile corrosion inhibitor is referred to as gas molecules used as a corrosion inhibitor; they are intended for the temporary protection of metallic materials placed in the atmosphere, essentially in storage or transport condition. Their use is made either in the form of wrapping papers impregnated with product or in the form of powder or by spraying with a solution (volatile solvent) [8] (Figure 5).
Volatile corrosion inhibitor mechanism.
Vapor phase inhibitors (VPI) or volatile corrosion inhibitors (VCI) are low nitrogen base salts (cyclohexylamine, dicyclohexylamine, guanidine), and weak acids (nitrous acid, carbonic acid, benzoic acid). The organic part ensures volatility and a certain protective power, and the inorganic part adjusts the volatility, which must correspond to vapor pressures between 10−4 and 10−2 mmHg at room temperature, and ensures the supply of groups of protectors (Ph-COO▬…).
The inhibitor molecules acts by different ways; they are transported or dissociated on the metal surface to ensure an excellent protection by:
pH effect
Adsorption leading to hydrophobization of the surface
Effect on electrochemical processes, essentially on the anodic process: blocking of sites or passivation
The adsorption is more of a chemical type, and the molecule is difficult to remove afterwards. Despite this, the protective action is only maintained if the source of the inhibitor is itself maintained in the immediate environment of the metal surface.
The molecule inhibitors have three areas of application which are in particular important for the use of these products: the petroleum industry, water treatment, and pickling/cleaning of metals. Other applications exist for inhibitors, which involve then more specific formulations, which will be described in the following.
These are essentially the inhibitors added to the paints.
The incorporation of a pigment having inhibitory properties in the coating primer provides most of the corrosion resistance provided by the coating. There are two types of pigments: the active inhibitor pigment and the inactive inhibitor pigment.
The
At the same time, it helps maintain an optimal ratio between the pigment volume concentration and the critical pigment volume concentration that means the film is not too compact to avoid blistering nor too loose to prevent the penetration of aggressive ions (Cl−).
Main inhibitors used
Zinc-based formulations include:
Zinc powder, which provides cathodic protection of the steel coated, provided that the dry extract is greater than 92% of the mass paint.
Zinc chromate, used because of its solubility in water; very effective in paints on aluminum, as well as strontium chromate.
Lead-based formulations include:
Lead powder, whose mode of action is complex and passing probably by modifying the pH of the aqueous medium on contact paint (alkalization) and metal and reverse polarity between iron and lead, explaining cathodic protection of the ferrous material.
Lead oxide Pb3O4, many mechanisms of action are proposed: formation of mixed protective layers of PbO oxide corrosion products, formation of soaps with constituents of paint, etc.
The
Although their use could theoretically be envisaged in most cases of corrosion (with, as main limitations, too large volume of the corrosive medium or the possible impossibility of incorporating additives therein), inhibitors have several traditional application fields [10]:
Water treatment (sanitary water, industrial process water, boiler water, etc.).
Petroleum industry: drilling, extraction, refining, storage, and transport; at all stages of this industry, the use of corrosion inhibitors is essential for the safeguarding of installations.
Temporary protection of metals, whether during acid pickling and cleaning of installations or storage in the atmosphere (volatile inhibitors, incorporation into oils and greases for temporary protection) or for the treatment of cutting oils.
Paint industry on metals where the inhibitors are additives ensuring the anticorrosion protection of metals.
GCI is the molecule extract from plants; it has a double effect because it has a good ability to protect the metals and no negative effect on the environment at the same time.
In the last few years, the researcher community had oriented to inhibitors extracted from plants such as essential and vegetable oil, flavonoids, coumarins, steroids, terpenoids, and condensed tannins. These substances are excellent inhibitors because they contain heteroatoms such as an N, O, P, and S. The free electrons on the heteroatoms form bonds with the electrons on the metal surface. Some atoms in water ionize to release a proton; thus, the now negatively charged heteroatom helps to free an electron on the heteroatom and forms a stronger bond with the metallic electrons. These properties confer them good inhibition properties.
The following table summarized some green inhibitors used for corrosion inhibition of steels, steel alloys, aluminums, aluminum alloys, and other metals and alloys (Table 1).
Metal | Inhibitor source | Active ingredient | References |
---|---|---|---|
Steel | Tamarind | [11] | |
Steel | Tea leaves | [12] | |
Steel | Eucalyptus oil | Monomtrene 1,8-cineole | [13] |
C-steel, Ni, Zn | Lawsonia extract (henna) | Lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-napthoquinone resin and tannin, coumarine, Gallic, acid, and sterols) | [14] |
Mild steel | Gum exudate | Hexuronic acid, neutral sugar residues, volatile monoterpenes, canaric and related triterpene acids, reducing and nonreducing sugars | [15] |
Mild steel | Garcinia kola seed | Primary and secondary aminesUnsaturated fatty acids and biflavnone | [16] |
Steel | Aloe leaves | [17] | |
Steel | Mango/orange peels | [18] | |
Steel | Hibiscus sabdariffa (Calyx extract) in 1 M H2SO4 and 2 M HCl solutions, stock 10–50% | Molecular protonated organic species in the extract. Ascorbic acid, amino acids, flavonoids, Pigments and carotene | [19] |
Al-Mg alloy | Aqueous extract of | Catechin | [20] |
Al | Opuntia (modified stems cladodes) | Polysaccharide (mucilage and pectin) | [21] |
Zn | Metal chelates of citric acid | [22] | |
Zn | Onion juice | S-containing acids (glutamyl peptides) S-(1-propenyl) L-cysteine sulfoxide, and S-2-carboxypropyl glutathione | [23] |
Sn | Natural honey (acacia chestnut) | [24] | |
Sn | Black radish | [25] |
Green inhibitors used for corrosion inhibition of steel, steel alloys, aluminum, aluminum alloys, and other metals and alloys.
In this part, we will present a study of a green corrosion inhibitor using a formulation prepared based on the
The inhibition effect was evaluated using the electrochemical measurement such as polarization curves and spectroscopy impedance. The electrode surface was characterized by SEM/EDS.
The results of the open circuit potential (OCP) variation of the iron substrate in acidic solution in the presence and in the absence of FCSL are reported in Figure 6.
Variation of the open circuit potential (OCP) of the iron substrate in acidic solution with and without the FCSL formulation.
The results show that in the absence of FCSL, the potential tends to stabilize at −0.51 V, after 20 min.
The addition of the FCSL formulation leads to a shift in the corrosion potential to a positive direction. This important shift of corrosion potential may indicate an important anodic inhibiting effect of FCSL.
The polarization studies of iron were carried out in acid rain solution both in the absence and in the presence of the FCSL formulation.
All of these curves were obtained after 30 min of immersion time of the electrode in electrolytic solution after performing the automatic ohmic drop compensation (ZIR).
The cathodic and anodic polarization curves of iron in simulated acid rain solution with and without various inhibition concentrations are reported in Figure 7.
Potentiodynamic polarization curves of the iron in acid rain solution with and without various inhibition concentrations in the cathodic domain (a) and in the anodic domain (b).
In absence of the inhibitor (Figure 7a), the corrosion current increases rapidly with the cathodic overvoltage until the potential value of −0.8 V/SCE; for more negative potential values, a pseudo-plateau appears in 0.4 mA/cm2, which can be attributed to the oxygen diffusion process, so the cathodic reaction can be expressed in the following equation:
In the cathodic process, the important factor that must be considered is the mass transport [24].
The adding of the formulation to the corrosive solution is accompanied by both a shift of corrosion potential Ecorr toward a more positive potential and a decrease of the current density Icorr, with the disappearance of the diffusion plateau, obtained in the case of the blank solution, in the presence of the FCSL formulation. We observe the formation of the film on the area, which hinders the diffusion of dissolved oxygen toward the electrode surface.
This behavior is associated with the presence of chloride in solution. The anodic reaction can be expressed by the following equation:
According to Figure 7b in the presence of the FCSL formulation, the current density decreases significantly with the presence of the inhibitor. Furthermore, the corrosion potential displayed more positive values, and also the value of the corrosion current density Icorr reduced from 74.9 mA cm−2 in the absence of the inhibitor to 1.0 mA cm−2 in the presence of the inhibitor. So in less than 75 times, then we observe the appearance of a current plateau in a wide potential range.
The inhibition efficiency (% IE) was calculated using the following relation and its value of 98.6%:
The corresponding current plateau value is in the order of 0.03 mA cm−2 in the case of the FSCL formulation. This may indicate that the iron surface is protected by the inhibitor; this protection may be attributed to a passivity of iron substrate resulting from the formation of inhibitor film on the iron electrode surface. Thus results were observed by other authors [27].
From this result, we can conclude that the FSCL formulation is a mixed-type inhibitor that acts by decreasing the current density in both the cathodic and the anodic domains and making the corrosion potential become more anodic.
This good inhibiting effect of the FSCL formulation may be related to the adsorption on the electrode surface by the establishment of a barrier film.
The impedance diagrams in Nyquist and Bode plots in the absence and in the presence of the FCSL at 293 K are represented in Figure 8.
Nyquist and Bode impedance plots of the iron electrode in acidic solution with and without the FCSL.
In the case of the blank solution, as shown in Figure 8, we noted the two capacity loops in the high frequencies and the inductive loop at low frequencies. This inductive effect may be due to the desorption of the H+ ions and salt ions present in the solution or to the redissolution of the passivity surface [26]. In effect, this inductive loop disappeared with the addition of the inhibitor. The same behavior has been observed by other authors [27].
As shown in Figure 8, in the presence of the FCSL formulation, the size of the loops are bigger than in the case of the blank. Indeed, the polarization resistances pass from 380 Ω cm2 in the case of blank to 14,080 Ω cm2 in the presence of inhibitor.
The inhibition efficiency (% IE) was calculated using the following relation and its value of 97.3%:
We noted also a decrease in the electrolyte resistance which may be explicated by the presence of the ionized substances in the formulation.
We can be ascribed to the following contributions. The high-frequency contribution (Cf, Rf) can be attributed to the dielectric character due to the formation of the film on the iron surface in presence of the inhibitor. The low-frequency contribution can be attributed to the double-layer capacitance (Cdl) at the electrolyte/iron interface at the bottom of the pores coupled with the charge transfer resistance (Rt) [10].
The aim of the surface analysis by SEM coupled with the EDX used in this study is firstly to check the hypothesis of the formation of the inhibitor on the electrode surface and secondly to verify its protective qualities against iron corrosion.
Figures 9 and 10 show the area of the substrate of iron with and without the FCSL formulation after 24 h of immersion time in the acidic solution.
SEM micrograph and EDS spectrum of the iron substrate in corrosive solution after 24 h of immersion time in the absence of the FCSL formulation.
SEM micrograph and EDX spectrum of the iron substrate in acidic solution after 24 h of immersion time in the presence of the FCSL formulation.
In the absence of the FSCL formulation (Figure 9), the SEM examination provides that the metallic surface be heavily attacked by the corrosive ions. The EDX spectrum reported in Figure 9 showed the characteristic peaks of the specimen and marked the presence of oxygen atoms.
Also in the case of the presence the FSCL formulation (Figure 10), in the addition of the optimal concentration of the FSCL formulation into the corrosion solution, a smooth surface noted could explain the good protection effect of the inhibitor by a formation of the film. As confirmed by the EDX spectrum, a very low content of oxygen species is revealed.
Corrosion is one of the most destructive phenomena that can affect metallic pieces. Through this work, we present one of the most used method to protect the metals: the corrosion inhibitor. In addition, we present a case study using a green corrosion inhibitor prepared from the oil of
The authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists.
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El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10423",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",subtitle:"Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2746b4288e78c8688d1be1bd9d99a127",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10423.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8929",title:"Modern Beekeeping",subtitle:"Bases for Sustainable Production",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbf5aca68ed2c6690ad99f68aaaddcaf",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8929.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7561",title:"Beekeeping",subtitle:"New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c47c831256fe10ff19fb10f490930fc",slug:"beekeeping-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7561.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6619",title:"Insect Science",subtitle:"Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08241b041b2072a88452041f8fdebe7e",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah and Umar Sharif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6619.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5163",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",subtitle:"Advances in Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc469ff4d2cf6651cfdbf3c5cf90a469",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",bookSignature:"Emerson Dechechi Chambo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94059",title:"Dr.",name:"Emerson",middleName:"Dechechi",surname:"Dechechi Chambó",slug:"emerson-dechechi-chambo",fullName:"Emerson Dechechi Chambó"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50073",doi:"10.5772/62487",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3416,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"59212",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73864",title:"Insect Conservation for the Twenty-First Century",slug:"insect-conservation-for-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:1965,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Insects have been immensely successful as an animal group. They dominate compositional diversity of all but the saltiest and coldest parts of the planet. Yet today insects are declining at a precipitous rate. This is of great concern in terms of impoverishment of Earth, and is also dire for us. Insects contribute to the maintenance of terrestrial and freshwater systems, their service delivery and their resilience. The meteoric impact of humans is challenging this dominance, yet so few people realize that the very fabric of life on which they depend is being unraveled at an alarming rate. Action is required, as are new perspectives, if we are to maintain insect diversity and services through the twenty-first century. Here, we review how we should view and act to have more effective insect diversity conservation based on six themes: (1) philosophy (establishing the ethical foundation), (2) research (the finding out), (3) policy (the framework for action), (4) psychology (understanding how to engage humans in insect conservation action), (5) practice (implementation of action), and (6) validation (establishing how well we are doing at conserving insects). We then overview some emergent challenges and solutions at both the species and landscape operational levels in agricultural, forestry, and urban environments.",book:{id:"6619",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",title:"Insect Science",fullTitle:"Insect Science-Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition"},signatures:"Michael J. Samways",authors:[{id:"233323",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Samways",slug:"michael-samways",fullName:"Michael Samways"}]},{id:"79121",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100416",title:"Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests",slug:"botanical-insecticides-are-a-non-toxic-alternative-to-conventional-pesticides-in-the-control-of-inse",totalDownloads:265,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Insect control for crops is one of the most critical global concerns. Pest management is an economic and ecological problem worldwide due to the human and environmental risks raised by most synthetic pesticide products. Botanical insecticides have resurfaced in popularity due to their low cost and low environmental impact, rather than their negative effects on human health. Botanical insecticides destroy only the insects they are meant to kill, leaving no residue on food or in the environment. Botanicals have long been used to combat pests. The compounds have many environmental advantages. However, as opposed to other bio-control pests and pathogens, their use was minimal during the twentieth century. In developing countries, botanical insecticides are well adapted for use in organic food production. Nonetheless, they may play a far bigger role in developed countries’ food production and post-harvest food protection. Consequently, the current chapter briefly addresses botanicals with active ingredients with insecticidal, antifeedant, or repellent properties.",book:{id:"10739",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",title:"Global Decline of Insects",fullTitle:"Global Decline of Insects"},signatures:"Nazeer Ahmed, Mukhtar Alam, Muhammad Saeed, Hidayat Ullah, Toheed Iqbal, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Kiran Shahjeer, Rafi Ullah, Saeed Ahmed, Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed, Hanem Fathy Khater and Muhammad Salman",authors:[{id:"97300",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid Awadh",middleName:"Al-Mutairi",surname:"Al-Mutairi",slug:"khalid-awadh-al-mutairi",fullName:"Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi"},{id:"191884",title:"Dr.",name:"Toheed",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"toheed-iqbal",fullName:"Toheed Iqbal"},{id:"263876",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"hidayat-ullah",fullName:"Hidayat Ullah"},{id:"263877",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Alam",slug:"mukhtar-alam",fullName:"Mukhtar Alam"},{id:"355528",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"nazeer-ahmed",fullName:"Nazeer Ahmed"},{id:"420069",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahjeer",slug:"kiran-shahjeer",fullName:"Kiran Shahjeer"},{id:"420070",title:"Mr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"saeed-ahmed",fullName:"Saeed Ahmed"},{id:"420221",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"muhammad-saeed",fullName:"Muhammad Saeed"},{id:"420222",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafi",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"rafi-ullah",fullName:"Rafi Ullah"},{id:"436507",title:"Dr.",name:"Nibal Abd Aleem",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan Ahmed",slug:"nibal-abd-aleem-hassan-ahmed",fullName:"Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed"},{id:"436596",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:null,surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"},{id:"485113",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"muhammad-salman",fullName:"Muhammad Salman"}]},{id:"50307",doi:"10.5772/62654",title:"From Extraction to Meliponiculture: A Case Study of the Management of Stingless Bees in the West-Central Region of Mexico",slug:"from-extraction-to-meliponiculture-a-case-study-of-the-management-of-stingless-bees-in-the-west-cent",totalDownloads:2743,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Currently, stingless bees' populations are declining due to environmental degradation. In this context, the authors have developed a research project in the central-western region of Mexico with the goal to generate strategies for conservation and sustainable management of stingless bees. The chapter aims to present the process of this investigation and its main results in terms of a) local knowledge and management strategies of stingless bees, and b) the social process of technological appropriation of meliponiculture by beekeepers. We recognized specific knowledge on the biology and ecology of stingless bees that result in a system for identifying species and management strategies of wild populations of these bees based on the extraction of nests. The implementation of an innovative productive activity based on the principles of meliponiculture and current techniques has been well received by producers, which has led to the formation of the Meliponicultores Michoacanos del Balsas Association, which grows five species of stingless bees. The research suggests that conservation associated with the use of bees (integral meliponiculture) can be enhanced in the region. Faced with the loss of biodiversity and environmental crisis, it is essential to maintain and enhance local knowledge of stingless bees and management practices. This represents an alternative to develop management schemes that allow the raising and breeding of these bees, while its products are obtained.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Alejandro Reyes-González, Andrés Camou-Guerrero and Salvador\nGómez-Arreola",authors:[{id:"179951",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Camou-Guerrero",slug:"andres-camou-guerrero",fullName:"Andres Camou-Guerrero"},{id:"185413",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-González",slug:"alejandro-reyes-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes-González"},{id:"192049",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Arreola",slug:"salvador-gomez-arreola",fullName:"Salvador Gómez-Arreola"}]},{id:"50683",doi:"10.5772/63145",title:"Advances in Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Composition of Propolis Produced in Americas",slug:"advances-in-pharmacological-activities-and-chemical-composition-of-propolis-produced-in-americas",totalDownloads:2580,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from the selective collection of plant exudates that are subsequently mixed with beeswax and salivary bee secretions. Propolis has been used in folk medicine, and certainly, several studies have validated its biological properties. The chemical composition and pharmacological activities of propolis collected through North (including Central America and Caribbean) and South America have been studied in the last years, and several papers have reported differences and similarities among the analysed geographical samples. Propolis has been classified according to its aspect and plant source; however, the ecological diversity present along the Americas provides a plethora of botanical resins. Herein, we summarize and discuss most of the studies performed at present on this profitable product for apiculture, attempting to compare the bioactivity, phytochemical diversity and botanical sources of honeybee propolis produced in Americas.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Efrain Alday, Moisés Navarro-Navarro, Adriana Garibay-Escobar,\nRamón Robles-Zepeda, Javier Hernandez and Carlos Velazquez",authors:[{id:"96966",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Navarro",slug:"moises-navarro-navarro",fullName:"Moises Navarro-Navarro"},{id:"180409",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"carlos-velazquez",fullName:"Carlos Velazquez"},{id:"186351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Zepeda",slug:"ramon-robles-zepeda",fullName:"Ramón Robles-Zepeda"},{id:"186352",title:"MSc.",name:"Efrain",middleName:null,surname:"Alday",slug:"efrain-alday",fullName:"Efrain Alday"},{id:"186353",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"javier-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Hernandez"},{id:"189161",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay-Escobar",slug:"adriana-garibay-escobar",fullName:"Adriana Garibay-Escobar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50170",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2296,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"70501",title:"Southeast Asian Meliponiculture for Sustainable Livelihood",slug:"southeast-asian-meliponiculture-for-sustainable-livelihood",totalDownloads:1260,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are one of the most important pollinators of native plants and economic crops in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. They not only establish large perennial colonies with complex social organization but also have a diverse nesting biology. The economic utilization of a total of 60 stingless bee species in Asia has been reported. The current status of meliponiculture in Southeast Asia is mainly focused on pollination utilization and honey and propolis production. This chapter shows that small-scale beekeeping of stingless bees, which is suitable for the flowering pattern in the tropics, is one of the best potential alternative opportunities. The cost-effectiveness analysis based on production yield, investment cost, and profit-return rate is reviewed. Finally, a sustainable utilization of stingless bees is considered to be an enhancer of pollination services both in an agricultural crop and natural ecosystem.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Orawan Duangphakdee",authors:[{id:"283087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Atsalek",middleName:null,surname:"Rattanawannee",slug:"atsalek-rattanawannee",fullName:"Atsalek Rattanawannee"},{id:"306411",title:"Dr.",name:"Orawan",middleName:null,surname:"Duangphakdee",slug:"orawan-duangphakdee",fullName:"Orawan Duangphakdee"}]},{id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3411,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"74836",title:"Chironomidae: Biology, Ecology and Systematics",slug:"chironomidae-biology-ecology-and-systematics",totalDownloads:460,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The family of Chironomidae is a group of Diptera insects belonging to the suborder of Nematocera, commonly called “non-biting midges” in the adult stage and “bloodworms” in the larval stage. The Chironomidae are often the most abundant group of macroinvertebrates, in number of species and individuals, encountered in all aquatic environments of freshwater, brackish, terrestrial and even the sea. Likewise, Chironomidae occur in all the continents. The Chironomidae family is divided into 11 sub-families that have diffrent ecological statues. Despite the wealth of data on Chironomidae in the Holarctic region, other parts of the world are poorly studied and few guides to identifying Chironomidae have been produced. This chapter includes a theoretical synthesis on the Chironomidae, it deals with the Biology (life cycle and description of different stages), description of all subfamilies and the ecology of this important family of Diptera.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Zerguine Karima",authors:[{id:"334825",title:"Dr.",name:"Karima",middleName:null,surname:"Zerguine",slug:"karima-zerguine",fullName:"Karima Zerguine"}]},{id:"75438",title:"Characteristics of Dipteran Insects",slug:"characteristics-of-dipteran-insects",totalDownloads:504,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Diptera means two wings (Di: two, pteron: wing). They have complete metamorphosis and they are holometabolous insects which means there are 4 stages (egg, larvae, pupae and adult). The name of larval stage is “maggot”. Some of the dipteran insects cause damage in agricultural production. Some are harmful for humans. Dipteran insects have two wings. Hind wings are reduced and they are called “halteres”. Function of halteres is balancing when the insects fly. Except mosquitoes, dipteran insects have sponging-sucking mouthparts. Important examples for dipteran insects are Olive fruit fly and Medfly which cause damages in agricultural production. OFF is the most destructive pest in olive growing areas and Mediterranean fruit fly cause damages in fruit production.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Murat Helvacı",authors:[{id:"301984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Helvaci",slug:"murat-helvaci",fullName:"Murat Helvaci"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"35",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"