Comparison of different organic solvents for phenolic compounds extraction from different varieties of grape residues.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Many human diseases such as cancer, various genetic syndromes, autism and infectious disease have been linked to the disruption of these control processes by genetic, environmental or microbial factors. Therefore, to unravel the mechanisms by which they operate is one of the most exciting and rapid developing fields of modern biology and will contribute to new ways in treatment of these diseases. \nThe chapters in this book will focus on recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms that govern the dynamic structural of chromatin, thereby providing important insights into gene regulation, DNA repair, and human diseases.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1087-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5367-2",doi:"10.5772/50815",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"chromatin-remodelling",numberOfPages:236,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"31abe97fe35989e4547bab854b38e03a",bookSignature:"Danuta Radzioch",publishedDate:"April 17th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3536.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19313,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:42,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 19th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 10th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 14th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 12th 2013",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 11th 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"165250",title:"Dr.",name:"Danuta",middleName:null,surname:"Radzioch",slug:"danuta-radzioch",fullName:"Danuta Radzioch",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165250/images/3810_n.png",biography:"Dr. Danuta Radzioch, Ph.D., is a Full Professor at the Faculty of Medicine of McGill University, Department of Medicine and Department of Human Genetics, Montreal, Canada. 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\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to cover wide aspects of latest developments in poultry feeding and nutrition, which includes nutritional evaluations of feed ingredients, mineral sources including nano- and organic forms, amino acids, feed additives (exogenous enzymes, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics and plant bioactive compounds), fat supplementation in different physiological stages and diseased conditions in various poultry species including broiler chickens, laying hens, ducks, turkeys and quails with the purpose of improving feed efficiency, gut microbiome balance, barrier and nutrient transport function, health and immunity, meat and egg quality, and welfare, and reducing stress, toxic metal accumulation and environmental pollution. This book will be useful to the researchers, poultry farmers, poultry-related feed industries and policy makers.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-001-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-000-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-002-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a68c18aa7790ca6fb772998ac9357d8d",bookSignature:"Dr. Amlan Kumar Patra",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10361.jpg",keywords:"Feed Additives, Nutrient Utilization, Enzyme, Feed Efficiency, Gut Health, Heat Stress, Immunity, Nanomineral, Organic Mineral, Probiotic, Postbiotics, Amino Acid Research",numberOfDownloads:5,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 30th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 29th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 18th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Patra is currently the Co-Editor of Animal Feed Science and Technology journal (Elsevier) and an Associate Editor of Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture (Wiley), Frontiers in Veterinary Science (Frontiers), and Tropical Animal Health and Production (Springer). He has authored around 150 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. His google scholar h-index of 35 and citations of over 5700 are clear indicators of his research merit and impact.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-kumar-patra",fullName:"Amlan Kumar Patra",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra earned his PhD in 2004 from Indian Veterinary Research Institute in Animal Nutrition. Then, he worked at American Institute for Goat Research of Langston University as a Post-doctoral Research Associate. He joined West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences as Assistant Professor in 2007. He also worked at The Ohio State University through a BOYSCAST fellowship from India for 18 months and at Free University of Berlin as Humboldt Research fellow. His research has focused on animal nutrition, feed and foraging behaviors, gastrointestinal physiology and microbiology, and livestock-environment interface. He has authored more than 150 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings, edited a Springer book with Google Scholar h-index of 37 and over 6000 citations. He is serving on the Editorial Board of a few reputed journals and currently is a Co-Editor of Animal Feed Science and Technology, Associate Editor of Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, and Frontiers in Veterinary Science, Tropical Animal Health ad Production as well as Guest Research Topic Editor of Frontiers in Microbiology, Frontiers in Veterinary Science, and Animals. In recognition of his extraordinary contribution in animal science, he received several prestigious national and society awards from India including the best Reviewer award of Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences (2019) and Frontiers in Veterinary Science (2019).",institutionString:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"74751",title:"Effect of Environmental Temperature on Water Intake in Poultry",slug:"effect-of-environmental-temperature-on-water-intake-in-poultry",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51977",title:"Phenolic Compounds Recovery from Grape Fruit and By- Products: An Overview of Extraction Methods",doi:"10.5772/64821",slug:"phenolic-compounds-recovery-from-grape-fruit-and-by-products-an-overview-of-extraction-methods",body:'\nBioactive compounds are extra-nutritional components that naturally occur in small quantities in plant and food products. Most common bioactive compounds include secondary metabolites such as antibiotics, mycotoxins, alkaloids, food grade pigments, plant growth factors, and phenolic compounds [1]. Phenolic compounds are considered as bioactive compounds having beneficial effects on human health by decreasing the incidence of some degenerative diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and reducing the risk factors of cardiovascular diseases. In addition, phenolic compounds have other biological properties such as inhibitors of cellular proliferation [2]. Because of their biological properties, phenolic compounds have wide applications on pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries, and for this reason, it is important to identify the most appropriate procedures, which permits the standardization and/or optimization for recovery from these compounds, which are considered as the most abundant antioxidants in berries including grapes. Grape is the most widely cultivated fruit crop in the world with a global production of around 69 million tons, being Europe the biggest producer [3]. Grape fruit and by-products are an excellent source of bioactive compounds [4] such as pigments, organic acids, and phenolic compounds. Several emerging or conventional technologies have been evaluated in order to recover phenolic compounds from grape fruits and wastes such as chemical, physical, and biotechnological techniques, which offer different advantages related to economic, environmental, time-saving, and yield aspects. These techniques including ultrasound, microwave, micro- and ultra filtration, supercritical fluids, and electric fields assisted extraction. In addition, Soxhlet method, pressurized hot water, and the use of different organic solvents had been reported for this proposal. Moreover, enzyme technology and solid-state fermentation have been successfully applied for phenolic extraction from grape samples with important environmental advantages. Nowadays, there is no updated information, which provides an overview about the techniques applied of this bioactive compound recovery in order to obtain high-quality and high-activity phenolic compounds from grape fruit and by-products. This chapter offers relevant aspects related to the techniques employed during the last five years by researches around the world for phenolic compound recovery.
\nSoxhlet is equipment for extracting bioactive compounds, generally from lipid nature. It was invented by Franz von Soxhlet in 1879. Nowadays, the Soxhlet extraction represents the classical methodology for lipophilic compounds extraction [5]. For more of one century, this methodology has been used for different purposes and is described as the universal chemical extraction process [6]. Nevertheless, by itself, it is an optimized extraction process, but the literature offers a high amount of practical examples from bioactive compound extraction using different Soxhlet extraction conditions. However, this methodology requires large extraction times and quantities of solvents. The solvents more used are methanol [7, 8], etano [9, 10], n-hexane [7, 11], petroleum ether [12], toluene, chloroform [13], benzene, diethyl ether, dichloromethane, acetone, isooctane, cyclohexane [14], isopropanol [15], and water (for comparison only).
\n\nGrape variety | \nSolvent | \nConditions | \nYield | \nAntioxidant activity | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ruby Cabernet | \nMethanol | \n1:6 w/v 16 h | \n8.2% g/100 g d.b. | \n11.62 μg/mL (IC50 for AAPH) | \n[8] | \n
Agiorgitiko | \nEthanol | \n3:100 w/v 2–3 h | \n15% d.b. (approximately) | \n1.35 ± 0.02 (IC50 mg/mL) | \n[9] | \n
Water | \n3:100 w/v 5–6 h | \nUp to 24.35 ± 0.34% d.b. | \n2.02 ± 0.02 (IC50 mg/mL) | \n||
NR (from Serralunga d’ Alba, Italy) | \nEthanol | \n6:85 w/w 18 h | \n7.7 ± 0.2 mgGAE/g from seed fraction | \nNR | \n[10] | \n
11.9 ± 0.3 mgGAE/g from skin fraction | \n|||||
NR (from Friuli Venezia- Giulia, Italy) | \nn-hexane Methanol | \n1:12 w/v 6 h at 70°C | \n15.6 ± 1.2% d.b. | \n678 ± 15.5 mgα-tocopherol 100 g−1 | \n[7] | \n
Raboso Piave | \nn-hexane | \n1:12 w/v 6 h at 70°C | \n14.64 ± 0.29% d.b. | \n97.24 ± 0.35 Eq a Toc/g flour | \n[11] | \n
Tempranillo (GSEJ) | \nWater | \n5 h 80–90°C | \n6.04 ± 0.69 gGAE/L−1 | \n57.48 ± 3.61% Inhibition (DPPH) 36.57 ± 2.26 mg TROLOX L−1 (FRAP) | \n[65] | \n
Tempranillo (GSEW) | \n2.41 ± 0.34 gGAE/L−1 | \n40.35 ± 4.64% Inhibition (DPPH) 23.89 ± 5.55 mg TROLOX L−1 (FRAP) | \n|||
Gamay | \n\n | \n | 2.09% | \n151.8 μg/g for IC50, DPPH | \n[66] | \n
Kalecik Karasi | \nEthanol: water (95:5) | \n1:1 w/v 60°C for 8 h | \n2.49% | \n189.6 μg/g for IC50, DPPH | \n|
Okuzgozu | \n\n | \n | 2.63% | \n109.8 μg/g for IC50, DPPH | \n\n |
Comparison of different organic solvents for phenolic compounds extraction from different varieties of grape residues.
Soxhlet method is based on the separation of a specific fraction from several food or plant materials with the use of a polar solvent depending on the solubility characteristic of the target compounds and the physicochemical nature of source, which can determine the surface contact and diffusivity of the solvent into the samples. Grape pomace is a waste product of grape juice and wine industry. These by-products contain high phenolic compounds because of poor extraction during the winemaking processes; hence, it makes their utilization worthwhile. In the last years, a large number of investigations have been conducted in order to find the best conditions for extraction of bioactive compounds from agroindustrial waste including grape waste as shown in Table 1. However, only this extraction method is used as comparison to replace the use of organic solvents.
\n\n\n\nAs an alternative to use solvents in the several extraction methods, PHWE promotes the reduction or elimination of organic solvents into extraction processes. It improves the extraction process due to the water is non-flammable, non-toxic, available, and eco-friendly solvent [16]. High-pressure processing is a technology that has shown good prospects to extract bioactive compounds from several agroindustrial wastes [17]. PHWE is a non-conventional extraction method based on the extraction of molecules using hot liquid water as solvent. This technique is based on the use of temperatures above 100°C and 0.1 MPa, but lower than its critical point (374°C and 22.1 MPa) [18]. In addition, it is a highly promising energy-efficient and eco-friendly technique for recovering phenolic compounds from several sources [19]. However, in the beginning, it was not well received as analytical extraction solvent because the water is too polar to efficiently dissolve most target compounds. But, with PHWE, the water properties (polarity, viscosity, and surface tension) can be manipulated to optimize the phenolic extraction [20]. This manipulation improves the mass transfer rate and disrupts the water surface equilibrium, thereby lowering the activation energy required for desorption process [16]. When water is used as solvent, PHWE technology could also be designated as subcritical water extraction (SWE), superheated liquid extraction (SHLE), and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) or accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) [21]. In recent years, several methodologies have been applied to the extraction of bioactive compounds of grape waste. Among them, the PHWE is a viable alternative, economic, with low-energy consumption, and eco-friendly. Most recently, possible scale up has been proposed by [9] with the use of a 10 l reactor to extract bioactive compounds from Withania somnífera. More recently, a new technique called high hydrostatic pressure has been successfully applied for phenolics recovery and microbial control, which could considerate to improve wine quality [22]. Table 2 summarizes the last 5 years of investigation in the recovery of bioactive compounds from grape pomace. These investigations show that it has been possible to replace organic solvents with high yields and high antioxidant capacity. Therefore, it is an alternative extraction technique for application in pharmaceutical, food, and biotechnological industries.
\nGrape variety | \nSolvent | \nConditions | \nYield | \nAntioxidant activity | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cabernet Sauvignon | \nHot water | \n1:10 w/v 5 min at 100°C | \n65.58 mg/g d.e | \n10.2 mg AAE/g d.e. | \n[19] | \n
1:10 w/v 5 min at 200°C | \n20.38 mg/g d.e | \n15 mg AAE/g d.e | \n|||
NR | \nEthanol/water (70:30 vol%) | \n100 bars 140°C 5 cycles × 0 min each | \n7.28 g GAE/100 g d.b. | \nUp to 49.12% (DPPH) compared to resveratrol 50 μg/mL | \n[67] | \n
Cabernet Sauvignon | \nHot water | \n1:10 w/v 50–200°C 5–30 min | \nUp to 4.1 mg GAE/g dp | \nUp to 4.4 mg AAE/g dp (FRAP) Up to 184 mg TE/g dp (DPPH) | \n[68] | \n
White Zinfandel | \nHot water | \nLower than 60 psi 140°C 9 mL/min water flow rate | \n130 mg/100 g d.b. (anthocyanins) 2077 mg/100 g d.b. (procyanidins) | \nNR | \n[69] | \n
Sunbelt | \n80% aqueous ethanol | \n10.3 MPa 124°C 1 min | \n9.65 mg/100 g d.b. (Flavonols) | \nNR | \n[70] | \n
Summary of conditions and solvents for phenolic compounds extraction from different varieties of grape residues.
Ultrasounds are sound waves of very high frequency (20 kHz to 100 MHz), which are propagated via compression and rarefaction, and require a medium (i.e., tissue) in which to travel. Ultrasound-assisted extraction makes use of high-intensity ultrasonic energy created by the implosion of cavitation bubbles. The bubbles collapse can produce physical, chemical, and mechanical effects. When this energy reaches the surface of the raw material through the extraction solvent, it is transformed into mechanical energy that is equivalent to several thousand atmospheres of pressure [23]. The high-pressure breaks the material particles, destroys cell membranes, improves penetration of solvent, and increases the contact surface area between the solid and liquid faces resulting in the release of phenolics to the extraction solvent in a relative short time [23, 24]. UAE is a simple, environmentally friendly, and efficient alternative to conventional extraction techniques [25]. The method’s main advantages are simplicity of use and low instrumental requirements [23, 24, 26]. Ultrasonic devices include an ultrasonic bath, mainly used for small-scale extractions, or an ultrasonic probe system for large-scale industrial extractions (Figure 1) [26–29]. There are some previous applications of UAE in the determination of phenolic compounds on specific parts of grapes. Ghassempour et al. [30] worked with red grape skin and the recuperation of anthocyanins. They compared UAE and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and the results showed that UAE has a slight lower recovery than MAE. Moreover, in their study, González-Centeno et al. [31] evaluated UAE as an extraction method for the quantification of total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity from grape pomace using an ultrasonic water bath. According to the results, the UAE resulted to aqueous extracts with phenolic and antioxidant characteristics similar to those obtained with conventional extraction, working under lower temperature conditions, and during less operating time (eight times less time than the conventional method).
\nSchematic representation of an ultrasound-assisted extraction equipment.
Grape seeds have also been an interesting sample for UAE-based methods. Tao et al. [32] evaluated the effects of acoustic energy density (6.8–47.4 W/L) and temperature (20–50°C) on the extraction yields of total phenolics and tartaric esters during UAE from grape marc and demonstrated that ultrasound is an effective and promising technology to extract these kind of bioactive substances from this source. Ultrasound energy for extraction also facilitates more effective mixing, faster energy transfer, reduced thermal gradients and extraction temperature, selective extraction, reduced equipment size, faster response to process extraction control, quick start-up, increased production, and eliminates process steps among others [33]. Thus, the advantages of UAE include reduction in extraction time, energy, and use of solvent, which is reflected on economic and environmental aspects in the recovery of bioactive compounds.
\nThe fundamentals of the microwave extraction (MAE) process are different from those of conventional methods (solid–liquid or simply extraction) because the extraction occurs as the result of changes in the cell structure caused by electromagnetic waves. Microwave energy is a non-ionizing radiation that covers a third order of magnitude scale from 300 MHz to 300 GHz [34]. The principle of heating using microwaves is based on its direct effects on molecules of the material. Electromagnetic energy is converted to heat following ionic conduction and dipole rotation mechanisms (Figure 2) [35]. MAE process is assumed to involve three sequential steps [36]: (i) separation of the solutes from the active sites of the sample matrix under increased temperature and pressure, (ii) diffusion of solvent across the sample matrix, and (iii) release of the solutes from the sample matrix to the solvent. The operating conditions could be related to the success on the efficiency of this process; in this sense, parameters such as solvent extraction, temperature and time of the extraction, microwave power, and the physicochemical characteristics of the material should have special attention as they could potentially influence the recovery of target compounds [37, 38].
\nSchematic representation of a microwave-assisted extraction equipment used at laboratory scale.
The potential of MAE to recover high-added value compounds from winery wastes and by-products was investigated by several research groups. For instance, in their study, Liazid et al. [39] shown a remarkable reduction in the time applied from 5 h to 5 min that could be achieved with MAE compared to conventional extraction method when this technology was apply on grape skins for anthocyanins recuperation. Moreover, with this method, three additional acyl derivatives were extracted and quantified, while with the conventional method, it was impossible to measure. Bittar et al. [40] produced grape juice rich in polyphenols by MAE. Microwave-assisted process was evidenced to possess the highest values of TPC (21.41 ± 0.04 mg GAE/g DW) and TAC (4.49 ± 0.01 l g MVGE/g DW). In addition, Li et al. [41] developed a microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method for the extraction of phenolic compounds from grape seeds of Vitis vinifera. To optimize the extraction, it was considered the ethanol concentration in the extraction solvent, liquid: solid ratio, time, power, and temperature. The results obtained revealed that the optimal extraction conditions were ethanol concentration (47.2%), liquid: solid ratio (45.3:1), and time (4.6 min). The total phenolic content also was determined. Sequential application of the optimal conditions to one sample revealed that approximately 92% of the total phenolics were extracted in the first instance. Concluding that, MAE provides comparable or better extraction and it was very much quicker than other extraction methods.
\nMembranes can be defined as semipermeable barriers that separate two phases and restrict the transport of defined components in a selective manner. The transport of components through the membrane is achieved by applying a driving force (concentration gradient, pressure, temperature, or electric potential). Thus, membrane separation processes use semipermeable membrane of definite nature to separate the components of a solution based on molecular size differences. In every membrane separation process, there is a membrane that is placed between two phases. One phase is called feed and the other is called permeate. When the feed consists of equal to or more than two components, and some of those components flow faster than others through the membrane, separation of the feed mixture takes place (Figure 3) [42, 43].
\nMicrofiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) have already been widely used in the recovery, concentration, and fractionation of value-added products from agroindustrial wastes [44, 45]. Nevertheless, the use of membrane separation processes for the recovery of value-added products from wine lees is still a matter of research. In general, MF membranes rate according to nominal pore sizes, which are in the range of approximately 0.1–10 µm and operate at very low pressure, typically 10 psi or less, while UF membranes have molecular weight cut-off values between 1000 and 300,000 Da and pore diameters in the range of ≤10 nm–0.1 µm and typically operate at pressures ranging from 15 to 100 psi [28, 46].
\nSchematic representation of membrane-based separation process.
In their study, Galanakis et al. [47] evaluated ultrafiltration processes in application of recovery, concentration, and fraction of polyphenolic compounds extracted from winery sludge. Ultrafiltration removes high molecular-weight substances, colloidal materials, and organic and inorganic polymeric molecules (i.e., soluble dietary fibers or polysaccharides) from low molecular-weight organics and ions (i.e., phenols, simple sugars) in a non-destructive way. In the mentioned work were tested three membrane types (100- and 20-kDapolysulfone, 1-kDa fluoropolymer), and the results indicated that solute retention was affected mainly by severe fouling phenomena due to polar solutes adsorption on membrane surface instead of size exclusion. Finally, it was separated successfully hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives from anthocyanins and flavonols. Giacobbo et al. [48] investigated the aqueous extraction associated with microfiltration for the recovery of phenolic compounds present in the effluent of wine lees. They proposed that effluents are rich in polyphenols and can be potential sources. Therefore, authors worked first in reducing the charge of the suspended solids and then used this permeate in an ultrafiltration process (V0.2 and MFP5 membranes) with dilutions combined with vacuum filtration. At the optimal conditions, a solution diluted 10 (v/v) followed by microfiltration led to the achievement of a limpid permeate, rich in phenolics obtaining a recovery rate of 21% of the total content of phenolic compounds. The results demonstrated that this technology is up to 6 times more efficient than others. On the other hand, Fernández et al. [49] studied the maximization of the permeate flux in the purification by ultrafiltration of a grape seed extract, by evaluating the effect of operating variables: transmembrane pressure and tangential velocity on permeate flux and on the extracts chemical characteristics. The authors concluded that the UF process (10-kDa membrane to 5 bar and 1.3 m/s) reduced the mean degree of polymerization of the extracts from 7.15 up to 1–3 units of flavan-3-ols, corresponding to dimmers and trimmers in the permeate. Those evidences stand out membrane separation as an attractive alternative for recovery specific phenolic compounds from grape fruits and wastes.
\nSupercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is a technique that uses supercritical fluids (systems formed by one or more compounds at conditions over their critical values of pressure and temperature) as an extraction solvent in the separating one component (the extractant) from another (the matrix). In this process, the mobile phase is subjected to pressures and temperatures near or above the critical point for the purpose of enhancing the mobile phase-solvating power [50]. The supercritical fluid is used as an alternative to traditional organic liquid solvents. The most widely used supercritical fluids are CO2 (Tc = 31°C, Pc = 74 bar) and water (as above described) (Tc = 374°C, Pc = 221 bar), but some processes involve the use of supercritical methanol, ethanol, propane, ethane [51, 52]. A basic SFE system consists of the following parts: the delivery system of supercritical fluid is very important because a high purity is required. The pumps employed in supercritical fluid extraction must be able to drive carbon dioxide at high pressures required, maintaining a constant flow. A heater capable of controlling the temperature in the furnace, and a cell or stop able to withstand the pressures generated by the pump is required. The most important part is the restrictor which controls the flow of the supercritical fluid flowing through the cell and, moreover, is responsible for depressurizing the fluid by passing existing supercritical conditions in the cell extraction atmospheric conditions. Finally, the collection system of solute is responsible for increasing the fluid density and hence its solvent power decreases, achieving the separation of the solute and fluid (usually is achieved by depressurizing the fluid) [53]. A symmetric diagram of typical SFE instrumentation is given in Figure 4.
\nMost of the studies evaluating the potential of SFE to recover valuable compounds from grape by-products have been focused on seed oil and proanthocyanidins recovery. In this line, Oliveira et al. [54] proposed an increase in aggregated value of the huge amount of residues generated by wineries. In their study, it was evaluated the global extraction yield, the antimicrobial activity and the composition profile of Merlot and Syrah grape pomace during the application of supercritical fluids supplemented with a co-solvent (300 bar at 50 and 60°C). Even though the extraction yields were remarkably low, the supercritical fluid extracts presented the highest antimicrobial effectiveness (against four strains of bacteria) compared to the other grape pomace extracts due to the presence of bioactive compounds. Da Porto et al. [7] evaluated supercritical carbon dioxide (SC–CO2) extraction of grape marc using water (W) and ethanol (EtOH) as co-solvent at 15% (w/w), 100, and 200 MPa, and 313.15, 323.15, and 333.15°K to analyze their influence upon total phenols of the extracts. Supercritical extraction obtained the highest phenolic yield (68.0 g/kg of extract), phenol content (733.6 mg GAE/100 g DM), proanthocyanidins concentration (572.8 mg catechin/100 g DM), and antioxidant activity (2649.6 mg—tocopherol/100 g DM) in comparison with conventional extraction.
\nSchematic representation of a supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) system.
Rombaut et al. [55] compared three seed oil extraction methods (screw pressing, extraction by supercritical CO2 percolation, and the combination of these two processes) and evaluated their efficiency for producing oil rich in phenolic compounds. The results suggested that the processes using supercritical CO2 permit an increase in the co-extraction of phenolic with oil. By combining a uniaxial compression with supercritical CO2, oil yield is enhanced from 0 (hydraulic pressing, without supercritical CO2) to 35%. On the other hand, Farías-Campomanes et al. [56] evaluated the economic feasibility of large-scale operations of supercritical fluid extraction (supercritical CO2 containing 10% ethanol (w/w) at 313°K and 20–35 MPa) for the recovery of phenolics using grape bagasse. The supercritical CO2/ethanol extraction process produced extracts with higher concentrations of phenolics (23 g/kg) than that extracts produced using conventional techniques with an economic evaluation of the process that estimated a cost of manufacturing of US$ 133.16/kg. However, more investigation about the effect of this extraction technique on functionality and change of the extracted-phenolics and it application in biotechnological processes is needed.
\nExposing a plant cell to a high-intensity electric field (kV/cm) in the form of very short pulses (µs to ms) induces the formation of temporary or permanent pores on the cell membrane. This phenomenon, named electroporation, causes the permeabilization of cell membrane and increases its permeability and if the intensity of the treatment is sufficiently high, cell membrane disintegration occurs. During a pulsed-electric field extraction, the material is placed between two electrodes forming a treatment chamber and high-voltage-repetitive pulses are applied across the system in order to achieve membrane breakdown. Pulse amplitude in PEF equipment is ranging from 100 to 300 V/cm to 20–80 kV/cm [57]. Normally, PEF treatment is conducted at ambient temperature or slightly higher than the ambient temperature and for a treatment time less than 1 s (ms or µs) [58]. A PEF system, in general, consists of three basic components: a high voltage pulse generator, a treatment chamber, and a control system for monitoring the process parameters. In recent year, PEF technology has been mostly investigated in the recuperation of winery wastes and grape skin polyphenols. The recovered antioxidative compounds depend on the nature of raw materials, and in particular, the tissue structure of the source and the PEF treatment conditions applied. El Darra et al. [59] evaluated the influence of PEF (0.8–5 kV/cm, 1–100 ms, 42–53 kJ/kg) on the recuperation of phenolic compounds from Cabernet Franc grapes and its relationship with the process fermentation compared with a conventional treatment (50°C for 15 min). The study showed a significant improvement in phenolics extraction (anthocyanin and tannin contents), color intensity, and scavenging activity of the samples during red wine fermentation after applying PEF (51–62%) and thermal treatments (20%). In addition, Delsart et al. [60] determined the presence of phenolic compounds from Merlot grapes and the effect of PEF on the fermentation process of this grape variety and the related wine characteristics. The experiments focused in the application of PEF treatments (500–700 V/cm) with times of incidence of 40–100 ms where the measured responses were color intensity, anthocyanins, and phenolic content during the alcoholic fermentation and seven months during storage. The results suggest that pulsed electric field treatment has the advantage of nonthermal-selective extraction (<5°C) involving no loss of product quality in with respect to the classical process.
\nOther authors investigated the application of PEF treatment combined with densification to recover phenolic compounds from grape pomace of low moisture content, without any addition of conductive liquid [61]. Moreover, they studied the influence of a supplementary hydro-alcoholic extraction under various temperatures. The results indicate that PEF treatment (1.2 kV/cm, 18 kJ/kg) in grape pomace (1 g/cm3) allows greater recovery of polyphenolic compounds for this matrix. Also, it was determined that this technology allows more selective recovery of anthocyanins after applying the treatment and finding compounds like anthocyanins/total flavan-3-ols at 20°C of 7.1 and 9.0, for control and PEF-treated samples, respectively. With the above aspects in view and the improvement of later biotechnological stages on winemaking, PEF could be considered as a good technique of enhancement of phenolic compounds on wine industry products.
\n\nBiotechnological releases of phenolic compounds from plant materials are associated to the degradation of cell-wall polysaccharides for microbial enzymes by use crude enzymatic extracts or purified commercial enzymes, which are able to eliminate this physical barrier and opens up the cell. Biotechnology techniques such as enzyme technology and solid-state fermentation have been successfully applied for phenolic extraction from grape samples with important environmental advantages. In addition, the enzymatic extraction method excludes the use of xenobiotics or toxic reagents, something that must also be taken into account, as it is more environmentally friendly [62].
\nIn this sense, it has been reported that the use of cell-wall hydrolyzing enzymes can significantly increase the release of phenolic compounds from grape skins and seeds in a very short time. In a compressively study, Xu et al. [63] reported that β-glucosidase and pectinase can increase the releasing of total phenolic compounds from grape skins at 12 and 72%, respectively, when compared to the control. Therefore, both enzyme types could be considered to achieve an effective enzyme method for releasing phenolics from grape skins. Those findings are according to Fernández et al. [64], who observed an increment on phenolic compounds of 1.26-, 1.32-, and 1.34-fold when pectinase, cellulose, and tannase were used for describing the enzymatic effect of such enzymes on grape skins and seeds. In addition, due to the complexity of plant cell structure, combinations of those enzymes were evaluated; however, significant a significant effect on phenolic releasing was not observed. According to these studies, pectinase could be the enzyme, which allows the major amounts of phenolic compounds may be due to the high pectin content on this material. More recently, endoprotease mixtures have studied in order to obtain not only phenolic compounds, but also other functional biomolecules with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacities such as peptides. From this, flavonoids (flavanols and flavonols) and phenolic acids were observed as the main phenolic compounds present in grape pomace [62]. Table 3 summarizes some contribution on biotechnological releasing of phenolic compounds from grape wastes. Nevertheless, it is important to observe that just one study regarding to the application on the solid-state fermentation of phenolic recovery from grape by-products was found, which indicates that the application of this process is still a matter of research for production of bioactive compounds from such agroindustrial material. However, biotechnological tools are very important environmental advantages since it reduces the use of xenobiotics or toxic reagents used in the recovery of phenolics in other techniques.
\nBiotechnology technique | \nGrape tissue | \nEnzyme/ microorganism | \nPhenolic compounds | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Enzymatic | \nWhole grape pomace | \nTrypsin and chymotrypsin mixture | \nC, EC, Q, PB1, PB2, K, R | \n[71] | \n
Whole grape waste | \nCommercial enzymatic preparation (Novoferm) | \nGA, Rs, OCA | \n[72] | \n|
Seeds | \nCellulase | \nDo not identified for this enzyme | \n[63] | \n|
β-Glucosidase | \nEA, EAH, ECG, EC and GA | \n|||
Pectinase | \nDo not identified for this enzyme | \n|||
Skin | \nPectinase | \nEGC-P, EC-P, ECG-P and C | \n[64] | \n|
Seed | \nC-P, EC-P, C, ECG-P, EC and ECG | \n|||
Skin | \nCellulase | \nEGC-P, C-P, EC-P, C and ECG-P | \n||
Seed | \nC-P, EC-P, C, ECG-P, EC and ECG | \n|||
Skin | \nTanasse | \nEGC-P, C-P, EC-P, C and ECG-P | \n||
Seed | \nEC-P, C, ECG-P, EC and ECG | \n|||
Whole grape pomace | \nMixture of proteases | \nGA, CA, CfA, PA, C, EC, PB1 and some glucosides | \n[62] | \n|
Solid-state fermentation | \nWhole grape waste | \nAspergillus niger GH1 | \nGA (as a main phenolic) | \n[73] | \n
Biotechnology techniques applied for phenolic compounds recovery from grape by-products.
As shown, grape fruit and by-products have demonstrated be an excellent source for obtaining phenolic compounds with the use of several conventional and/or emerging technologies. The growing demand to extract high-quality and high-activity extracts rich in phenolic compounds from plant materials encourages researches for found convenient extraction methods to this proposal. Since all the methods above described are based on different mechanism and extraction processes, the possible arrangement and development of hybrid procedures must be investigated to select the appropriate extracting-technique considering the target phenolic compounds, the physicochemical characteristic of the source, and the economic and environmental advantages of those methodologies.
\nAuthors wish to thank the Mexican Council for Science and Technology (CONACYT) for the INFRA 2015-254178 Project.
\nThe abundance of social media application creates an ecosystem of social media [1] which business organizations can use to enhance their information system (IS) and strategic endeavors [2, 3]. The use of social media in business organizations is in the post adoption stage. For instance, Mahr and Lievens [4] highlighted that 80% of firms listed in Standard and Poor’s 500 index used social media. Although large organizations embraced social media, Kiron et al. [5] suggested that both large and small organizations practice social media. In addition, Braojos-Gomez et al. [6] suggest that small firms tend to use and leverage social media for strategic objectives such as marketing because of their low portfolio of financial resources to compete more effectively in the market compared with large business organizations. Although social media can be leveraged for strategic reasons, Kietzmann et al. [7] suggested that executives were struggling to build strategies for engaging effectively with social media. For instance, Omotosho [8] suggests small business entrepreneurs are familiar with major social media platforms and their relevance to their business endeavors but lack of continuity with platforms for business purposes was a factor for converting the platforms for their personal use. Likewise, Effing and Spil [9] finds that social media strategy within organizations is not yet well developed. The difficulty of developing a strategy is attributed to abundance of social media applications which exist in different forms such as blogs, content communities, or social networking sites (ibid). Kwayu et al. [3] found organizations used different social media platforms for different strategic activities, which explains why there is a co-existence of different social media platforms in organizations. Therefore, while social media platforms support different strategic practices, Hanna et al. [1] suggest that the social media ecosystem creates an understanding of the overall social media strategy. Social media ecosystem is an accumulation of social media applications which emerge as important e-commerce context for organization to engage [10].
Partly out of financial constraints, small businesses turn into social media strategies [6]. Small businesses understand that social media is crucial for the competitiveness of small businesses. The evidence that the practice of social media within organizations is far advanced than its recognition in the literature [11], further underscores the need for scholars to understand the practice of small businesses use of social media and how the social media ecosystem influences strategies of small business.
Considering the above, this paper explores how the social media ecosystem enacts strategy for small business. The paper draws from practice theory which focuses on how people interact with technology in their ongoing activities while enacting structures, which influence emergent and situated use of that technology [12]. Thus, the practice perspective offers us with an understanding of how technology is used and how the use of that technology affects the organization.
Motivated by the concerns above, this paper seeks to answer the following question: how does the social media ecosystem enact strategy for small business?
Accordingly, this research is an autoethnography research that adopts an interpretivist philosophy to gather empirical evidence from personal experience and self-reflection of owning and managing a small online business. In this respect, the paper makes the following contributions. First and foremost, it will help to understand how an ecosystem of social media produces, embeds and enacts strategic activities for a small business. Second, it will help to understand the role of context in organization and assist contextual inclusivity. Third, it will give insights on the digital divide that exists between developed and developing context and the role of social media at either bridging or expanding the divide. Lastly, the paper will be useful for small businesses that want to develop agility, which is required to successfully adopt and implement digital transformation.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. First, I discuss the literature on social media, followed by a discussion on practice theory. Then a methodology section follows. Thereafter is the presentation of the findings and a discussion on the implication to literature and practice. Finally, I conclude with limitations and avenues for future research.
Social media is now a mainstream practice within organizations [13]. It is a new form of information technology that allows interaction and interoperability of users [14]. Dabner [15] explains social media as an internet and mobile based application which integrates technology, telecommunication and social interaction to enable the creation and dissemination of words, videos, images and audio. Treem and Leonardi [16] suggest social media is distinct from previous forms of information technology (IT) in terms of affordances. For instance, it allows simultaneous and instantaneous exchange of information between users which has enabled social media usage to soar within a relatively short period of time. For example, Piskorski [17] highlights that most of popular social media such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube which were made in mid-2000 are now having more than billion users. Thus, with the affordances that social media offers to organizations and the influence that it has; organization are generating a considerable interest in understanding how to implement and develop strategies around social media.
Kwayu et al. [14] argues that social media is a broad term which embodies various forms making it difficult to apprehend. There have been various efforts to classify social media with Kaplan and Haenlein [18] developing six categories of social media which are: blogs, social networking sites, content communities, virtual game worlds, virtual social worlds and collaborative communities. Another attempt to offer understanding on different forms of social media was of Kietzmann et al. [7] which developed seven functional building blocks of categorizing social media platforms. The functional blocks are: Identity, sharing, conversation, presence, relationships, groups and reputations. Although the categorization of social media helps to understand a platform and its effect in organization, it obscures the understanding of the combined effect of social media applications that exist within the organization consequently denying organizations’ executives with means of developing the overall social media strategy within organization.
In efforts to understand how social media co-exist in organizations, Piskorski [17] argues that for social media to be successful they have to offer a single social solution. Once it offers more than one solution, it becomes less effective. Given this observation, social media platforms refrain from copying social solutions from other platforms, hence this is the reason why different platforms with non-overlapping social solutions can co-exist in an organization. Like Piskorski [17], Kwayu et al. [3] found different social media platforms engendered different strategic practices within an organization. Although different social media platforms serve different functions within an organization, understanding of social media as an ecosystem helps the organization to pursue overall social media strategy rather than being tactical [1, 10]. Piskorski [17] suggests that an overall strategy needs structural change and helps organization in the long run whereas tactics are limited to a function and they are short-lived. In practice many organizations tend to use a functional approach to strategy [19] which denies organizations with full potential towards a social media strategy. Therefore, this paper intends to help in understanding how the social media ecosystem shapes business strategy.
It is crucial to understand social media strategy in order to understand how the social media ecosystem shapes business strategy. Piskorski [17] defines social media strategy as the idea of using social media for value creation and competitive advantage. Though limited some studies have explored social media strategy. For example, Culnan et al. [20] proposed an outline for implementing social media strategy which includes three elements that are; mindful adoption of social media platforms, building community in social media platforms and creating absorptive capacity for sourcing value from the community in social media. Similarly, Piskorski [17] argues that successful implementation of social media strategy seeks to increase organization’s profit by improving interactions between people and making them undertake sets of corporate function for free. In addition, Piskorski [17] builds his argument using Porter [21] generic business strategy which gives organizations two choices of either differentiation or cost leadership. With differentiation an organization will use social media to pursue customers and ensure that they pay more without increasing the cost, while with cost leadership an organization will use social media to reduce their cost without reducing the customers willingness to pay. Another study that reviewed social media strategy is Effing and Spil [9], who developed a framework which comprises three stages and seven key elements of social media strategy. The first stage is initiation, which comprises targeting audience and channel choice. Most organizations focused on the first stage. Second stage is diffusion which has elements of goals, resources and policies. Whereas the third stage is maturity which involves elements of monitoring and content activities. While these studies provide significant understanding of social media strategy, their major weakness is that they focus on customers. The studies also ignore other issues such as impact of social media on processes, structure and strategy of business organization.
As mentioned earlier, practice perspective view how people interact with technology in their ongoing practices to enact structure that shape emergent and situated use of the technology [12]. This implies that practice theory emphases the latent connection of material aspects of social reality [22]. Golsorkhi et al. [22] argues that practice enables a researcher to deal with the most fundamental issues in contemporary social analysis by showing how social action is linked with structure and agency. Furthermore, they suggest practice perspective has potential to explain why and how social action sometimes follows and reproduces routine, rules and norms and sometimes it does not (ibid). The underlying belief of practice theory is that activities of social life are carried out through ordinary acts of life.
Halkier [23] suggests that practice theory is not a coherent theory, but it attempts to synthesize conceptual elements regarding the performing of social action. Thus, practice theory is concerned with performativity, meaning that activities of any kind in human life are continuously carried out and through ordinary life performance organized through multiplicity of shared practice (ibid). Thus, practice theory offers a way to explain why a social phenomenon comes to be the way it is, making it a better way to understand how strategy is enacted.
Within the IS field it is believed that technologies embodied structure with them, and the structures were appropriated when the technology was in use [24]. However, Orlikowski [12] proposed a practice theory which advances the notion of embodied structure with enactment of structure and the notion of appropriation with emergent use of technology. This means that practice theory acknowledges that structure is enacted when technology is used, and consequently when there is recursive use of technology a structures of technology use emerge. Hence, Orlikowski [12] made a distinction between technology in practice (use) and technology as artifacts. The practice theory thus focuses on the use of technology, which makes it useful means of exploring how people organize themselves when interacting with technology. Thus, the practice theory explains organizing phenomena as interweaving of social and material. In this way, and by focusing on activity the practice theory does not distinguish social and material as there is no social without material and no material without social [25]. Therefore, practice theory acknowledges that social activities depends on material arrangement in which the activity is taking place (Ibid). Furthermore, practice theory has been used in the study of social media, for instance Kwayu et al. [2] used practice theory to explore how social media is a tool for competitiveness and its influence on organizational practice and strategy. Likewise, Huang et al. [26] used practice theory to study social media used in a ticketing company in china. The theory was useful to explain the phenomenon of site-shifting and how practices where bundled to produce emerging, dynamic and fluid nature of ambidexterity. Considering this, practice theory becomes a suitable theory for explaining how the social media ecosystem affects the strategy of a small business.
This research is an autoethnographic research which follows an interpretivist philosophy. The interpretivist philosophy is suitable for this research as it views knowledge as being socially constructed through language, consciousness and shared meaning [27]. Interpretivist philosophy is in line with autoethnographic research. It’s a form of research, writing and method that connects the autobiographical and personal to the cultural and social [28]. Cunliffe [29] insists that autoethnography is not a method but a methodology. This means that autoethnography is more than techniques of data collection and analysis.
Wall [30] suggests that autoethnography draws on personal experience that extends to provide insights on a social behavior making it reflexive and better suited to explain social phenomenon since it acknowledges an inextricable link between personal and the wider context. Thus, autoethnography research provides means of organizing reflection on everyday life as experienced by researchers [31]. Furthermore, autoethnography is suitable for this research because it is enactive as it is concerned with material and physical domain that relates to the researcher domain of research (ibid). Therefore, autoethnography is beneficial for the research as it offers opportunity for making latent and tacit knowledge ordinary. This is because personal experience removes the access boundary of generating knowledge on the interdependencies between researched phenomenon being enacted and researchers. Therefore, despite autoethnography research being in line with interpretivist philosophy it is also in line with practice theory and the research phenomenon of understanding how the social media ecosystem enacts strategy of small business.
This research draws from my personal experience of establishing an online shop on ETSY platform. My shop sells handmade crafts from Africa with the main source being Ghana. My business started in 2018. The business significantly depends on several social media platforms, which create an ecosystem that shape the strategy of my business. I started the shop while in the UK and I continue to manage it from Tanzania. This transition has offered me a good experience of navigating/conducting business between developed and developing countries. My data is a recollection of my personal experience and reflection.
The analysis of my reflection follows a reflexive thematic approach, which is considered a fully qualitative approach [32]. Reflexive approach is centred on deep engagement, commitment and rigor as it emphasizes meaning as contextual or situated, reality or realities as multiple and researcher subjectivity as not just valid but a resource [33]. In addition, Braun et al. [32] suggest in a reflexive analysis a researcher becomes a storyteller, actively engaged in interpreting data through the lens of their own cultural membership, social positioning, theoretical assumptions, ideological commitments and their scholarly knowledge.
The finding of this research is drawn from my personal experience, which can make it hard to generalize the results. Nevertheless, Halkier [23] suggests that it is possible to generalize but with a change on how we view generalizability. First generalizability should be specific and bound by context rather than taking it as universal. Second, generalizability must attempt to present dynamism, uncertainties, conflicts and complexities that constitute various overlapping context and knowledge production processes (ibid). Thus, generalizability is not supposed to produce stable representations but possibilities and instability [34]. This form of generalizability can be done by positioning as a way of drawing inferences on narratives and discourses to enable representation of dynamics that constitute social construction of things, relationship and performances [23]. Hence this type of analysis is suitable to analyze practice which is performative of social action making it a suitable method for understanding how social media ecosystem enacts strategy for small businesses like mine.
The findings are presented in a narrative form. This is because they are from my personal experience and reflection. My narration is structured to first provide a background including outlining the objective of my business. Second it outlines the products of my business. Third, it explains the use of social media applications. Finally, I conclude with my reflection on the influence of the social media ecosystem on my business.
In the last quarter of 2018, I started an online shop on Etsy. I had planned to start earlier but I delayed perhaps due to procrastination. The idea of starting an online shop originated from conversations with my extremely practical sister. She was selling handicrafts on Saturday markets. I thought it took a lot of energy from her hence I suggested that she should explore a way of selling online. Being practical, she immediately started to sell online. Her online business picked up. As it did, she gradually stopped going to the Saturday markets. She found more time to spend with her daughter. As her online business kept rising, I shared strategies from theoretical understanding of the information system (IS), but I never practiced anything. It was until I saw the benefits and gains she was getting that I was personally prompted to start my own online digital shop. My objective was to get income and build capital. I had gained insight and considerable understanding of business from her experience. She also linked me with people who she had met through social media. I manage to source items following her example. My business strategy is a digital business strategy, which is a fusion of IT and business strategy [35]. Thus, for me, the IT strategy is the business strategy. The digital business strategy was informed and influenced by my research in IS.
In Etsy, I sell handmade products from Ghana, Zimbabwe and Tanzania. The products include different types of handwoven baskets such as baby bassinets, laundry baskets, handbags, buckets and wall hanging basket decors.
My business significantly relies on different social media applications, which enable different functions for my business. From the outset I knew that I would need to use different social media applications because I knew one social media application could not do everything. Also, I wanted to get the synergy by using different social media applications in combinatorial fashion. In my business I use WhatsApp to communicate with local artisans. For marketing and promotion, I use Pinterest, Facebook and Instagram. For Logistic and tracking I use ParcelsApp. Whereas, for financial operations I use Wave, PayPal and internet banking applications. Wave enables people to send money to some African countries and the recipient receives their money on their mobile wallet such as MTN. There are other applications which send money to Africa, but their cost structure is different. Wave deals with exchange rate but other applications such as World Remit charge a percentage which can reduce or take off the profit margin of the business. These applications work as an ecosystem, a change in function of one application changes the whole structure and strategy of the business. For example, in December 2019 Wave was unable to send money to Tanzania. With that inability, it was hard to pay for products from Tanzania and consequently I thought to change my operation strategy. For example, I thought instead of shipping from Tanzania to ship from neighboring countries (Kenya or Rwanda) but this would increase the costs, which could affect my competitiveness or make it impossible to sell. My competitiveness to sell depends on my process design and the context that is created by the social media ecosystem. Similarly, when the Covid-19 Pandemic started it was difficult to ship due to flight cancelation, only DHL could ship but it was too expensive and this prompted me to cancel operations in other countries apart from Ghana, where DHL shipping was reasonable. The business process is a two-way highway - one is money/cash and information flow from the consumer to me (merchant) to supplier (producer/artisan) and the second way is the product from the producer to the consumer. The portfolio/context of my social media applications (ecosystem) needs to support this process in a perfective way. In other words, a change in context changes my business process, efficiency and strategy.
When my business started to grow, I wanted to sell on other platforms such as Facebook and Amazon. In Facebook to integrate any app one needs to have more than 2000 followers, I had to do so and managed to integrate my Etsy shop with my Facebook page. Nevertheless, after doing so I realized that it was not effective. It was difficult to sell products on Facebook which has lots of potential buyers. The affordance of Facebook Shop Page does not facilitate quick sales in that potential buyers may not see the products as visible as it could be. Considering that, I tried to register for Facebook Marketplace only to find out that it is limited to America. I tried to sell on Instagram, which is also connected to Facebook, but I was also not able since it only allows big selected brands from the US. After failing to do so I managed to register on Amazon UK, which also offers the opportunity to sell in Europe. I was not able to sell lots of products perhaps because I am new, and my pictures are not very sophisticated. Hence, I tried to register on
In reflecting my own experience as briefly described above, I have come to appreciate the importance of what I call ‘soft infrastructure’. Unfortunately, ‘soft infrastructure’ is an ill way of referring provision of human services from more common recognized hard infrastructure [36, 37] Thus, it is difficult to define soft infrastructure because its intangible, hard to measure and often described in a subjective and qualitative way that may not be easily understood (ibid). Therefore, by soft infrastructure, I mean intangible facilities that enable successful operation of my business. This includes things like bank details, identity information, postal address, national and international policies, and software applications. For instance, sometimes we can be on the same platforms but due to differences in identity such as nationality or location, size can be limited. This is due to the way those platforms are structured. For instance, a small business can fail to register because it cannot fill a required field that is not oriented to their context. Sometimes, network issues and even cost for maintaining platforms is a factor hindering small business from exploiting social media platforms [8]. Different contexts, for example countries have different institutions which have different arrangements and agreements. Thus, although social media platforms are global, access to some services from these platforms can be constrained due to different institutional arrangements and agreements. Thus, the ecosystem of application can enable or constrain a business strategy for a small business. My business has been successful because of the information and technology developments which are occurring in Africa. Most of these developments in information and technology are recent, perhaps less than two decades. For example, most local artisans do not have bank accounts, but they do have mobile wallets. Thus, the money I transfer goes straight to their mobile wallets in the cell phones. This sort of transaction I cannot do with my UK bank. For example, I cannot transfer cash from my UK bank account straight to the mobile wallet in Africa. I can only do that via social applications such as Wave to a mobile wallet in Africa. If it is sent straight from my UK bank account, the only way is to go to another bank account in Africa. This would have been an impediment since it is often the case that my local artisans in different countries in Africa do not hold bank accounts, yet they all have mobile wallets. Technological progress makes it easier to send to mobile wallets because the money is received instantly and with the notification on both phones. Further confirmation and acknowledgement of receipt is done through WhatsApp. Thus, the ecosystem of social media creates a context that facilitates business. Lastly, my business has thus been successfully due to access to soft infrastructures in the developed world as well as some of the developments that are taking place in Africa. Thus, my business strategy operates in overlapping contexts of the developed and developing world.
The above findings show that each social media platform plays a role as identified by Kwayu et al. [3] and Piskorski [17]. In addition, they show that although each platform plays a role they collectively function as a system. This highlights Omotosho [8] argument that small businesses are failing to use social media platforms due to lack of continuity with platforms for business purposes. Thus, it underscores the importance of understanding social media ecosystem and its role in forming continuity with platforms for business purposes. Changes in one platform can affect how the whole ecosystem works. This is a significant finding as it shows how an ecosystem enacts a strategy for a small business. It further signifies the synergetic effect of co-existing social media platforms in an organization. This extends Hanna et al. [1] research on ecosystems by explaining why people use different social media platforms in simultaneity.
Second, these findings show how contexts overlap and interact with each other thus creating a narrow path for small business to enacts its strategy. For example, there are different types of social applications that transfer money abroad, however they function differently. As explained above, some apps transfer money but they charge a percentage which can reduce or take off the profit margin hence making the business meaningless. Therefore, although there is an abundance of social media applications, the choice is limited due to the multiplicity of overlapping contexts such as business context and geopolitical context. All of these factors affect business in their totality. Walsham [38] suggests the use of IT in sub-Saharan Africa is recent and its associated with mobile phones and social media. This explains why I have to use a combination of internet banking (UK) and social application (Wave) to send money to Africa mobile wallet (M-Pesa). Thus, not one social media can navigate different contexts on its own. It is a link of different social applications that creates an ecosystem that enables to carry out business financial functions. Thus, this paper contributes to literature on context and ICT4D (information communication technology for development) research by showing how the digital divide exists between developed and developing context [39]. This insight is helpful to assist digital inclusivity especially for less developed countries which are left behind with widening inequality that is created by digital companies such as GAFA (Google, Amazon, Facebook and Apple). Furthermore, the digital inequality (i.e. rural – urban, developing and developed) is exacerbated by neglect of research on social media and its influence on small business even within context of developed world [40].
Third, the findings show the importance of social and material arrangements in supporting small business strategies. As much as a single platform embodies a structure that can enable or limit a function, an ecosystem of social media platforms enacts a structure which creates an emergent strategy. For example, if Facebook opens its marketplace to other countries, this will influence our strategy because it will afford us with a new market from Facebook. Thus, any change in social or material arrangement as explained in the finding enacts an emergent strategy. Hence, this study enhances our understanding of Orlikowski [12] proposition that enactment and emergence are complementary to embeddedness and appropriation of technology structure. It enhances this understanding by showing where embodied structure plays a role and at what point enactment of structure becomes dominant.
In practice, the findings in this paper have the following significance.
Through highlighting the importance of soft infrastructure, this study shows the importance of synchronizing development of soft infrastructure. The misalignment of soft infrastructure between the developed and developing world exacerbates the digital divide that exists between the two. Synchronization of soft infrastructure will enable small businesses to grow and be able to access global markets with seamless effort. This will be successful if stakeholders and policymakers create conducive environment for use of social media for business activities among entrepreneurs and small businesses [8]. The policy holders and stakeholders will be in a better position to do this if they take a holistic view of understanding the social media ecosystem.
Second, this paper underscores the importance of strategizing practice for small business. Strategizing is a dynamic, iterative, interactive and continuous social process [41]. Social media platforms are dynamic, and they change continuously, thus small businesses need to constantly practice strategizing processes as business strategy is enacted continuously depending on changes that are happening in the social media ecosystem. Thus, what is right or what functions today might not be the same tomorrow. Therefore, small businesses that want to develop agility, which is required to successfully adopt and implement digital transformation need to have a continuous strategizing practice.
This study has provided a fresh insight on how the social media ecosystem influences a strategy of small business and how the ecosystem performative is interspersed with context. The study is subjective to my view and personal experience with the sole objective of understanding how the ecosystem of social media influences business. This is because being a situated actor and a researcher engenders a strong feeling of attachment and responsibility for the research subject. Therefore, although this is limited to my personal experience future research can bring objectivity in the same phenomenon by deploying other research methods such as surveys. Furthermore, this research implies Africa as a developing world, future research can explore other emerging markets such as Asia and South American countries. Inferences from other areas will provide deeper insights that will help our understanding of globalization and its influence on small businesses especially during this era of social media.
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El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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