A brief summary of the general implications of each of the five principles of urban ecology for ecologically motivated landscape design and management
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Currently, cardiomyopathies are defined as myocardial disorders in which the heart muscle is structurally and/or functionally abnormal in the absence of a coronary artery disease, hypertension, valvular heart disease or congenital heart disease sufficient to cause the observed myocardial abnormalities. This book provides a comprehensive, state-of-the-art review of the current knowledge of cardiomyopathies. Instead of following the classic interdisciplinary division, the entire cardiovascular system is presented as a functional unity, and the contributors explore pathophysiological mechanisms from different perspectives, including genetics, molecular biology, electrophysiology, invasive and non-invasive cardiology, imaging methods and surgery. 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The most critical changes in the world over the last century have been derived from the variety of environmental problems. Growing environmental problems now affect entire the world. The majority of environmental problems originates in human greed and interference.
It is well known that planet Earth is experiencing a so-called environmental crisis (ecological crisis). This crisis is characterized by three major themes:
Rapid growth of the human population and its associated economic activity,
The depletion of both non-renewable and renewable resources, and
Extensive and intensive damage caused to ecosystems and biodiversity.
The environmental crisis is a predicament of inappropriate design-it is a consequence of how cities have been developed, industrialization undertaken, and ecoscapes used. Fundamentally, the problem has been one of inadequate integration of ecological concerns into planning (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).
In many ways, the environmental crisis is a design crisis. It is clear that design has not been given a rich enough context. Design is a hinge that inevitably connects culture and nature through exchanges of materials, flow of energy, and choices of land use. The every world of buildings, artifacts, and domesticated landscape is a design world, one shaped by human (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).
Some environmental problems have arisen from design problems. Design can have a crucial impact upon the environment in many different ways. This is because every design decision is an environmental decision. Design is a consequence of how things are made, and the world has been shaped by the designers. The present forms of everything in the world have been derived from design. It is clear that design has been previously used only to meet human needs. Unfortunately, in many past situations environmental effects were ignored during the design stage. Design has not been taught in the context of its ecological impact. Many practices in the design field have been done with unsustainable design principles. The environmental problems have boosted the sustainable explorations necessary for protecting ecological system in order to address and find solutions to the problems. Scientists, planners and designers have questioned the effectiveness of design and have suggested incentives as alternatives. At the end of 20th century, the power of design for to solve the problem and the potential of design for sustainability have been noticed; an integration that goes from ecological processes and functions to design has started. Design and its potential have been regarded a creative problem solving activity. While ecological sciences provide the knowledge and guidance, design provides creative solutions for the environmental problems.
In a world facing a future characterized both by expanding metropolitan regions and by ecological crisis, it is imperative that we re-think the relationship of urban dwellers to the natural environment. The 21st century is expected to be the first in history in which a majority of humanity lives in cities, and if present trends continue, it may also be the one in which those urban populations inflict irreversible damage on the earth’s living systems (Eisensten, 2001).
Designers and design critics are increasingly emphasizing the actual or, potentially, radical nature of an ecological approach to design which implies a new critique-a recognition of the fact that to adopt an ecological approach to design is, by definition, to question and oppose the status quo (Madge, 1997). In this context design has a crucial role to play in achieving sustainability and to provide solutions for environmental problems. In parts of the world dominated by humans, landscape design can have significant and positive environmental effects (Helfand et al., 2006).
Ecological design explicitly addresses the design dimension of the environmental crisis. It is not a style. It is a form of engagement and partnership with nature that is not bound to a particular design profession (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).
In recent years ecological design has been applied to an increasingly diverse range of technologies and innovative solutions for the management of resources. Ecological technologies have been created for the food sector, waste conversion industries, architecture and landscape design, and to the field of environmental protection and restoration (Todd et al., 2003).
As environmental problems escalate, ecological design in landscape architecture has increasing in academia and practice. Ecological design is an integrative ecologically responsible design discipline. Ecological design has been emerged as a means to model ecological processes and functions, and therefore as a model for sustainability. Today’s ecological landscape design movement tends to address design problems.
Ecology, sustainability and design are different fields, but they have been merged together in recent years. This is because human lifestyle is having an increasingly negative impact on the surrounding environments.
Ecology, in the 100 years since its inception, has increasingly provided the scientific foundation for understanding natural processes, managing environmental resources and achieving sustainable development. By the 1960s, ecology\'s association with the environmental movement popularized the science and introduced it to the design professions (e.g. landscape architecture, urban design and architecture) (Makhzoumi, 2000).
“Ecology” in the profession of landscape architecture and planning can’t be understood solely as meaning the relationship between nonhuman life forms and their environment. The term ecology is traditionally used as shorthand for the sum of the biophysical forces that have shaped and continue to shape the physical world. Thus there are other dimensions to be recognized if we are to understand the key nature of ecology: that of process, integration, and humanity (Ahern et al., 2001).
The relationship between design and ecology is a very close one, and makes for some unexpected complexities (Papanek, 1995). Ecology explains how the natural world is and how it behaves, and design is also the key intervention point for making sustainability in ecology (Figure 1.). The knowledge gained from ecology can influence landscape design.
The relationship between ecology, sustainability and design
In landscape architecture ecology’s emphasis on natural processes and the interrelatedness of landscape components influenced outlook and method and prompted an ecological approach to design (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999). The ecological component is crucial in landscape design according to the principles of sustainability.
The typical relationship of designer and scientist presumes that most of what can be known is known. The designer is the creative partner; the scientist is an interactive book. Since the scientific base for ecological design is nascent, the nature of this relationship is flawed. Science and design are complementary ways to generate knowledge (and therefore both are creative endeavors). Scientists solve problems inductively, forming generalized principles from specific observations (Figure 2.). Designers use general principles to solve specific problems deductively. The knowledge available for ecological design would greatly increase if designed landscapes were used as ecological research sites. Designed landscapes that are typical of the surrounding region, with one to a few clear themes and repeated patterns (replication), are potential ecological research sites (Galatowitsch, 1998).
Design and ecology are complementary problem-solving techniques (Galatowitsch, 1998)
Sustainability is not a single movement or approach. It is varied as the communities and interests currently grappling with the issues it raises. One the one hand, sustainability is the province of global policy makers and environmental experts. One the one hand, sustainability is also the domain of grassroots environmental and social groups, indigenous peoples preserving traditional practices, and people committed to changing their own communities. The environmental educator David W. Orr calls these two approaches technological sustainability and ecological sustainability. While both are coherent responses to the environmental crisis, they are far apart in their specifics. Technological sustainability, which seems to get most of the airtime, may be characterized this way: “every problem has either a technological answer or a market solution. There are no dilemmas to be avoided, no domains where angels fear to tread.” Ecological sustainability is the task of finding alternatives to the practices that got us into trouble in the first place; it is necessary to rethink agriculture, shelter, energy use, urban design, transportation, economics, community pattern, resource use, forestry, the importance of wilderness, and our central values. While the two approaches have important points of contact, including a shared awareness of the extent of the global environmental crisis, they embody two very different visions of a sustainable society (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).
A goal of ecological design is to help meet this vision of ecological sustainability, by finding ways of manufacturing goods, constructing buildings, and planning more complex enterprises, such as business and industrial parks, while reducing resource consumption and avoiding ecological damage to the degree possible (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).
Ecological design strives to achieve an increasing reliance on renewable sources of energy and materials, while maintaining standards of quality of goods and services and reducing overall resource consumption, waste generation, and ecological damage through efficiencies of use, re-use, and recycling.
Ecological design provides a framework for uniting conventional perspectives on design and management with environmental ones, by incorporating the consideration of ecological concerns at relevant spatial and temporal scales. If the principles of ecological design are rigorously applied, important progress will be made towards ecological sustainability (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).
Landscape design mostly depends on natural resources, so ecological sustainability is very important. Landscape design contributes to the ecological sustainability.
There is no verifiable starting point for the current sustainable design movement. It seems to have converged from several different broad ideas concerning our relationship with the natural world. Some of the key figures who have contributed to the discussion include Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, John Muir, Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot, Aldo Leopold, Rachel Carson, and Ian McHarg (Cook and VanDerZanden, 2011).
Sustainability is an ecological term that has been used since the early 1970s to mean: "the capacity of a system to maintain a continuous flow of whatever each part of that system needs for a healthy existence," and when applied to ecosystems containing human beings refers to the limitations imposed by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. The term sustainable development was first used in the early \'80s, but was popularized by the Brundtland Report of 1987. "Sustainable" has become the buzzword of the \'90s in the same way "green" was in the \'80s, and is equally open to different interpretations and misuse. The Brundtland Report adopted a global perspective on the consumption of energy and resources, and emphasized the imbalance between rich and poor parts of the world, arguing that: "Sustainable development requires that those who are more affluent adopt lifestyles within the planet\'s ecological means." However, because the report also argued that economic growth or development is still possible as long as it is green growth, this has been interpreted by many to endorse a "business as usual" approach, with just a nod in the direction of environmental protection. This ignores the real meaning of sustainable development, which is enshrined in the widely quoted concept of "futurity":..."meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
When applied to design, this not only introduces or reintroduces the ideas of ethical and social responsibility, but also the notion of time and timescale. Thinking about the life cycle of products through time, and considerations about design for recycling, have led to the concept of DfD (Design for Disassembly) followed by the idea of going Beyond recycling towards the design of long-life, durable products. These two concepts are not as contradictory as they sound, as Victor Papanek has recently remarked: "To design durable goods for eventual disassembly may sound like an oxymoron, yet it is profoundly important in a sustainable world. The term "sustainable design" has begun to be used in the last 15 years or so to refer to a broader, longer-term vision of ecological design. At the Centre for Sustainable Design, established at the Surrey Institute of Art and Design in July 1995, sustainable design means "analyzing and changing the \'systems\' in which we make, use, and dispose of products," as opposed to more limited, short-term DFE. The ECO2 group makes a similar distinction between "green design, project-based, single issue and relatively short-term; and sustainable\' design, which is system-based, long-term" ethical design. Emma Dewberry and Phillip Goggin have also explored the distinctions between ecological design and sustainable design; arguing that, whereas ecological design can be applied to all products and used as a suitable guide for designing at product level: "The concept of sustainable design, however, is much more complex and moves the interface of design outwards toward societal conditions, development, and ethics.... This suggests changes in design and the role of design, including an inevitable move from a product to a systems-based approach, from hardware to software, from ownership to service, and will involve concepts such as dematerialization and "a general shift from physiological to psychological needs." Finally, they emphasize the extent to which consumption patterns must change, and refer to the inequality between developed and developing nations, the fact that 20 percent of the world\'s population consumes %80 of the world\'s resources and conclude that ecological design does fit into a global move toward sustainability, but has many limitations in this context. This is the point made by Gui Bonsiepe, who has expressed the fear that ecological design will remain the luxury of the affluent countries while "the cost of environmental standards would be shifted onto the shoulders of the Third World." (Madge, 1997).
Sustainability can be viewed as the long-term outcome of maintaining landscape integrity. Designing for sustainable landscapes necessitates a holistic and integrative outlook that is based on ecological understanding and awareness of the potentialities and limitations of a given landscape. Such understanding ensures that in accommodating future uses their impact on existing ecosystems and essential ecological processes and biological and landscape diversity is anticipated. This will allow for healthy ecosystems and long-term ecological stability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).
Designs that promote sustainable landscapes should be simultaneously aware of local values and resources as well as regional and national ones, as sustainability is the domain of both. Further, achieving landscape sustainability requires patience, humility and a design approach that attends to scale, community, self-reliance, traditional knowledge and the wisdom of nature’s own (Van der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).
Whereas maintaining landscape integrity and designing for sustainability can be seen as the practical objectives of ecological landscape design, the design of creative and meaningful places addresses aesthetic concerns.
The following is a palette of terms that in some way define or refer to sustainable design:
Design for environment,
Ecological design (ecodesign/eco-design),
Environmental design,
Environmentally oriented design,
Ecologically oriented design,
Environmentally responsible design,
Socially responsible design,
Environmentally sensitive product design,
Sustainable product development,
Green design,
Life-cycle design,
Dematerialization,
Eco-efficiency design,
Energy efficient design, and
Biodesign (Deniz, 2002).
Environmental problems become an increasingly important aspect of the designer’s work to minimize the risks and to solve the problems. Because of the rapid technological development, environmental problems increase day by day. On the other hand, new technologies often tend to be less dangerous than what they replace, and hence designers may find themselves in the forefront of identifying problems which must be addressed by technology. Sometimes, existing technologies may not be able to provide the solution, and the designer may have to influence the development of a new technological approach. Designers must also follow technological developments in order to be sure of incorporating the most environmentally advanced technologies (Deniz, 2002).
Technology has been the principal method by which we intervene on the land and modify the ecosystems to ensure our existence, yet its various manifestations are most often ignored in discussions of the designed landscape. In fact, much of the rationale for this exhibit might be based upon the obfuscation of ecological clarity by technology and the subsequent employment of more benign and expressive techniques for bringing back such clarity. In the ordinary landscape, the instances in which intentional land design aims at a higher, symbolic meaning in some decipherable form are few when compared with the countless millions of ordinary landscape structured by the dominant, operative, contemporary technological paradigms. In one sense, we have covered up our ecosystems with our technologies; we have obscured a degree of innate clarity of the former with the vast complexities of the latter. While science and technology have made it possible to comprehend deeper levels of ecosystem knowledge, they have also enabled the physical cover-up and subsequent concealment of dimensions of the landscape once readily accessible to more primal peoples. With technological hegemony, our ecosystems have gained little and lost a lot (Thayer Jr., 1998).
This raises the whole issue of the relationship between design and the “Appropriate Technology” (AT) movement in the last twenty to thirty years. Schumacher (1973) coined the term “intermediate technology” to signify “technology of production by the masses, making use of the best of modern knowledge and experience, conducive to decentralization, compatible with the laws of ecology, gentle in its use of scarce resources, and designed to serve the human person instead of making him the servant of machines”. The central tenet of appropriate technology is that a technology should be designed to be compatible with its local setting. Examples of current projects that are generally classified as appropriate technology include passive solar design, active solar collectors for heating and cooling, small windmills to provide electricity, roof-top gardens and hydroponic greenhouses, permaculture, and worker-managed craft industries. There is general agreement, however, that the main goal of the appropriate technology movement is to enhance the self reliance of people on local level. Characteristics of self reliant communities that appropriate technology can help facilitate include: low resource usage coupled with the extensive recycling; preference for renewable over nonrenewable resources; emphasis on environmental harmony; emphasis on small-scale industries; and a high degree of social cohesion and sense of community (Roseland, 1997).
Landscape architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, incorporating aspects of; botany, horticulture, the fine arts, architecture, industrial design, geology and the earth sciences, environmental psychology, geography, and ecology.
Landscape architecture has ecological thinking at the core of its legacy (Mozingo, 1997). As a result of a trend favoring ecological perspectives in design, significant changes have occurred in the landscape architecture profession in recent decades through the move to integrate ecological perspectives (Hooper et al., 2008).
Thinking ecologically about design is certainly not a "new" idea. Since ancient times "designers" looked to nature for "solutions" to their common problems; they saw nature as the perfect model to follow. Even though, in recent times, an increase in ecological education and environmental awareness is apparent among design professionals, there is still the need to better understand the expression of ecology through design (Lomba-Ortiz, 2003). In the face of the environmental problems new approaches to reconciling the divide between ecology and design have been explored in landscape architecture.
Since the 1960s, ecology has increasingly influenced the design professions, providing for a holistic and dynamic outlook on nature, environment and landscape. The different dimensions of ecology have come to imply the ability to think broadly, to search for patterns that connect and to observe nature with insight. Alternatively, ecological knowledge allows a comprehensive understanding of landscape as the outcome of interacting natural and cultural evolutionary processes which account for pattern, diversity, sustainability and stability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).
To date, however, ecological design has been principally concerned with the realistic emulation of ecological form, function, and, where possible, process. As an outgrowth of, and to some degree, a fusion between landscape architecture, ecology, environmental planning, and the building science aspects of architecture, there is a distinctive functional emphasis in the discipline. Ironically, artistic elements and visual aesthetics have not been a priority in a discipline that bears the label of "design." I would attribute this principally to the dominance of landscape architecture in influencing ecological design, itself (until recently) a discipline characterized by a schism between garden design and horticulture in one domain, and technical ecologists concerned with ecological restoration and reconstruction in the other. This remediative, reactive "applied ecology" practice of landscape architecture along with related environmental professions have understandably been the progenitors of the new discipline of ecological design, largely (and understandably) as a response to global environmental crises (Lister, 2005).
Motivated by environmental values, landscape architects became increasingly knowledgeable about ecological principles and systems (Meyer, 2000). Ecology, the study of interactions between organisms and their environments, has long been a compelling theme for faculty, practitioners, and students of landscape design and planning. Frederick Law Olmsted’s visionary public designs, Jens Jensen’s native plantings, May Watt’s observations of vernacular landscapes, and Ian McHarg’s book, Design with Nature, are all milestones of ecological thinking in landscape design and planning (Johnson and Hill, 2001). McHarg (1969), Spirn (1984) and Hough (1995) played seminal roles in applying theories and principles of ecological landscape design to urban areas (Özgüner et al., 2007). lan McHarg who, perhaps more than any other, popularized ecology in landscape architecture. Patrick Geddes is the initiator of an ecological approach in design and planning and because he offered an integrative view of the environment that embraced urban design, landscape design and planning. John Tillman Lyle offers a comprehensive approach embracing theory, practice and method (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).
In the late 1860’s Frederick Law Olmstead supported the idea that landscape architects were stewards of the land. Olmstead’s designed landscapes borrowed aesthetically from the picturesque but he was overtly conscious of ecological processes playing a critical role in the function and design of landscape spaces (Ware, 2004).
The early influence of ecology can be traced to the work of late nineteenth century visionary biologist Patrick Geddes, the conceptual initiator of an ecological approach to urban and landscape design and landscape planning. Patrick Geddes had a clear, overall conceptual strategy for improving the manmade environment and for advocating a sympathetic coexistence with the natural environment. In his ‘biological principles of economics’ he came closest to the present day concept of sustainability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).
Ecological thinking was only resumed with the publication of lan McHarg’s (1969) ‘Design with Nature’. The significance of McHarg’s work, however, lies elsewhere, namely in introducing ecological understanding to the profession. McHarg believed that ecology had the potential to emancipate landscape architects from the static scenic images of ornamental horticulture by steering them away from arbitrary and capricious designs (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999). Ian McHarg’s work fore grounded much of the early sustainable design discussions of the 1970’s and into the 1980’s. Carl Steinz’s, Fred Steiner’s, and Rob Thayer’s earliest work was a critique of McHarg’s methods (Ware, 2004).
John Tillman Lyle’s (1985) ‘Design for Human Ecosystems’ is a comprehensive integration of ecological concepts and landscape design. The term human ecosystems is proposed by Lyle to signify the totality of the landscape at hand as a warning against a strongly visual notion of landscape assessment and as a reminder that the landscape needs to be evaluated as the outcome of natural and cultural processes. Lyle argues the necessity of making full use of ecological understanding in the process of designing ecosystems; only then can “we shape ecosystems that manage to fulfill all their inherent potentials for contributing to human purposes, that are sustainable, and that support nonhuman communities as well”.
Three aspects of Lyle’s (1985) work are of direct relevance in establishing the conceptual foundation for ecological design. The first is that he attempts to tackle the complexity of design method and offers a critical investigation of the design process in the context of ecosystem, its function, structure and ecological (rather than economic) rationality. The second is that he includes ‘management’ as an integral part of ecosystem design, arguing that ecosystems like any organic entity have a variable future and as such, their design should be probabilistic; it is difficult to predict the changes that will take place. The implication here is that design is an ongoing process and that the final product of design is only one stage in this process; it should not be the objective. It also implies that design is interactive because it takes into account future change resulting from the designed system’s interaction with its environment. A third aspect of Lyle’s work is that he breaches the professional categorization of landscape architecture and landscape planning. The terms ‘landscape design’ and ‘landscape planning’ are often used interchangeably, however, uses ‘design’ as giving form to physical phenomena ‘to represent such activity at every scale’. In this he follows others (Steinitz, 1979 and McHarg, 1969) who refer to the regional planning scale while using ‘design’. Lyle viewed landscape planning’s focus on the rational as inevitably excluding the intuitive (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).
More recently, designers such as Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, among many others, have attempted, with some degree of success, to address ecological issues through their designs. “Green Architecture,” “Alternative Architecture,” “Sustainable Design,” and “Ecological Design,” are some of the terms commonly used today to describe a special expression of design that takes as its primary driving force nature’s processes. Van Der Ryn and Cowan (Ecological Design, 1996) defined this form of expression as "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes." A "new" movement among design professionals has been developing for some time now with many of its principles synthesized by the current "green" movement in design (Lomba-Ortiz, 2003).
Ecological design is an emerging interdisciplinary field of study and practice. In fact, many would argue that it is a transdisciplinary field, concerned with the creation of entirely new applications that may emerge from its progenitor disciplines or arise from a synthesis of several. Influenced principally by ecology, the environmental sciences, environmental planning, architecture, and landscape studies, ecological design is one of several rapidly evolving (theoretical and practical) approaches to more sustainable, humane, and environmentally responsible development. As such, it may also be considered a critical approach to navigating the interface between culture and nature. In the broadest sense, ecological design emerges from the interdependent and dynamic relationship between ecology and decision making.
Van Der Ryn and Cowan (1996) described ecological design as a hinge that connects culture and nature, allowing humans to adapt and integrate nature\'s processes with human creations. In modern industrialized societies, human culture and nature are perceived and treated as separate realms, yet their interface offers fertile ground for the creation of new, hybridized natural/cultural ecologies and the rehabilitation and re(dis)covery of others. Ecological design is inspired by the nexus of these worlds and the urgent need to blur the boundary between them; it seizes on the creative tensions between them and, as such, may offer opportunities for and insights to a re(dis)covered place of "living lightly" with the land (Lister, 2007).
By the beginning of the 21st century, ecological design had emerged as an expression of a sustainability world-view, which seeks to integrate the human enterprise with a sustainable harvest of resources, while ensuring that stresses caused to natural ecosystems are within the bounds of viability. If this can be achieved, the integrity of both the human economy and of natural ecosystems can be maintained. As such, ecological design is an all-encompassing concept, as it deals with the sustainability of:
The enterprises of families, neighborhoods, and cities;
The construction of buildings in a manner that decreases resource use and environmental damage to the degree possible;
The manufacturing of certifiably green products;
The organic production of foods and other renewable resources;
The integration of these various activities within ecologically planned mutualisms, such as industrial and business parks, which are designed to maintain high production while reducing the use of resources and minimizing waste; and
The maintenance of indigenous biodiversity (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).
Landscape architects continue to speculate how we can design with the materials of nature and not have the result be confused for nature itself (Ware, 2004). Beth Meyer asserts, ‘to some it might seem odd that landscape architects looked toward art and design theory and practice when seeking direction about folding ecological principles and environmental values into their creative processes. But this simultaneous look to art as well as science and to theories of site specificity and phenomenology as well as ecology was critical to the successful integration of environmentalism into landscape architectural design.’ (Meyer, 2002).
Ecological landscape design is based on an ecological understanding of landscape which ensures a holistic, dynamic, responsive and intuitive approach (Figure 3.). It is holistic because it simultaneously considers past and present as well as local and regional landscape patterns and processes. It is responsive because it develops from a realization of the constraints and opportunities of context whether natural, cultural or a combination of both. Ecological landscape design is guided by three fundamental, mutually inclusive objectives: the maintenance of landscape integrity; promoting landscape sustainability; and reinforcing the natural and cultural spirit of place. Ecological landscape design engages the designer’s rational, intellectual, emotional and creative capabilities (Makhzoumi and Pungetti, 1999).
Ecological design develops out of two areas of inquiry. On the one hand, it is the outcome of ecology’s interface with the environmental design professions. Despite the differing perspectives and focus of interest, a number of common concepts have been outlined. On the other hand, ecological landscape design also utilizes fundamental ecological. Input from these two areas of inquiry forms the foundation for ecological landscape design which is here seen as integrating four overlapping attributes (Figure 3.).
Framework for ecological landscape design, drawing on concepts from ecology (left) and ecological design (right)
The first is a holistic approach to landscape understanding, integrating abiotic, biotic and cultural landscape components. The second is a dynamic approach in which landscape is investigated along two continuums: a spatial one, i.e. movement between a larger scale and a local one; and a temporal one representing the evolutionary historical development of the landscape. The third is ecological landscape design’s responsiveness to the constraints and opportunities of context whether natural, cultural or a combination of both. Responsiveness also dictates an anticipatory approach that considers the impact of the design on existing ecosystems and resources. Finally, ecological landscape design is intuitive, encompassing not only the rationality of the outer world but also the neglected ‘intangible relationships’ of the inner world. This intuitive approach embraces a new definition of creativity that departs from the formal, i.e. object-centered, appearance-oriented aesthetics to a phenomenological participatory aesthetics where the emphasis is on the totality of human experience of the object (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).
Reviewing ecology’s interaction with the environmental design professions reveals a wide range of concepts, solutions and approaches (Figure 4.). The contributions in architecture and the urban landscape design include practical strategies (e.g. energy conservation, ecological networks) and design solutions to specific problems (e.g. earth-sheltered architecture and bioclimatic design). The interaction of ecology and landscape architecture has been more extensive, leading to a holistic approach to landscape design. All the contributions, however, find inspiration in nature and aim to shape man’s environment sustainably and ‘beautifully’.
Ecological landscape design integrates input from landscape ecology and design, both of which are seen as providing parallel and complementary, albeit different methodological approaches. The analytic and descriptive nature of landscape ecology, the science, provides for a holistic understanding of existing landscapes, while the intuitive and creative problem-solving capabilities of design prescribe alternative courses for future landscape development (Makhzoumi, 2000).
In the different steps of the design process a lot of information has been needed to analyze and evaluate ecological processes and functions. Thus ecological design has been interdisciplinary field of study and practice.
Over the past 20 years landscape architecture has re-invested in ecologically driven design. Ware (2004) investigates the following typologies:
Interpretation and Environmental Education
Environmental Remediation/Re-vegetation
Re-Use/Re-programming
Eco-Revelatory Design
The Art of Landscape Function
Intertwining Ecologies
Constructed Ecologies
Simulated ‘natural’ Attractions
The typological framework aims to illustrate and differentiate current methods of approaching ecological design in landscape architecture. The eight categories include a critical reflection as to how the work itself may not be addressing much of the dynamic, ecological processes that the projects are predicated upon (Ware, 2004).
The interface of ecology with architecture, landscape architecture and urban landscape design (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999)
The main ecological principles concerning cities are that:
Cities are ecosystems;
Cities are spatially heterogeneous;
Cities are dynamic;
Human and natural processes interact in cities; and
Ecological processes are still at work and are important in cities.
The first three principles address the structure of cities and the change in structure through time. The remaining two principles focus on ecological processes in cities (Table 1.).
The first principle suggests that landscape design theory and management practice must address all the components of such systems. Urban ecosystems include four broad kinds of components (organisms, a physical setting and conditions, social structures, and the built environment) all interacting with one another. Landscape designs and management strategies that are aimed at one or two of these components or interactions, in reality have the potential to affect them all. Landscape designs that acknowledge and work with the connections between the social, biological, physical, and built components of the system are much less likely to produce unintended negative consequences, and are more likely to contribute to ecological sustainability. Furthermore, enhanced quality of urban life depends on all components of the urban ecosystem, not just some of them (Cadenasso and Pickett, 2008)
Cities are ecosystems | Design affects all four components of human ecosystems. |
Cities are heterogeneous | Design should enhance heterogeneity, and its ecological functions. |
Cities are dynamic | Design must accommodate internal and external changes projects can experience. |
Human and natural processes interact in cities | Design should recognize and plan for feedbacks between social and natural processes. |
Ecological processes remain important in cities | Remnant ecological processes yielding ecological services should be maintained or restored. |
A brief summary of the general implications of each of the five principles of urban ecology for ecologically motivated landscape design and management
The second principle suggests that interactions and transfers among patches within the urban matrix are affected by landscape design and management. Urban landscape design should carefully consider the heterogeneity and its role in maintaining desirable functions such as biodiversity, storm water retention, microclimate mitigation, and carbon sequestration. The interaction between a particular landscape project and adjacent patches of similar or contrasting landscape structure can enhance the function and value of individual projects. This may mean paying particular attention to the boundaries between contrasts within or between projects to enhance or protect from exchanges.
The third principle means that landscape designs should accommodate change. Natural disturbances, extreme climate events, shifting economic investment or disinvestment, the maturation of households, and the aging of or renovation of infrastructure are but some of the examples of the kinds of dynamism that landscape designs and management will have to respond to. Persistent equilibrium in cities is unlikely. Designs that plan for successional changes in vegetation have redundancies in the face of disturbance, or that encourage use by different age groups may be more resilient in changing cities.
The fourth principle suggests that both of these major categories must be addressed as landscape design goals. A design that satisfies only obvious social criteria, such as recreation or efficiency of commerce, misses an opportunity to contribute to ecosystem services that may ultimately have great social value. All landscape designs and management schemes should be judged for their ability to contribute to both social and ecological goods and services, and to reduce both social and ecological risks and vulnerabilities.
The fifth principle means that landscape designs and management practices have the opportunity to preserve and promote those basic biological processes upon which human health and well-being depend. It will be important to provide for these functions even in areas beyond the large green parcels usually targeted for this kind of benefit. The control of water flow and infiltration, the retention of limiting and hence potentially polluting nutrients, the sequestration of carbon dioxide, the neutralization of toxics, the maintenance of soil respiration, the production of biomass, the amelioration of climate extremes, the mitigation of natural disturbance, and the preservation of biodiversity, are but some of the processes that can exist in various places in designed systems. Landscape designs and management protocols can be purposefully planned so as to maintain, or in some cases restore, as many of these kinds of natural processes as possible throughout the urban matrix. As such, landscape design and management can provide creative new ways to insinuate ecological processes in cities (Cadenasso and Pickett, 2008).
Ecologically designed urban landscapes are ones that can use both ecological processes and human values as form-giving elements. In addition to their many environmental benefits, these landscapes -which include systems such as energy efficient buildings, storm water infiltration, sewage treatment wetlands, and urban forests- can also contribute to local cultures of sustainability that, like all cultures, both shape and are shaped by the built and designed environment. If they are to do so, however, their designers must think clearly about the experience of the users of the urban landscape, and particularly about the meanings and lessons that they derive from their surroundings. The ways that people learn from and respond to the urban environment are critical to the prospects for sustainability, if for no other reason than that for most of us, it is the landscape of the city that helps to shape our view of nature and our relation to it (Eisenstein, 2001).
Ecological landscape designs fall into four categories:
Preservation of existing, functioning ecological systems;
Enhancement or re-establishment of degraded ecological systems;
Intensification of ecological processes to mitigate potential or existing ecological degradation; and
Environmental interventions which reduce nonrenewable resource consumption (Mozingo, 1997).
Van Der Ryn and Cowan (1996) have pointed out principles of ecological design Table 2.. The first principle grounds the design in the details of place. In the words of Wendell Berry, we need to ask, “What is here? What will nature permit us to do here? What will nature help us to do here?” The The second principle provides criteria for evaluating the ecological impacts of a given design. The third principle suggests that these impacts can be minimized by working in partnership with nature. The fourth principle implies that ecological design is the work not just of experts, but of entire communities. The fifth principle tells us that effective design transforms awareness by providing ongoing possibilities for learning and participation. Taken together, these five principles help us to think about the integration of ecology and design.
Solutions grow from place | Ecological design grows from an intimate, detailed knowledge of the place and its nuances. |
Make nature visible | Make sure natural cycles and processes are visible to bring the designed environment back to life. |
Design with nature | Nature’s living processes offer opportunities to design using natural cycles, natural waste, and regeneration as part of the total design. |
Ecological accounting informs design | By tracing the environmental impacts of a design, we can discover the more ecologically sound options. |
Everyone is a designer | Listen to every voice in the design process. |
Principles of ecological design
The West Davis Pond in Davis, California, is exemplary of the new landscape space of ecological design. The subdivision of a single family and low-rise apartment neighborhood required capacity improvement of an existing storm-water-treatment settling pond. This prosaic infrastructure requirement innovatively integrates a constructed habitat for numerous over-wintering migratory birds and resident wildlife whose wetland habitats have largely been destroyed in the Central Valley.
The pond had pre-existing development on three sides: an arterial roadway edged by backyard fences, a long edge of directly adjacent backyard fences, and warehouse commercial uses. On the fourth side, the project developers and their team of engineers, environmental scientists, and landscape architects conceived of the pond as integral to the open space of the new development. In lieu of a more typical suburban park, between the housing and the pond, a bike path, part of a famous city-wide system, incorporates two pond overlooks and a constructed arroyo channel as a children\'s play area. Between the manicured, exotic landscape of the housing and the habitat planting of the pond, transitional "native planting" envelopes the bike path, overlooks, and play area (Figure 5.). Most of the species are not native to this part of California, and many are unhealthy or dying.
As one of the first storm-water-treatment wildlife ponds in the Central Valley, and one of the first wetland restoration projects within an urban context, the project is laudable in ways-it is based on sound ecological science, it achieves its clearly stated ecological goals, it is innovative, and it manifests strong community support. The project was done with conscience, care, and the considerable risk that precedents always entail (Mozingo, 1997).
The West Davis Pond (
The West Davis Pond is a new kind of ecologically integrated project, with measurable ecological benefits that we want to increasingly infiltrate into the landscape. The Pond is an enhanced wetland wildlife habitat, while its primary purpose is to retain storm water runoff and help prevent flooding. In the dry months, water is provided by a supplementary well. The Pond is enclosed by a security fence and is designated a "Wildlife Preserve" and "Sensitive Habitat Area" by the City of Davis. Native trees and shrubs grow on the slopes around the Pond and provide habitat for a diversity of wildlife (Anonymous, 2012).
The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park encompasses eighty acres of a north-south ridge overlooking the East Bay Hills and an expansive panorama of the San Francisco Bay. The park is the largest open space and only urban wild land west of Interstate 580, the city’s social and physical divide. The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park is not blueprint for a park constructed as a single project. Rather, it is a guide for a sustained effort to bring to fruition a park that is ecologically healthy and well integrated into the social life of its community (Figure 6.). The park lies within a home owning, middle-class, primarily African American neighborhood considerably integrated with European American, Latino and Asian American residents (Mozingo et al., 1998).
The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park Master plan (Mozingo et al., 1998)
A partnership ethic respects both cultural diversity and biodiversity. In the hills above Oakland, California, a culturally diverse middle-class neighborhood consisting of a majority of African Americana along with many European, Asian, and Latin Americans worked in partnership with the each other and with landscape architect Louise Mozingo of the University of California, Berkeley. The goal was to restore biodiversity to the oak groves from which the city derived its name and ecological heritage. Together they devised a plan to develop the neighborhood’s The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park to benefit from the diversity of perennials grasses, oak savannahs, and brushy chaparral indigenous to the area. At the same time, they revamped hiking trails, added a recreation center, and increased security. The resulting master plan provided “a template for how communities can become active partners in the fulfillment of their own environmental visions” (Merchant, 2004).
The idea of this urban park dates back to the late 1950s when a block of Victorian-era row houses was demolished along Cumberland Street to allow for the construction of the Bloor Danforth subway line. The park sits at the cusp of two neighborhoods: the small-scale old Yorkville neighborhood with its late 19th and early 20th century row houses, and the high-rise commercial core that has built up along the Bloor Street corridor since the subway opened. For years, this highly visible site remained a parking lot. Activist neighbors fought to build a public place to bring the neighborhood together rather than to divide it. Finally, in 1991, the City of Toronto Department of Parks, Forestry and Recreation announced an international design competition (Figure 7.).
Village of Yorkville Park landscape schematic design (
The community wanted a park that reflected the scale and context of the neighborhood, incorporated the native ecology of the surrounding region, and made connections with the circulation of local streets and a system of midblock passageways. The design strategy for the competition was to design the park to express the Victorian style of collecting. In this case, “collecting” landscapes of Ontario -pine groves, prairies, marshes, orchards, alder woods, rock outcroppings and so on -and arranging them in the pattern of the nineteenth century row houses.
The park design creates a series of linear subdivisions with contextual alignments to the building lot lines across the street and connections to mid-block passageways in the adjoining blocks. Each linear park segment is distinct in character but related to the next, creating a park of diversity and unity. To anchor this space with an element of regional glacial geology, a large 700-ton bedrock outcrop of native Muskoka granite was taken apart along natural crevices, moved 150 miles south, and reconstructed on site. Immense yet inviting, the outcrop has a wonderful tactile surface for sitting and absorbs warmth on cool sunny days. Moveable tables and chairs next to the boulder offer a nice contrast of permanence and flexibility (Figure 8.).
Village of Yorkville Park
The park has become a local landmark. While small in size, Yorkville’s park has played an important role in the revitalization of the neighborhood since its completion in 1994. The neighborhood has continued its redevelopment with several new high-rise buildings rising along the edge or near the park. Recently, the park underwent some restoration work, but its original design integrity as a distillation of regional ecology, along with its role as a neighborhood connection point, remain as strong as ever. The park is owned and maintained by the City of Toronto Department of Parks, Forestry and Recreation. The Bloor-Yorkville Business Improvement Area takes an active role in the management and programming of the park (Anonymous, 2012a).
In 1999, the Parc Downsview Park announced an International Design Competition in attempt to turn Downsview Park into an urban park, and potentially one of the largest ones in the world, in which Bruce Mau Design, Rem Koolhaas, Oleson Worland, and Petra Blaisse submitted the winning design scheme, known as "Tree City." Parc Downsview Park has since come up with a new plan to construct commercial and residential developments instead (Anonymous, 2012b). This 320-acre federal park will provide natural and formal garden environments, offering both passive and active recreation while promoting such themes as environmental sustainability, new ecologies, and the rich heritage of the site. Contributors to this volume analyze the entries of the competition finalists and consider a range of issues raised by the competition, including landscape architecture, geography, landscape ecology, and contemporary urbanism (Czerniac, 2002).
Downsview Park is designed to support environmental, social and economic sustainability. The vision for the park is the creation of a recreational space incorporating expansive open space areas, as well as the repurposing of an inventory of historic aviation-related buildings to create a year-round setting (Figure 9.). Downsview Park is a model development demonstrating sustainable practices in its design, construction, operation and maintenance. It is intended to be a recreational, educational and cultural amenity for all Canadians (Figure 10.); a diverse, healthy and livable community for its occupants, visitors and neighbors; and an educational demonstration project of international significance. In addition to creating a unique park on the majority of the lands, portions of the property will be developed to facilitate creating and maintaining Downsview Park. More than $20 million has been spent to date on construction, improvements to infrastructure and renovations of older buildings. The investment that Downsview Park is making in the public realm will have a significant impact well beyond its 231.5 hectares (572 acres) -job creation, increased real estate values, social and cultural engagement and numerous environmental benefits are all a direct result of the work being performed in the creation of the Park (Anonymous, 2012c).
Downsview Park (
Recreational, educational and cultural amenities in the Downsview Park (
This chapter describes the process of advances in public policy, applied to the recognition of the right to gender identity and the sexual characteristics of people, including transgender. Portugal is the case study.
\nThe Portuguese case is interesting because it has a recent democratic regime (since 1976) consolidated with the State’s accession to the European Union (EU) in 1986. This social and political path shows a slow development until the 1990s focusing on the country’s economic growth. This explains why it was only in the late 1990s that society began to wake up to plurality, including the uniqueness of people due to their gender identity.
\nAnother fact that makes the Portuguese case interesting is that this period coincided with the resurgence of equality issues in the European context. Throughout the chapter, we demonstrate how Portugal aligned itself with other social contexts at the turn of the century. In the 1990s, the concept of gender entered the scientific lexicon. In addition, the pressure groups have also helped to make it part of the political agenda. These two elements are important for the process of construction of the right to gender self-determination, which culminated in the legislation of this right in 2018.
\nIn an attempt to contribute to the in-depth knowledge of this process, we carried out a study with its main protagonists: deputies in the Portuguese parliament, who have the capacity and legitimacy for decision-making; social activists, with opportunities to emphasize the relevance of the right to self-determination of gender identity, specifically for transgender people; and social scientists who, in some cases, are also politicians or deputies and, in other cases, are also activists.
\nThe study revealed the importance of external factors for deputies, such as voter expectations. It also revealed the importance of debate for the appropriation of concepts, questioning stereotypes in the public policies process production.
\nIn the policy process analysis, we adopt the political pluralism, as the most suitable model for the analysis of a complex topic. This means that we are not going to analyze the content of the policy, but the policy production process, interviewing the main protagonists in that process.
\nIn the first point of the chapter, we frame the theme. In the second, we describe the Portuguese context, to locate readers. We then present the study, highlighting its main results.
\nNew perspectives on transgender people are relatively recent. The identification of transgender as an (autonomous) gender identity can be located in the paradigm shift generated from the conceptualization of gender. The ideological construction of a trans person began only after the appropriation of the gender concept. After that, the social problem construction process started, questioning how to deal with trans and how to answer to their expectations and needs, adapting public responses and their mechanisms. The next point follows this order.
\nThe concept of gender emerged from the feminist debate, chronologically identified with the second wave of this social, political and ideological movement, on the 1970s. Its operative dimension made it possible to deal with the ‘anxieties of placing the issue of differences between the sexes on the social research agenda, removing it from the domain of biology’. At the same time that it was willing to ‘orient its analysis to the historical and social conditions of production of beliefs and knowledge about the sexes and the legitimization of social divisions based on sex’. [1].
\nIn this way, the gender perspective allowed for an effective shift towards the differential Psychology of sexes approach, which explains differences between men and women, and towards Biology, which defines differences based on a nature determinism. Scientifically in the field of social sciences, and, later, politically, this can be considered ‘an important transformation’ [2] or, as the authors of this text consider it, a paradigmatic shift.
\nWe consider this a paradigm shift for three main reasons. First, because it favored the emergence and subsequent imposition of another paradigm of interpretation of society and social relations in everyday life, replacing the paradigm of biology and psychology, both based on an interpretation of nature. Alternatively, the interpretation of the environment, the context or the social, encourages considering more factors in explaining the complexity of social relations.
\nSecondly, for giving to the scientific community and to the political community as well, specific concepts with a new meaning. Thus, thinking, describing and interpreting differences become possible through a concept, that of gender. Having a concept available, in turn, raises questions and drives away determinism. Among the questions were the extent and depth of social norms and expectations in shaping masculinities and femininities. Another issue linked to this was the weight of social structures on individuals, constraining their self-determination. The questioning of patriarchal social norms and broad expectations of performance of a social role defined by the sex of individuals at birth became easier.
\nBeing born a man or a woman makes a difference and accentuates a determinism that is difficult to change, especially by common sense. It is very different to admit that one is born with a reproductive physiological system, but that we become men or women, through the induction of social processes, as Simone de Beauvoir had stated in her famous book (published in 1949).
\nIt is very different because it opens up the concept of identity and establishes the importance of culture and the action of social structures on subjects. Thirdly, we believe that this is a paradigm shift because it has transformed the way of interpreting people, their relationships and the ways in which societies are organized around the way they interpret people. Gender is not determined but socially constructed; therefore, societies have a transforming capacity to change the subordination of the feminine to the masculine [3]. Gender, by ceasing to be something biologically determined, also ceased to be seen as something static, natural and immutable.
\nConsidering that gender ‘is not just about identity, not just work, not just power, not just sexuality, but all of this at the same time’ [4], the complexity thickens. In this text, this complexity is addressed in relation to trans people who biologically have a male or female mark but who have a gender identity that does not coincide with that mark and socially impose who they are.
\nBeing trans is more than the affirmation of a gender identity because it involves social interactions, thus implying social structures and mechanisms to guarantee equality, rights and de facto, that is, in everyday life.
\nThe interpretation of a trans person began by being based on the most available and dominant model: the biological. Thus, the dimension of sexuality became the most relevant.
\nWestern scientific communities have developed two relevant conceptual approaches: the concept of transsexuality and the concept of transgender. Transsexuality suggests a biomedical model, popularized in part by the North American contributions of John Money in the 1970s [5], and basically seeks to understand a situation in which the individual’s gender contrasts with the physiological identification of sex.
\nThe concept of transgender gained prominence from the 1990s onwards with the expansion of gender studies and the post-structuralist trend within the social sciences, distancing themselves from biomedical contributions. Authors such as Butler place the emphasis of their critical analysis on the binary gender system [6] that manages to associate biological characteristics with the sphere of social phenomena, intertwining them and producing attributed identities that do not always correspond to the unique experience and identification of each person. Butler, in fact, identifies gender as an instrument for naturalizing sex, making use of discourse to produce the distinction between sexual bodies; making room for the attempt to rationalize, in a social context, allegedly natural relations of power, shaping institutional action and, simultaneously, other individual and collective practices and discourses [7].
\nIn this text, the term trans is adopted in order to emphasize ‘the history of the shift from a paradigm of pathology and medical appropriation on gender variability to a new approach that recognizes, and to a large extent through the hands of trans activism, the right of people to designate themselves’ [5].
\nInstead, what we see most of the time is a process in which people identify, define and reframe, plus, attribute a resignification of trans and, after this process, allow themselves to enter into interaction with trans people.
\nThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights resulted from one of the most serious and heinous ways of selecting people and determining their extermination: the holocaust. Following World War II, in 1948, humanity explicitly states equality through that declaration. As further developed in another text by the first author [8], ‘human rights are inherent rights of all human beings, regardless of the place where they are born, conferring nationality, the place where they live, defining cultural norms and the legal and legal norms to which obedience is owed (tacit or mandatory), of the sex with which one is born, of the religion professed and of any other belonging’. The main and distinctive argument is the principle of universality, emphasizing the common element worldwide: to be a human being.
\nThe human rights framework is the broadest approach analyzing social relationships with trans. It is easier to let stereotypes domain in everyday life. In the same way, prejudices emerge unquestionably in social interactions. It is, also, where discrimination occurs and social exclusion takes place.
\nSeeing the issue from this perspective and knowing that trans persons have become the subject of increased research activity and everyday conversation [9], it is clear that promoting the rights and protection of trans people is a social concern and, therefore, also a political issue. Although it is not assumed that trans persons are a vulnerable population, it is assumed that they may be placed in a vulnerable situation, as they are confronted with stigmatization and transphobia, being sometimes exploited as a weirdo, and not accepted by others [10]. Heteronormative expectations conflict with the idea that a person could be trans. In youth, specifically, trans can be discriminated against and even victims of violence. Furthermore, their gender identity tends to be disrespected, as they are regarded by ‘others’ as being in the process of ‘becoming’ and also for being considered that someone only become fully gendered as adults [11]. Recent research dedicated to homophobic bullying, developed in a public school with young people (participating in several focus groups), suggests the acceptance of those who challenge heteronormative expectations—at least among peers, once the study did not involve teachers or other professionals in the school context [12]. In the adult phase of life, research is also being carried out on the acceptance of the labour market and the integration of trans people in the labour market by companies [13]. In fact, the process of building a trans identity is still to be understood in Portugal.
\nInternationally, the World Health Organization (WHO), on June 2018, published the 11th version of the Manual for the Classification of Diseases (ICD), where transgender experiences no longer appear as ‘sexual identity disorder’ (also referred to as ‘transsexualism’). Even so, in the V edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), trans people still appear as suffering from a ‘gender dysphoria’. This interpretation, in fact, maintains a sexist perspective, when it uses a diagnosis rooted in gender stereotypes of what it is to be a woman or a man, thereby promoting an environment not inclusive of other gender expressions [5].
\nA few years earlier, in 2009, the International Network for Trans Depathologization, created an international initiative, called Stop Trans Pathologization, with the aim of removing non-normative gender identities from the categories of mental pathologies and disorders. In addition to this objective, it also aimed to revoke the mandatory medical and psychiatric diagnosis for hormonal and surgical treatments and for changing the name and gender in the civil registry.
\nThe ‘ideology of legal protection’ [14] not always allows us to admit the inability to make an adequate response to sexism, transphobia or misogyny. What is at stake is more than discrimination against people. It is social rights, whether in the sense of access to their effective enjoyment by all people, or in the sense of their inability to cover all people globally, that is, universally. The plurality of gender identity and the diversity of gender intersectionality force us to re-locate the issue in the analysis of processes and not just in the analysis of the result or the impact generated by the result.
\nA process is a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end, distinct, therefore, from a procedure, which is an established or official way of doing something. The process presupposes a duration, and meanwhile, it allows the external influence of other agents on the political position of an agent. Besides, it also allows the same agent to change its interpretation, to review and even change its opinion and/or to get involved in a more participatory way. Moreover, the same agent can distance himself from the debate—either because you lose interest or because you feel that your investment has an unsatisfactory return.
\nThe biomedical model has imposed itself in the social field, expanding its space to areas of behavior previously seen as moral problems or as natural phenomena in the course of life [15]. Despite this, bio-politics, in the case of the regulation of the right to gender self-determination, in Portugal, did not succeed. The legislative framework seems to have favored the opening of space for debate, calling for different positions, including the claim of rights by activist groups inspired by feminism.
\nIn Portugal, the process of building the right to gender self-determination began with a legal-legal perspective, which, in turn, is based on a medical position.
\nIt is important to situate politically Portugal in the European context, specifically, in the context of Southern Europe. In this context, recent progressive legal transformation coexists with conservative cultural paradigms linked to previous right-wing dictatorships, colonial practices and a powerful Catholic influence, there is a deficit of visibility for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ) people throughout history [16].
\nThe individual experiences of trans and non-binary people allow us to retain the importance of the socio-cultural transformation undergone at the micro level, in parallel with the macro-based legal and political advances already studied in the Southern European context [17].
\nBelgium and Spain show similarities regarding the matters of trans protective rights. In both countries, the regional level has been relevant in introducing trans protective policy. In Belgium, the federal level is responsible for the legislative framework regarding gender recognition. The regional government of Flanders has developed additional extensive policies in order to enhance the well-being, care and equal rights of trans individuals. Similarly, in Spain, a growing number of regions are developing nowadays both trans specific and LGTB antidiscrimination policies, filling the gap that exists at the central state level. In addition, when looking at Trans Rights Europe Map and Index 2017 of Transgender Europe, we see that both countries have developed protective trans legislation at about the same speed [18].
\nIn both Belgium and Spain, additional medical pathways and legal requirements for trans care are demanded, as well as in Portugal.
\nIn turn, the European Parliament in its 2016 Resolution on the application of Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000, establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (called the Employment Equality Directive), called on the Member States and the Commission to combat all forms of multiple discriminations and to ensure application of the principle of non-discrimination and equal treatment in the labour market and in access to employment, increasing monitoring of the intersectionality between gender and other grounds in cases of discrimination and in practices.
\nThe principle of equal treatment, expressed in Article 2 of the Treaty on the European Union and Article 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, is a fundamental value of the European Union. The Employment Equality Directive 2000/78/EC forbids discrimination based on sexual orientation only in the context of employment, occupation and training. However, most Member States have extended protection based on sexual orientation, and in some cases, gender identity, to cover some or all fields to which the Race Equality Directive (2000/43/EC) applies. These fields include social security and healthcare, education and access to and supply of goods and services, including housing.
\nEU law also prohibits sex discrimination in employment and access to goods and services (the Gender Equality Directive (Recast) 2006/54/ EC and the Goods and Services Directive 2004/113/ EC), partly covering trans people.
\nPortugal went through several structural changes that led to the end of a dictatorship, lasting about 50 years. Thus, visibility and space for some themes that were already part of the agenda of other EU Member States were only achieved in Portugal at the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century [19].
\nIt was during this period that the scientific literature began to draw attention to the discrimination and stigmatization of trans people, especially when the gender expression of some trans individuals did not follow traditional gender norms [20, 21, 22, 23].
\nThe various social actors place certain identities in a collective social imaginary, composed of social representations, in which trans people are pathologized through biomedical narratives, as they do not integrate the expectations of a binary model in which the genitalia, for a long time, was considered a predictor infallible of each person’s gender identity [24].
\nIn Portugal, one of the turning points was the decriminalization of homosexuality in the Penal Code in 1982. Progressively, gender plurality was accepted by society, although initially closely linked to differences between men and women [1]. The first time that the theme of the needs of trans people was on the agenda was through the creation of health responses, linked to surgical intervention aimed at the reassignment of sex. Regulation, once again, marked the process; this time not from a legal perspective, but linked to the ethics of the medical professional practice.
\nIn 1995, the medical profession’s regulatory body revoked the prohibition of sex reassignment surgeries in the Code of Ethics, which until then was considered an unethical and illegal practice [25]. The resolution approved on 19 May 1995, by the National Executive Council of the Medical profession’s regulatory body, states in article 55, paragraph 1, that ‘Surgery for sex reassignment in morphologically normal people is prohibited, except in clinical cases properly diagnosed as transsexualism or like dysphoria’. Following the last authors mentioned, the repeal of the ban on sex reassignment surgeries did not result from pressure exerted by LGBTI activists. In the mid-1990s of the twentieth century in Portugal, collective activist actions were still recent and dispersed. It was only from 2000 onwards that activism formally took over social and legal struggles.
\nIn the process we describe here, this is another turning point, considering that the most organized and most prominent activisms were those on gay and lesbian issues, compared with issues related to bisexuality or specific themes of trans people and women intersex people. Despite the acronym identifying diversity, in reality, only the rights, expectations, needs and the political agenda of gays asserted themselves in Portugal. Even lesbian claims were and continue to be much more dispersed, discrete and with little influence on the political agenda.
\nIt is interesting to know that in Portugal, the trans movement matured and consolidated only after the Gisberta Salce Júnior case, a trans woman victim of homicide, carried out by a group of teenagers, in the city of Porto in 2006 [26]. The attention given by
Following these events, in 2007, sexual orientation was included in the Penal Code as an aggravating factor in cases of hate crimes. Although this legal advance did not integrate gender identity issues, it represented an achievement for the social movement and reinforced a collective attitude of intolerance towards forms of violence against LGBTI citizens.
\nIn fact, until 2011, the Portuguese legal framework did not contemplate the legal recognition of gender identity. Sex, a natural and birth attribute, continued to be legally considered as an objective, unambiguous factor. In practical terms, that is, in everyday life, a trans citizen had to sue the State to change his name and mention of sex in his civil identification. Only after the bodily transformations could the case lead to the recognition of that person’s gender identity [27].
\nThe law that regulated the procedure for changing the sex and changing the name in the civil registry (Law n.° 7/2011, of 15 March), known as the gender identity law, was approved by the Parliament, celebrated by activists and identified by
However, from 2015 and 2016, trans and intersex activists began to question aspects they considered obsolete in the law. One of the heavily criticized aspects was the power attributed to medical diagnosis. Although bodily changes due to the use of hormones or surgical procedures are not an aspect taken into account by the Civil Registry in cases of gender recognition, the 2011 law considers a diagnosis to be necessary, carried out by a multidisciplinary team specialized in clinical and surgical sexology, signed by at least one physician and one psychologist, attesting to a gender identity dysphoria, also commonly referred to as transsexuality. Adding to the critique of the pathologized character, activists also point out a need to reduce the bureaucratic burden of this administrative procedure; gender self-determination from 16 years of age onwards; gender recognition for citizens from other countries living in Portugal; the end of any gender-based categories in identification forms and documents; access to other possibilities for gender neutral names; and the prohibition of medical intervention in new-born or intersex child without their consent.
\nThis was the agenda of trans and intersex activists. The bills discussed in parliament included some of these demands, with greater boldness for change in the bills of parties located in the left wing of the Portuguese political party spectrum.
\nIn March 2017, the government presented a final, more consensual version. In this version, changes were made in relation to themes in the health, legal and education areas. Specifically, the biomedical report is no longer mandatory and allows an individual (trans or intersex) aged 16 or over to choose their gender identity. In addition, younger children will be able to choose the name they want to be treated with in schools, regardless of the name on official documents. That is identified as your social name, different from your civil name, which appears in your documentation.
\nThe two bills and the proposed law presented by the government were discussed in the first months of 2018, and the law was approved in April. This process was very intense, as shown in the text below, when we present the results of the study carried out with the main protagonists who participated in the process.
\nIt is now important to bear in mind that in this process, the right to self-determination of gender identity seeks to change pathologized representations towards trans people. Thus, it also breaks with the idea of the existence of a binary gender system, recognizing the right to a plurality of expressions of masculinity and femininity [4, 7].
\nThis very peculiar advance in Portuguese society, which tends to be conservative, was quite important to raise gender issues in the field of human rights. In the Portuguese constitutional system, which is semi-presidential, bills are sent to the president of the republic, who approves or vetoes them. It was precisely in the effective fulfillment of this requirement that, in Portugal, everything seemed to go backwards. Portuguese society in general, activists, social scientists, even a part of the doctors and a part of the deputies in parliament were disappointed.
\nDecree-Law n. ° 203/XIII, which defined the following: ‘Right to self-determination of gender identity and gender expression and to the protection of each person’s sexual characteristics’, was vetoed (lead) by the President of the Republic in June 2018. The main argument was the prediction of access to self-determination for young people between 16 and 18 years old, without medical supervision. Self-determination turns out to be a critical point. In addition to this, the fact that the doctors did not lead the process was also revealed as a critical point.
\nThe diploma has then returned to parliament. At its plenary meeting on 12 July 2018, the proposed law was approved, providing for the possibility for people aged between 16 and 18 years old to proceed with their process of changing their name and mentioning sex, since accompanied by their legal representatives, and with a medical report attesting to their decision-making capacity and informed will.
\nPublic policies are the result of a negotiation process, with advances and concessions. And, once again, this is demonstrated in the process described here. In addition to this aspect, often referred to in the literature, public policies are always framed by a context. This context, which is external to the political decision process, but which imposes itself on the process, is part of a conservative tradition, a guaranteed way of legislating and an interpretation of the family as determinant, moving away from a perspective of the subject’s autonomy. The subject, although he is the holder of rights, enjoys his rights as a member of a family unit. The welfare state has a strong familial bent in Portugal.
\nThe diploma was promulgated (approved) on 31 July 2018, after being modified and resubmitted to the President of the Republic. On 7 August 2018, is published the Law n. ° 38/2018, which defines and regulates the ‘Right to self-determination of gender identity and gender expression and to the protection of the sexual characteristics of each person’.
\nIn 2018, Portugal approved a remarkable gender identity law that respects self-determination, because of the concerted work between political actors, academics and activists. The questions that deserved our attention and led us to develop an empirical study were the following: How did social actors interact with each other? What reciprocal influences have occurred?
\nThis text aims to record and analyze the process of formulating the law that established the right to self-determination of gender identity and gender expression and to the protection of each person’s sexual characteristics. The achievement of this objective was sought through a qualitative study, using interviews carried out with leaders of the parliamentary groups of political parties represented in Parliament; to activists defending the rights of LGBT people; and to researchers who study the subject scientifically. We have carried out 14 in-depth interviews. The interviews allowed us to identify the reciprocal influence between these social agents and characterize the modes of political pressure most used in the legislative process.
\nThis chapter describes the process of recognizing people’s rights through legislative action. In this way, it assumes a critical trans politics perspective instead of a critical approach to resistance. That is, a trans politics demands more than legal recognition and inclusion, seeking to transform current logics of state and social equality. A critical approach does not recognize as useful national stories about social change that actually continues to operate. Besides, a critical approach assumes that public policies and laws are mechanisms used by those with (more) power in society to maintain conditions of suffering and disparity for some—the disempowered ones. Instead, a critical tans politics recognizes legal change in the form of rights as a way of deep transformation [28].
\nAs we said before, the focus of the study and this text is the analysis of the process and not the result or impact of the law. Nor is the focus on analyzing the content of the law. In view of this objective, we explain in more detail the policy analysis process.
\nThis text deals with the process of producing a policy (policy process) that refers to the set of methods, strategies and techniques employed in the political resolution of a problem and not the content of that policy (policy content), that is, the essence of matter dealt with [29] —which is analyzed elsewhere.
\nThe analysis of the political process is carried out from the definition of the political agenda in Portugal, including the theme of gender equality in a comprehensive way, to include in the debate the right to gender self-determination.
\nThe agenda is a set of themes that, at a given moment, are perceived by certain political actors as deserving of the State’s attention, most of the time in order to correct a situation. In a pragmatic sense, the agenda is a tool that allows organizing problems, favoring an effort to understand their causes and defining possible solutions [30, 31]. The definition of the agenda establishes an order of priorities between themes that do not always follow clear criteria known to others.
\nThe systemic agenda includes issues that gather consensus among the political community as problems that must be resolved, and whose resolution may depend on the Governments. Political decision-makers transfer a part of these issues to the institutional agenda, through pressure, generated by the aggravation of problems or carried out by activists [30]. This internal pressure sometimes coincides with external pressures, which, in the case of Portugal, assume greater importance when they come from the EU and when they result from commitments made by the State [32]. Furthermore, in the virtual space, influence is also exerted on political agendas, which can, in a negative sense, generate some entropy in the collective perceptions that form around a social problem [33].
\nThe political process model, inspired by the contributions of Easton [34], moves away from perspectives that consider the needs, the impulses for social policies. Impulses are factors external to a political system that influence the process of producing social policies, such as public opinion and pressure groups. These present demands or requirements, the demands and keep them continuously in their action. At the same time, they gather support, which assumes different expressions of political support.
\nThe most recent proposal, by Jenkins [29], takes this as a starting point, but it is more useful because it allows integrating the competition between groups and key actors, in a dynamic sense based on a systemic perspective. Thus, the various proposals of a diversity of social actors are considered, in addition to the proposal initially presented [35].
\nPolicy decisions are decisions authorized by political authorities and constitute the pressure for government action that arises both within and outside the political system.
\nOne of the main tools used by interest groups to disseminate their beliefs and views about social reality, whether supported or not by scientific arguments, is the creation of narratives [36, 37].
\nNarratives are attempts to bring order to a set of complex information. Especially when it comes to information that raises uncertainties, narratives reduce complexity through the creation of stories or scenarios, which can neutralize complex phenomena [2]. One of the main effects that narratives produce on social policies is the reduction of room for negotiation, by conditioning the possibility of new approaches to the problem and by prescribing a set of solutions that tend to be rudimentary [37]. Despite recognizing these biases, the narratives do in fact influence the development of policy-making. They continue to be used because they are instrumental and intrinsic to institutional structures [38]. Therefore, we chose to use the Narrative Policy Framework [39] since it centrally locates the role of policy narratives in the policy process.
\nThe Linear Model assumes that policy-makers approach the issues rationally. If we followed a linear model, the flaws would be blamed on a lack of political will, poor management or shortage of resources [37]. In this study, we opted for an analysis of the policy process, as influenced by a range of interest groups that exert power and authority over policy-making. This option makes it clear that we assume a pluralist model that presents policy as primarily reflecting the interests of groups within society.
\nFor the study, we chose as protagonists those most evidently connected and interested in the political process: deputies in parliament; activists, who act as political pressure groups; and the agents who study and, at the same time, define and offer to the other concepts, contribute to marking the barriers to the discussion and to identifying the lines of debate, in a rational and rigorous way. Those names legitimize the debate in the field of science, while the first ones carry out the debate on the political stage of the parliament.
\n\n
The interview was chosen as a data collection technique as it allows the interviewees to elaborate their reasoning only with the orientation of the interviewer (the same in the 14 interviews carried out). The interviews were carried out after the invitation and signing of the informed consent form by each of the interviewees. All interviews were in person and carried out according to the same script and by the same interviewer. The shortest interview lasted about 30 minutes and the longest, about 90 minutes. The transcript, which constituted the corpus of analysis, was subjected to theoretically thematic analysis.
\nThis section presents the results of the empirical study, involving different social actors (parliamentary groups, activists and researchers), who were interviewed, individually and separately. One of the objectives is to understand the reciprocal influence between them, despite operating in different stages: the leaders of the parliamentary groups are linked to the
All the people interviewed reveal great knowledge and familiarity with the Law, resulting from their involvement with the political process, as deputies or researchers and/or activists heard in parliamentary hearings. In some cases, the people interviewed revealed more than one form of involvement, for example, some deputies simultaneously presented themselves as citizens concerned with the social rights of the trans, and others were simultaneously deputies and activists and/or also experts in area of gender studies.
\nFive of the 14 interviewees support the designation of trans person as a doctrinal reference used by activists in the trans community, and that they recognize themselves as trans people, coming closer to the conceptual logic of the transgender person, which emphasizes the individual construction of the identity, blurring the experiences of gender as strictly related to the sphere of biology most perceived as a central element in the concept of transsexuality and in pathologize trans people.
\nIt is interesting to point out the opportunity created for social actors to reflect and increase their specific knowledge regarding a proposed law. For example, in one of the interviews it is stated that, ‘Regarding the conception I have, it was always a conception that I didn’t even question, I didn’t know that to say trans instead of saying transgender or transsexual was a political statement’.
\nOther interviewees look for security in the construction of their political position in international bodies and mechanisms, saying: ‘I particularly anchored myself in these guidelines, some of them with the participation of WHO, as you know, WHO on this issue of change It took a long time, but finally it removed issues related to gender change and gender identity from the category of disease’.
\nThe interviewees create, on their own, an association between the conceptual identification and the ideology and political belonging to the party. As one respondent mentioned: ‘In political terms, I think there is a tendency for right-wing parties to anchor themselves more to the concept of transsexuality and left-wing parties to the concept of transgender’.
\nThe biomedical model, in turn, emerges as being instrumentalized by conservative political forces. The existence of conceptual tensions that separate ideological-party wings. Specifically, in the narrative of three interviewees, ideological cleavages are an influencing factor on the definition and conceptual references of sex, gender and even on the integration of self-determination for people under 18 years of age.
\nIn this association spontaneously made by the interviewees, one of them refers to the capacity of empathic understanding of certain deputies, from parties more to the right, who internally did not see themselves in the party’s position. In an expressive way, an interviewed deputy states that: ‘there are positions already taken and it is not exactly scientific knowledge and what we are told changes positions, this was noted in this case’.
\nAnother respondent admits that there are overlapping political commitments, namely the need to maintain the electorate, for example, by constraining a party position aligned with a human rights framework. Thus, there are only three interviewees who place the social rights of trans people within the framework of human rights, adopting it as their reference.
\nFrom the interviewees’ point of view, among the main triggers for public and political discussion is political intention or will. The government’s programme has been an essential factor, because it contained the intention to legislate on this topic—specifically in the chapter entitled ‘Building a more equal society’, in which it is explained that the intention is to ‘improve the regime of gender identity, namely in the which concerns the need to provide for the civil recognition of intersex people and to improve the legislative framework for transsexual and transgender people’ [40].
\nAnother trigger that drives the legislative process itself is activist work and scientific investigation. These emerge in the interviewees’ speeches as the main tools for integrating the theme in the public space of debate and in the political agenda. The penetration into the institutional agenda of the right to gender self-determination, gender expression and protection of sexual characteristics may have been the culmination of a path guided mainly by social actors outside the political arena, in the strictest sense, such as activists and researchers.
\nImmediately afterwards, the individual perception of the availability of political decision-makers to incorporate scientific contributions and associations in the decision-making process emerges in their speeches. The majority of interviewees, 11 out of 14, believe that scientific contributions and/or those arising from the pressure of movements or associative processes may have calibrated the discussion in light of the initial opposition to the idea of gender self-determination by some political forces.
\nNevertheless, the remaining respondents believe that the valuation exists, but up to a point. One of the interviewees mentions that scientific contributions should be even more valued in the decision-making process of some parliamentary groups, which sometimes have positions previously taken even before scientific considerations.
\nThe study of policy process on advances on rights of trans persons in Portugal confirms that when rights are guaranteed through public policy, the probability of becoming ‘de facto’ rights rather than just ‘de jure’ rights is greatly increased.
\nThe interviews reveal that when reflecting on gender identity in the political sphere, it is not always clear that gender is also a discursive medium that situates certain identities in a collective social imaginary, composed of social representations, in which trans people have been pathologized by the biomedical model, for not integrating the expectations of a binary model in which the genitalia, for a long time, was considered an infallible predictor of gender identity.
\nThe study also revealed that the interaction between activists and some political decision makers is productive, namely in the assimilation of some concepts and in the appropriation of reflexive logics. This interaction is also seen as productive because it is instrumental, improving parliamentary contributions and interactions with the
Lastly, it emphasizes the importance of analyzing the political process from theoretical models that invite us to observe each of the interveners and the interaction between them, admitting also that the interpretation of a theme as a problem influences the outcome of this political process.
\nThis work was funded by national funds through FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, I.P., under project UIDP/04304/2020.
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For each level, information elements such as data, information and knowledge need to be represented and characterized. This chapter highlights the importance of ontologies exploiting for encoding the domain knowledge and for using it as a guide in the semantic scene interpretation task.",book:{id:"5844",slug:"ontology-in-information-science",title:"Ontology in Information Science",fullTitle:"Ontology in Information Science"},signatures:"Fethi Ghazouani, Imed Riadh Farah and Basel Solaiman",authors:[{id:"219646",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazouani",slug:"fethi-ghazouani",fullName:"Fethi Ghazouani"},{id:"225912",title:"Prof.",name:"Imed Riadh",middleName:null,surname:"Farah",slug:"imed-riadh-farah",fullName:"Imed Riadh Farah"},{id:"225914",title:"Prof.",name:"Basal",middleName:null,surname:"Solaiman",slug:"basal-solaiman",fullName:"Basal Solaiman"}]},{id:"58192",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72046",title:"Generating Scientifically Proven Knowledge about Ontology of Open Systems. 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Its scientific methods and technologies produce scientifically proven ontological knowledge from the systems’ empirical descriptions that in turn are gathered from a huge amount of semi-structured, multimodal, multidimensional, and heterogeneous data, provide scientific understanding and rational explanation of obtained knowledge, research its value (correctness, fullness, and completeness), and carry out a deep and detailed analytics of multidimensional open systems on the basis of knowledge about their ontology.",book:{id:"5844",slug:"ontology-in-information-science",title:"Ontology in Information Science",fullTitle:"Ontology in Information Science"},signatures:"Tamara L. Kachanova, Boris F. Fomin and Oleg B. 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However, studies conducted in Tanzania indicate that access to agricultural knowledge among agricultural stakeholders is inadequate. This chapter investigates how to strengthen the exchange of agricultural knowledge can be strengthened. Specifically, the chapter assesses how agricultural knowledge flows, determines how communication channels are chosen and analyses critical factors for effective agricultural knowledge exchange. The study involved different agricultural stakeholders identified through stakeholders’ analysis. Random and non-random sampling techniques were used in drawing the sample for the study. The study involved 371 respondents. Key findings indicate that agricultural knowledge sharing, exchange, transfer and dissemination which facilitate the flow of agricultural knowledge. Findings indicate that availability and accessibility of the communication channels, ICT infrastructure, affordability of communication tariffs and ownership of communication tools influenced the choice of communication channels. Likewise, membership in professional groups, accessibility of knowledge sources, affordability of tariffs for, access to agricultural extension services, availability of knowledge and ICT infrastructure influence the flow of agricultural knowledge. It is concluded that effective agricultural knowledge flow increases knowledge accessibility, usage and creation. It is recommended that each agricultural stakeholder should be involved in conducting relevant agricultural knowledge roles so as to enhance the accessibility, sharing, exchange, dissemination and usage of agricultural knowledge.",book:{id:"5844",slug:"ontology-in-information-science",title:"Ontology in Information Science",fullTitle:"Ontology in Information Science"},signatures:"Wulystan P. 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Indeed, such conceptualization methods particularly ontologies for process management which is currently allied to semantic process mining trails to combine process models with ontologies, and are increasingly gaining attention in recent years. In view of that, this chapter introduces an ontology-based mining approach that makes use of concepts within the extracted event logs about domain processes to propose a method which allows for effective querying and improved analysis of the resulting models through semantic labelling (annotation), semantic representation (ontology) and semantic reasoning (reasoner). The proposed method is a semantic-based process mining approach that is able to induce new knowledge based on previously unobserved behaviours, and a more intuitive and easy way to represent and query the datasets and the discovered models compared to other standard logical procedures. To this end, the study claims that it is possible to apply effective reasoning methods to make inferences over a process knowledge-base (e.g. the learning process) that leads to automated discovery of learning patterns and/or behaviour.",book:{id:"5844",slug:"ontology-in-information-science",title:"Ontology in Information Science",fullTitle:"Ontology in Information Science"},signatures:"Kingsley Okoye, Syed Islam and Usman Naeem",authors:[{id:"219803",title:"Dr.",name:"Kingsley",middleName:null,surname:"Okoye",slug:"kingsley-okoye",fullName:"Kingsley Okoye"},{id:"219806",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"syed-islam",fullName:"Syed Islam"},{id:"219807",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman",middleName:null,surname:"Naeem",slug:"usman-naeem",fullName:"Usman Naeem"}]},{id:"59449",title:"Examples of Ontology Model Usage in Engineering Fields",slug:"examples-of-ontology-model-usage-in-engineering-fields",totalDownloads:2137,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The proposed research deals with the improvement of engineering knowledge classification and recognition by means of ontology usage. Ontology model allows structure information as well as to raises the effectiveness of search. Research describes the development of ontology models for engineering knowledge in Internet portal and modeling system for the classification and recognition of marine objects. The ontology model usage for the engineering knowledge portal development allows to systematize data and knowledge, to organize search and navigation, to describe informational and computational recourses according to the meta-notion standards. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:303,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"40",type:"subseries",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive Species, Destruction of Habitats, Overexploitation of Natural Resources, Pollution, Global Warming, Conservation of Natural Spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"