\r\n\tfires. Infrastructure development and human settlements are blocking migratory corridors, thus suppressing their critical role of maintaining the ecological processes including allowing for the movement of animals and the continuation of viable populations. Human-wildlife conflicts are growing as a
\r\n\tresult of population growth and, therefore, increasing demand for natural resources and increased proximity to wildlife.
\r\n\tExotic and invasive species are outcompeting native species for resources or habitat and altering community structure with detrimental consequences on native species.
\r\n\tImpacts of climate change on wildlife are increasing and manifested through habitat destruction, increased human-wildlife conflicts, diseases and death of wild animals. Illegal and unsustainable hunting is increasing to cater for subsistence and commercial demands within and outside the national boundaries, thus leading to a dramatic drop of populations or extinction of species.
\r\n\tChapters presented in this book attempt to respond to four questions: How do the political, economic, social, ecological and technological changes influence the survival of wildlife? How do these changes shape the management policies and approaches? How effective are the existing strategies and options to coping with these changes? Which are the possible options to address these changes and secure a future for wildlife?
\r\n\r\n\tThis Book serves as an important platform for information and experience sharing among the scientists, academicians, students, conservationists and policy-makers from different parts of the world.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-976-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-975-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-977-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a27827009edc70af81e12c10aa3e51dd",bookSignature:"Prof. Jafari Kideghesho",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8834.jpg",keywords:"Wildlife, Conservation, Poaching, Law Enforcement, Protected Areas, Wildlife Habitats, Migratory Corridors, Wildlife Diseases, Invasive Species, Wildlife Utilization, Human-Wildlife Interactions, Wildlife Conservation Policies",numberOfDownloads:160,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kideghesho served as a Deputy Director of Wildlife Division in Tanzania's Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism for two years (2012-2014). He is an active supporter of academic efforts within and outside Tanzania through teaching and serving as external examiner at different universities.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"280695",title:"Prof.",name:"Jafari",middleName:null,surname:"Kideghesho",slug:"jafari-kideghesho",fullName:"Jafari Kideghesho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280695/images/system/280695.jpg",biography:"Prof. Jafari R Kideghesho is the current Rector of the College of African Wildlife Management (CAWM), Mweka and a seasoned expert in Conservation Biology. He obtained his PhD from Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim Norway in 2006, MSc (Conservation Biology) from Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE) of the University of Kent at Canterbury, UK in 1996 and a BSc. (Agriculture) from Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Tanzania in 1993. He has worked for over 25 years in various positions in the Wildlife Sector as Assistant Lecturer at CAWM, Mweka, Lecturer, Senior Lecturer and Associate Professor at the Department of Wildlife Management at SUA and Assistant Director (Wildlife Utilization) in the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. Kideghesho has been involved in over 20 local and international professional committees and organizations as a member, moderator, external examiner and a reviewer of scientific journals. He has published about 60 scientific articles and book chapters in peer reviewed journals and edited books, several articles in Conference Proceedings and 9 in Tanzania’s popular Wildlife Magazine. He is an editor of a book titled - Wildlife Management: Failures, Successes and Prospects. He has given several public lectures and conducted over 27 local and international consultancy services related to natural resources and wildlife management.",institutionString:"College of African Wildlife Management",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"College of African Wildlife Management",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tanzania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"74028",title:"Interlinks between Wildlife and Domestic Cycles of Echinococcus spp. in Kenya",slug:"interlinks-between-wildlife-and-domestic-cycles-of-echinococcus-spp-in-kenya",totalDownloads:69,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73394",title:"Conserving Freshwater Biodiversity in an African Subtropical Wetland: South Africa’s Lower Phongolo River and Floodplain",slug:"conserving-freshwater-biodiversity-in-an-african-subtropical-wetland-south-africa-s-lower-phongolo-r",totalDownloads:91,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48908",title:"Comorbid Conditions in Child and Adolescent Patients Diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder",doi:"10.5772/61112",slug:"comorbid-conditions-in-child-and-adolescent-patients-diagnosed-with-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-",body:'Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood psychiatric disorders. This disorder is multifactorial in origin and clinically heterogeneous, leads to socioeconomic burdens, and has undesirable academic and occupational outcomes [1]. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD in children is reported to be 4-7% [2]. Results of long-term studies have revealed that a substantial proportion of individuals suffering from ADHD during childhood continue to exhibit symptoms of ADHD during adolescence and adulthood [2, 3]. Numerous population-based and clinical studies have reported that more than half of the patients suffering from ADHD have at least one psychiatric comorbidity and that this rate increases with age [4-6].
These comorbidities may be different manifestations of the same disorder or may have different diagnoses while sharing a common disposition. Similarly, ADHD may be an early manifestation of another disorder and may place the individual at risk of developing the same [7].
These comorbid psychiatric conditions are more common in boys than in girls [1, 8-11]. One study conducted in Switzerland reported at least one comorbidity in 87% of the ADHD cases and more than one comorbidity in 67% [4]. Biederman et al. [7] have reported two or more comorbidities in 20% of ADHD patients admitted to clinics. A study from Iran found at least one psychiatric comorbidity in 73% of the childhood and adolescent cases of ADHD [12]. A clinical study from Turkey also documented the presence of at least one comorbid psychiatric disorder in 96% of the children diagnosed with ADHD, assessed according to KSADS-PL [13].
The presence of psychiatric comorbidities complicates the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of ADHD, and thus, the diagnosis of comorbidities is of great importance [14]. Possible comorbidities should therefore be investigated in patients diagnosed with ADHD before planning treatment regimens, and the possibility of comorbidities arising during follow-up should be taken into account [13].
Disruptive behavior disorders (DBD) are the most common comorbidities accompanying ADHD. Individuals with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) share many characteristics. For example, their conduct is socially unacceptable, they cause disruption or distress to others more than to themselves (i.e., they “externalize” their problems), they are more likely to be male, and they find it difficult to learn from experience. ODD and CD are commonly investigated together in most studies to highlight their similarities and differences. Biederman et al. [15] studied the prevalence of comorbidities in children and adolescents with ADHD aged 6-17 years and reported high rates for ODD (46% in children and 33% in adolescents) and CD (25% in children and 42% in adolescents).
One study that investigated the effect of gender on the clinical features of ADHD reported that girls with ADHD are at reduced risk for developing comorbid major depression, conduct disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder compared to boys with ADHD [16]. In clinical practice, disruptive behavior disorders have a poorer prognosis when they are comorbid with ADHD rather than alone and other accompanying comorbid psychiatric disorders. One population-based prospective study in a broad sample reported an increased risk of unipolar depression and bipolar disorder in ADHD, and that the risk was greatest in the group with ADHD and comorbid CD or ODD [17]. ODD is the most common comorbid psychiatric disorder and is associated with an increase in intrafamilial and social problems, irrespective of whether or not CD accompanies ODD [18]. Disruptive behavior disorders that are comorbid with ADHD are an important factor in determining the clinical picture. Adolescents diagnosed with DBD and ADHD are at a higher risk of undergoing psychiatric hospitalization at some time in their life [19].
The overlap of ADHD and conduct problems is explained by common genetic and nonshared environmental factors that influence both disorders. Nevertheless, the two disorders appear to be partly distinct, in that additional environmental factors influence the severity of the behavioral problems. It appears that ADHD+CD is a genetically more severe variant of ADHD [20].
One study compared patients with ODD/CD, comorbid ADHD, and those with only ODD/CD. Both the patient subgroups had deficits in visuospatial working memory compared to the control subjects, indicating that children with ODD/CD have deficits in visuospatial working memory that are independent of the comorbid ADHD, and that a deficient working memory may be an underlying factor in the development of ODD/CD [21].
Two subtypes of ODD are associated with ADHD, one that is prodromal to CD and another that is subsyndromal to ADHD and unlikely to progress into CD in the later years. These ODD subtypes have different correlates, courses, and outcomes. In a large, well-characterized, cross-sectional sample of children with ADHD assessed at baseline and 4 years later at midadolescence, Biederman et al. found that the majority of the children with ODD did not have comorbid CD. In contrast, CD was almost always comorbid with ODD. When ODD co-occurred with CD, it preceded the onset of CD by several years. These findings indicate that the two subtypes of ODD within ADHD can be distinguished as either being prodromal to CD or not. The study also found that CD and ODD had similar correlates, and that these were less severe in children suffering from ODD than CD, thus supporting the initial hypothesis that ODD is a subsyndromal form of CD. This notion assumes that both disorders are part of the same disease process in which CD is the more severe form while ODD is the less severe form of the same disorder. Their findings, that CD is almost always comorbid with and precede ODD, are also consistent with the second hypothesis that a subtype of ODD is prodromal to CD. This subtype differs from the other type of ODD in that there is significantly higher risk of familial antisocial disorders, comorbidity with mood and anxiety disorders, earlier age at onset of ODD, higher number of comorbid psychiatric disorders, and greater number of ODD symptoms [22].
One study involving the long-term monitoring of CD and ODD patients identified an increased risk of long-term depression in patients with ODD and comorbid ADHD. The same study also reported that patients with accompanying CD are at risk of developing psychoactive substance use disorders and bipolar disorder in the long term [23]. Increased conflict, impaired communication, and incompatibilities between parents and the child also lead to an increased risk of ODD and CD in adolescents with ADHD [24]. While ODD is a precursor of CD, certain additional risk factors are required for ODD to progress to CD. The clinical features of young people with CD include a predominance in males, low socioeconomic status, and familial aggression [25]. Wilson and Morcotte divided ADHD patients aged between 14 and 18 years into two groups as with or without CD and compared these two groups in terms of success at school, self-perception, behavior problems, alcohol and substance abuse, and adaptive behaviors. They reported that patients with CD exhibit significantly lower rates of success in school, greater externalizing behaviors and emotional difficulties, and lower adaptive behaviors compared to patients without CD [26].
The response to treatment in patients with ODD and CD comorbid with ADHD may vary, and there is a greater need for integrative therapeutic approaches in these cases. A higher dose of ADHD drugs may be required, apart from combined drug use, particularly atypical antipsychotics. Atypical antipsychotics are very frequently used in patients exhibiting ADHD and disruptive behavior, and studies have mainly focused on risperidone. One meta-analysis published recently reported that among the atypical antipsychotics, risperidone has a positive effect on aggression and behavioral disorders in the 5- to 18-year age-group; however, similar data on other atypical antipsychotics are not available [27]. Another recent study also compared risperidone and placebo in 168 patients aged 6-12 years diagnosed with ADHD+ODD/CD who were prescribed methylphenidate and a parental education program. A reduction in aggression and attacks on peers was observed when risperidone was added, but it was not particularly effective in relieving the symptoms of the behavior disorder [28]. One open study from Turkey suggested that aripiprazole reduce anger and guilt in cases of ADHD+CD [29]. Nondrug therapies are of great importance in the treatment of ODD and CD, and multidimensional therapies are indicated since the basis of these conditions lie in familial dysfunction, societal problems, and disorganized families. Studies have shown that parental education programs, when combined with a behavioral approach, have a positive effect on children with ODD with respect to nonrule governed actions, anger, and negativism. In addition, enrollment in sports programs also has a positive effect on this group of patients [30], and patient participation in other therapeutic approaches increases following an effective drug therapy.
Learning disorder (LD) is a common comorbid condition in ADHD. One review of the studies on ADHD/LD comorbidity conducted between 2001 and 2011 reported wide differences in comorbidity rates, and rates of LD comorbidity in patients ranged between 8% and 76%. Greater difficulties in writing, but not in reading or mathematics in particular, were reported by the studies on patients with high comorbidity rates [31-33]. Morgan et al. [34] reported that the type of mathematical learning disorder that is more common in cases with ADHD is predominantly the inattentive type. The median prevalence rate of LD was 45% in another study, indicating that, on an average, one out of every two children with ADHD also have LD [35].
Several studies have investigated the etiology of ADHD+LD comorbidity, and structural and functional neuroimaging studies, and behavioral, genetic, and molecular research has revealed the existence of a complex relationship between these two disorders [36].
ADHD and LD share some common symptoms. For example, an attention deficit may have an adverse effect on a child’s concentration and learning process. The inability to concentrate on details and making of careless errors also have a negative effect on knowledge acquisition and accurate information gathering. Confusion between alphabets (such as between b and d seen in children with a reading disorder) may also be seen in inattentive children. They may also have difficulties in solving mathematical problems due to their inability to concentrate on details and errors may occur while writing. Thus, children with a learning disorder are reluctant to study because they cannot acquire effective reading, writing or mathematical skills, and similarly, children with ADHD avoid tasks that require uninterrupted attention. As children with a learning disorder have problems transferring information from their short-term memory to their long-term memory and in processing that information, they may forget the information after some time, thus feeling as if they had never acquired it to begin with. Forgetfulness can also be seen in children with ADHD.
Academic difficulties associated with an attention deficit may increase over the course of time in children with ADHD, and this can be confused with LD [37]. Symptoms of an attention deficit in children with ADHD have an adverse impact on the learning processes and lead to the clinical manifestation of learning disorders. If these two disorders are comorbid, then the symptoms may follow a more severe course. Therefore, the presence of LD should be investigated when ADHD is diagnosed, and a differential diagnosis should be performed.
Children with ADHD and LD together are also more resistant to treatment. Comorbid LD must be considered in patients with ADHD who do not show improvement despite treatment. A 6-week randomized, double-blinded, place-controlled study that compared the effectiveness of methylphenidate in ADHD with or without comorbid LD reported that behavior and performance improved with oral methylphenidate in both the groups [38]. The effectiveness of methylphenidate in alleviating the core symptoms of ADHD is clear, but there is insufficient evidence supporting its efficacy in LD alone.
Another study assessed the response to atomoxetine therapy in ADHD and ADHD accompanied by dyslexia and reported a significant improvement in ADHD symptoms and reading scores in both the groups. A correlation analysis performed in the same study showed that improvement in reading was not by itself sufficient to account for the decrease in symptoms of ADHD. Further research is needed to ascertain the potential effects of atomoxetine on reading in children with ADHD+dyslexia or dyslexia alone [39].
Pharmacotherapy alone is insufficient to treat children with ADHD+LD. Psychological therapies can be added to pharmacological treatment, but more research is required to clarify their role in the treatment of ADHD and comorbid learning disability [40]. Special education techniques also need to be used in such cases.
ADHD is a widespread clinical condition in individuals with intellectual disability (ID). One study that investigated psychiatric comorbidities in groups with or without ID reported that the greatest difference between the two groups was in the rate of meeting the diagnostic criteria for ADHD (ratio = 3.21:1). The same study also reported a correlation between high stability of externalizing behavior problems at age 3 to a diagnosis of ADHD at age 5 in both the groups [41]. Another longitudinal study investigated ADHD in children with or without accompanying ID and monitored these children from the age of 5 till the age of 8 years. ADHD was three or more times prevalent in the ID group compared to typical development across ages 5, 6, 7, and 8 years, and ADHD tended to be diagnosed earlier and was more stable in the ID group [42].
Children with ID exhibit a greater risk for developing ADHD, and the disorder may follow a longer and more persistent course, apart from increasing the risk of developing further psychiatric problems. These findings highlight the need for making available the interventions necessary for early treatment of ADHD in children with ID.
One study on the effectiveness of stimulant drug therapy in children diagnosed with ADHD and ID reported that the symptoms of ADHD could be successfully treated in children with ADHD and ID [43]. A randomized, controlled, double-blind study of children with severe ADHD and ID suggested that methylphenidate is effective in reducing the symptoms of ADHD in these children [44]. Stimulants have a similar effect on improving impulsivity, hyperactivity, and attention deficit in children with IQ ranging between 45 and 75 compared to normal children; however, they may exhibit fewer improvements in learning and memory. Stimulants appear to have a positive effect in preschool children, albeit with more side effects [45]. Reduced appetite, nausea, and irritability are the most common adverse events reported in children with developmental disabilities (DD); clinicians should be aware that, as with stimulants, irritability appears to occur much more commonly in children with DD than in normally developing children. Initial splitting of the dose, starting below the recommended dose, and slowly titrating the dose may prevent or ameliorate these side effects [46].
Only one open-label study has investigated the effectiveness of atomoxetine (ATX) in children with ADHD and ID not accompanied by the autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Atomoxetine appears to be useful in improving ADHD symptoms in individuals with ID. Larger, randomized, controlled, double-blind studies are required to confirm the efficacy of ATX in children with ID without ASD [47].
Clinicians must carefully consider the following when treating cases of ID with ADHD. As patients in this group may have a lower tolerance to side effects, greater care must be taken during dose titration, and drugs must be started at low doses and gradually increased. Antipsychotic agents such as risperidone can lead to an improvement in irritability. Many children with ID may have a micronutrient imbalance that could benefit from an RDA/RDI multivitamin/mineral supplement, especially if appetite has been suppressed by the stimulant [48].
Prospective studies show that children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD are also more frequently diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) compared to control subjects [49]. Additionally, ADHD is more common in children with major depressive disorder [50]. Studies that have investigated internalizing problems, such as depression and anxiety in the subtypes of ADHD, have shown that internalizing problems are more common in the attention deficit ADHD subtype [51]. CD and ODD seem to appear in early childhood in ADHD, while the symptoms of depression and anxiety appear later [52].
Several studies have been performed to explain the etiology of comorbid ADHD and depression. These studies have shown a genetic overlap between ADHD and depression, and both disorders involve dopamine reward circuit problems and difficulty in emotional regulation. A dysfunctional relationship with parents has also been shown to play a role in the etiology of comorbidities in children with ADHD [51].
Symptoms of depression, such as sleep disorders, difficulty concentrating, and irritability, and symptoms of anxiety disorders, such as sustained anxiety and failure to concentrate, may be confused with ADHD and lead to a misdiagnosis. Depression or anxiety accompanying ADHD make diagnosis difficult and result in greater severity of symptoms [53]. Depression is 2.5 times more frequently diagnosed during adolescence and early adulthood in girls previously diagnosed with ADHD, and the onset of depression is earlier and is more protracted. Depression leads to greater depression-related loss in functionality, increases disposition to suicide, and requires more hospitalization [54]. The adverse effect of comorbid ADHD on the prognosis of depression and the higher incidence of attempted suicide in hyperactive young people make the identification of comorbid depression and ADHD particularly important. It is also important not to overlook the depressive disorder comorbidity in children diagnosed with ADHD as the depressive disorder can increase the severity of attention problems in ADHD [55]. One study showed that the probability of developing comorbid bipolar affective disorder or major depression is higher in patients with ADHD than in patients suffering from major depression alone [56]. One study, intended to determine which children with ADHD subsequently develop depression, showed that ADHD patients with comorbid anxiety and/or disruptive behavior disorders have a higher probability of developing depression [57]. Measures can be taken to avoid the development of depression in ADHD patients who are diagnosed with comorbid anxiety and/or disruptive behavior disorders. While the existence of anxiety in ADHD has an improving effect on DBD, performance anxiety and feelings of inadequacy are thought to be more prominent [58]. Although anxiety reduces the inhibition response in anxiety ADHD and impulsivity, it can worsen work memory test performance [59]. A detailed investigation of the psychiatric symptoms in the family will assist physicians with the diagnosis and treatment of these patients.
Recent familial, genetic, and long-term follow-up studies have demonstrated that ADHD and major depressive disorder share a common familial risk [60]. Comorbidity of ADHD and emotional disorders (such as anxiety) determines the severity of the clinical symptoms and leads to severe social maladaptations.
Since environmental factors make a significant contribution to the development of depression in individuals with ADHD, overcoming these environmental factors and relational problems is an important part of treatment. If the depressive symptoms are mild, treatment starts with assuaging ADHD, and this itself frequently leads to a resolution of the depressive symptoms. If no improvement in the depressive symptoms is observed, SSRIs may be added. Appropriate dosage and gradual titration are important when using SSRIs.
Depression-related nondrug therapies, particularly cognitive behavioral therapy, may be started along with ADHD drugs in this group. One study on adolescents diagnosed with depression compared the relative effectiveness of three therapeutic approaches, namely, fluoxetine, CBT, and combined treatment, with a placebo. Only combined treatment emerged superior to the placebo in patients with depression alone, but fluoxetine, CBT, and combined treatment were all better than the placebo in adolescents with ADHD and comorbid MDD [61].
The form of treatment that should be undertaken when these disorders are comorbid with ADHD is controversial, and the disorder dominating the general picture should be treated primarily. If there is no doubt regarding the diagnosis of both disorders and the clinical picture is sufficiently severe to require treatment, then such treatments may be started together. Despite a scarcity of well-designed treatment studies in youth with ADHD and comorbid depression, there is increasing preliminary evidence on the role of stimulants, selective serotonergic reuptake inhibitors, bupropion, and atomoxetine in targeting either or both disorders. There is also some indirect evidence on the benefits of combining pharmacological treatments with psychosocial interventions that specifically target relevant environmental factors and functional impairments [62].
In cases of comorbid ADHD and anxiety disorder, therapeutic priority is determined on the basis of the severity of both disorders and the extent of their negative impact on life. If the anxiety is not very severe, then priority must be attached to treating ADHD. In addition, if the patient is amenable to psychotherapy, then this can also be recommended for improving the anxiety disorder in parallel with ADHD treatment. If the anxiety disorder symptoms are very severe, however, SSRIs must be added to the treatment regimen. CBT has been shown to be effective in both adolescents and adults. In addition, psychosocial therapies should be advised in patients with anxiety disorder [30].
Comorbidity or merging of ADHD and BAD is not yet fully understood. There are a number of questions concerning the relationship between these two disorders, such as is there symptomatic similarity between ADHD and BAD, is one a precursor of the other, are ADHD and BAD familial subtypes, are there any similarities in terms of comorbidity and course?
The three symptoms sufficient for diagnosing a manic attack in children, namely, distractibility, excessive talking, and hyperactivity, are also compatible with a diagnosis of ADHD, and given these overlapping symptoms, it is possible that BAD may be misdiagnosed as ADHD or vice versa. The rate of ADHD comorbidity in children diagnosed with BAD ranges from 11% to 98% [63], while BAD comorbidity is lower in individuals with ADHD. This variation may be because ADHD is more commonly diagnosed in children rather than BAD. The prevalence of ADHD in children is higher than BAD, and the predictors of bipolarity may not be completely determined in the presence of comorbid ADHD.
Biederman et al. [63] conducted a 4-year follow-up study and found that the rate of comorbid bipolar disorder increased by an additional 12% at the end of the 4 years; 11% of the children with ADHD had comorbid bipolar disorder at baseline, and these prevalence rates were significantly higher compared to control groups without ADHD. Furthermore, significantly higher rates of additional psychopathology, psychiatric hospitalization, and severely impaired psychosocial functioning were observed in children with ADHD and comorbid BAD, compared to children with ADHD alone both at baseline and at follow-up assessment. The authors also suggested that comorbid ADHD and bipolar disorder do not result from overlapping symptoms.
Co-occurrence of these two disorders is associated with poorer global functioning, greater symptom severity, and additional comorbidity compared to either disorder alone [64].
Available data strongly suggest that the prepubertal onset of BAD is a nonepisodic, chronic, rapid-cycling, mixed manic state that may be comorbid with ADHD and CD [65]. Several studies have reported that pediatric BAD is characterized by irritable and dysphoric moods, mixed episodes, explosive behavior accompanied by anger attacks, and rapid and ultrarapid cycling with a chronic course [66].
There is a significant loss of functionality in both the disorders. An investigation of the etiology of these two disorders, their effective diagnosis, and treatment are important to keep this loss in functionality to a minimum. One familial study that investigated comorbid ADHD and BAD reported higher rates of ADHD diagnoses in families of subjects with BAD and higher rates of BAD diagnosis in families of subjects diagnosed with ADHD [67]. In addition to genetic factors, potential environmental risk factors for comorbidity have also been investigated [68].
As the presence of comorbidities has an adverse effect on the course of both disorders, early identification and prompt treatment are critical. Different classes of psychopharmacological medications are employed in the treatment of ADHD and BAD, such as stimulants or atomoxetine for ADHD and mood stabilizers or antipsychotics for mania. Problems in differentiating between the two disorders and deciding on the best form of clinical management have important clinical implications for patients. Research also suggests that incorrect treatment may result in nonresponsiveness or worsening of symptoms in the case of ADHD and BAD [69].
Researchers regard emotional instability as a core deficit in children diagnosed with ADHD [70]. Therefore, affective instability in children diagnosed with ADHD does not directly indicate the presence of a comorbid mood disorder [71]. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) created a construct for Severe Mood Dysregulation (SMD) to describe such children who do not meet the criteria for a formal mood disorder. Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) took its place in DSM V as a modification of SMD.
ADHD, ODD, and CD are the most common accompanying Axis I diagnoses in children with DMDD [72]. Children with ADHD and SMD experience greater morbidity than children with externalizing behavior disorders alone and are in need of specialized treatment to optimize their functioning [73]. Various behavior modifying therapies and stimulation therapy combinations have been developed for children with comorbid ADHD and SMD, and they have been shown to be effective and acceptable. Research has repeatedly shown that subjects with a diagnosis of SMD exhibited significantly higher levels of functional impairment after a 3-week therapeutic process compared to those with no such diagnosis [74]. It is also important for the parents of children with both these disorders to be referred to parenting programs and family therapy. One study on children with both ADHD and SMD used stimulation therapy at optimal doses prior to their randomization into two groups. One group received treatment involving psychosocial measures for 11 weeks, while the other group took part in group therapy. A significant decrease in suicidal ideation was observed in children receiving group therapy, and their parents also exhibited a more positive parenting behavior [71].
To date, there are too few studies to establish a specific treatment guideline for SMDD. ADHD, the prominent problem in comorbid ADHD and SMDD, can be improved with stimulation therapy. Low-dose antipsychotics can be tried when the basic problems are arousal symptoms and behavioral difficulties.
Significantly high rates of development of substance use disorder (SUD), involving use of nicotine, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, or other drugs, during adolescence have been reported in individuals diagnosed with childhood ADHD [75]. One 10-year study of patients with ADHD showed that the probability of these patients developing substance dependence was twice as high as that of the control group [76]. A study of comorbid psychiatric disorders in subjects with substance abuse disorder reported that half of the adolescents aged under 15 years met the diagnostic criteria for ADHD [77]. Further, early onset and a more severe substance use disorder have been correlated with ADHD. One recent meta-analysis found that childhood ADHD is associated with nicotine use in adolescence and alcohol and drug use disorder in adulthood [78].
As anxiety, depression, and aggression are frequently seen in children and adolescents with ADHD, these patients use substances such as nicotine to self-treat symptoms of anxiety and depression, and nicotine suppresses symptoms of ADHD. Thus, individuals with ADHD use addictive substances to treat psychiatric comorbidities.
One twin study reported that a substance use disorder did not develop in subjects with ADHD without CD [79]. In children diagnosed with ADHD, the group with comorbid CD and/or BAD was at highest risk of developing a substance use disorder [80]. This marked association between ADHD and substance use disorder shows the importance of diagnosing and treating childhood ADHD to avoid the later development of a severe substance use disorder.
In light of the high comorbidity between ADHD and substance use disorder, it is possible that there are common underlying neurological factors, and ADHD and substance problems also have several common causes.
Variations in dopamine genes that affect attention, arousal, and reinforcement sensitivity are possible common risk factors for the development of ADHD and substance use disorder [81], and altered dopamine (DA) neurotransmission is central to current models of how ADHD and substance abuse disorder develop [82].
As substance abuse itself leads to changes in the brain, it is impossible to determine if individuals with a substance use disorder also exhibit characteristics similar to ADHD or not. However, the changes occurring in the brain due to a substance use disorder are thought to make these individuals more inclined to engage in impulsive behavior, similar to individuals with ADHD but before the onset of the disorder and before the substance abuse. A recent review of neuroimaging studies in humans with ADHD and SUD found repeated evidence of a blunted striatal DA release and a disruption in neural circuitry between the anterior cingulate cortex, the striatum, and the prefrontal cortex. ADHD and SUD-related craving share some neurobiological similarities, which may be because patients with an addiction show increased craving if they also suffer from ADHD [83].
Recent studies have shown that effectively treating ADHD symptoms may be protective in patients with a substance use disorder. The claim that treating ADHD symptoms with stimulants increases the risk for future substance abuse has not been verified, and in fact, the opposite effect is typically seen in medication-treated individuals. Children treated with stimulants appear to have a significantly lower risk of developing a substance use disorder than those who were not pharmacologically treated.
This finding suggests that ADHD does in fact contribute to the development and maintenance of substance use problems, as the successful treatment of ADHD symptoms results in a reduction of the substance use problem [84].
Several studies show a high correlation between ADHD and developmental coordination disorder (DCD). ADHD-DCD comorbidity can be as high as 50% in children [85]. In a study of 477 cases of ADHD, Blondis et al. [86] have reported the presence of a comorbid developmental coordination disorder in at least 33% of the subjects.
Maladroitness in children with ADHD frequently decreases with age, and the children may successfully engage in sporting activities. However, this does not occur in the presence of a comorbid developmental coordination disorder, and it generally persists along with the inattention [86]. Clinical research has shown that maladroitness, clumsiness, and ponderousness seriously affect a child in numerous areas, and that these children find it difficult to perform certain activities at the same speed as their peers in school.
The possible treatment consists of psychological and educational support. Tervo et al. [87] compared the response to methylphenidate in subjects with developmental coordination disorder and ADHD and ADHD alone. They reported that the response to the drug was similar in both the groups and that the stimulant was also effective in treating ADHD.
There are two hypotheses concerning the decrease in symptoms following treatment with methylphenidate. The first is that methylphenidate increases attention, and that increased attention leads to an improvement in motor deficits, while the second is that drug therapy has distinct effects on attention and motor skills.
The proportion of children with ADHD who could improve their motor skills to the normal range upon medication varies from 28% to 67% among reported studies. While the symptoms of patients with a mild motor deficit before treatment improve to normal levels with therapy, in patients with a more severe motor deficit before treatment, the symptoms only decrease in severity and they may still continue to meet the diagnostic criteria for DCD.
It is important to assess motor skills among children with ADHD because of the risk of their reduced participation in daily activities that require motor coordination and attention [88].
ADHD and incontinence are common diseases in childhood, are commonly seen together, and also affect one another. Nocturnal enuresis (NE) is seen in 10% of children aged 7 years, daytime urinary incontinence (DUI) in 2-3% and fecal incontinence (FI), or encopresis in 1-3%. Baeyens et al. [89] have investigated the prevalence of ADHD in 120 children with primary enuresis using parent and teacher questionnaires and diagnostic interviews. Their results indicate that 15% of the children met the criteria for ADHD, and a further 22.5% of them met the criteria for the ADHD inattentive type. A 2-year follow-up study of the same cohort indicated that 73% of those initially diagnosed with ADHD had the diagnosis reconfirmed at follow-up [90]. The authors also noted that the probability of a child with ADHD still having episodes of nocturnal enuresis at 2-year follow-up were 3.2 times higher than that for a child who did not have comorbid ADHD.
There are several hypotheses to explain the comorbidity of ADHD and NE. There is evidence that genetic factors occupy an important place in the etiology of ADHD and NE, as the heritability of NE and ADHD as individual disorders is high. However, the only formal molecular genetics study on both the disorders indicates that NE and ADHD are genetically independent, separate entities that do not share a common genetic basis.
Neuroimaging studies have established a great overlap in brain structures involved in ADHD and NE (and to a lesser extent in DUI and FI); however, a possible interaction between functional brain activity in combined incontinence and ADHD has not yet been studied. It is therefore unclear why and how ADHD and incontinence together affect central nervous system (CNS) functioning. From the few studies on ADHD and NE, it can be speculated that complex neural networks, including cortical, subcortical, and brainstem regions, will most likely be responsible for the clinically evident interaction effects [91].
Incontinence must be investigated in children with ADHD, and ADHD must be investigated in children with incontinence. The management of enuresis includes supportive approaches such as educating parents about enuresis, reducing fluids, keeping a dry bed chart, and awakening the child to void during the night, conditioning with a urine alarm, or medications such as imipramine or desmopressin acetate [92]. Treatment must be adapted to include both supportive approaches and pharmacotherapy in patients with ADHD and incontinence.
One double-blind, placebo-controlled study investigating the effectiveness of atomoxetine in children with NE reported a significant decrease in symptoms. Atomoxetine, a highly specific inhibitor of the presynaptic norepinephrine transporter, increases the effects of norepinephrine in many brain areas. Atomoxetine-mediated decrease in symptoms of NE supports the hypothesis that these drugs, with their noradrenergic effect, may be beneficial in the treatment of this disease [93]. NE and ADHD may improve with both methylphenidate and atomoxetine. Many hypotheses have been proposed—involving central neurochemical dysfunctions (dopaminergic and noradrenergic), anticholinergic, and reduced sleep arousal effects of these drugs—to account for the effects of these medications in the treatment of enuresis and ADHD [94, 95].
Studies aimed at understanding the relationship between ADHD and elimination disorders may identify common, underlying neurological alterations that may lead to a more effective treatment for both the disorders [96].
Tic disorders are quite rare in the general population but are common in the population with ADHD. Tic comorbidity in patients with ADHD ranges between 8% and 10% [97, 98], and ADHD is the most common accompanying disorder in tic patients [99].
Tic disorders have little effect on the psychosocial functioning of subjects with ADHD [100]. There is no definitive evidence regarding the course of ADHD being affected by the tic disorder. However, accompanying obsessive-compulsive symptoms have been reported in a significant proportion of individuals with ADHD and comorbid tic disorders. Tics, OCD, and ADHD are related in a number of complex ways and have common demographic and psychopathological risk factors [101].
Greater psychopathology and social and academic impairment have been reported when ADHD is comorbid with Tourette’s disease [102]. Earlier age at onset, greater difficulty of anger control, sleep problems, ODD, mood disorders, deficient social skills, inappropriate sexual behavior, and self-harming behaviors are seen when Tourette’s syndrome is comorbid with ADHD [103].
The pathophysiology of ADHD and the tic disorder is unclear, although their comorbidity suggests that they have similar mechanisms or at least that they are compatible to varying degrees [104]. These two disorders share a number of genetic, neuronal, and cognitive risk factors, and several dopamine and serotonin genes have been studied as potential risk factors. Genes and environmental risk factors are also thought to cause both disorders. Abnormalities in the same anatomical cycle, such as cortical thinning, frontal system abnormalities, and basal ganglia abnormalities, have been shown in children with Tourette’s and ADHD [105].
A comprehensive treatment program for Tourette’s syndrome and comorbid ADHD should include measures other than medication such as cognitive-behavioral, psychoeducational, and psychosocial interventions.
Three classes of drugs are currently used in the treatment of Tourette’s syndrome and comorbid ADHD: α-agonists (clonidine and guanfacine), stimulants (amphetamine enantiomers, methylphenidate enantiomers or slow release preparations), and selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (atomoxetine). It has been recently suggested that in a few selected cases partial dopamine agonists (aripiprazole) could be useful, and there is evidence supporting the use of noradrenergic agents (clonidine). Reuptake inhibitors (atomoxetine) and stimulants (methylphenidate) could also be used for the treatment of Tourette’s syndrome and comorbid ADHD [106]. Although the evidence is insufficient, there are studies that suggest using aripiprazole in children with mild ADHD [107].
ADHD is associated with several comorbid psychiatric diseases and conditions, and these comorbid conditions may cause a worsening of the symptoms of ADHD. Greater loss of functionality is observed in patients with a comorbid condition. It is important to diagnose and treat these comorbid conditions to effectively treat ADHD.
After QLED was first published in 1994, a lot effort had been spent to improve the reliability and performance of QLED devices [1, 2]. The first QLED device uses thick QDs acting as both the emission layer and electron transport layer, which can be referred to in Figure 1(a) and (b). The luminous efficiency of QLED device has been improved by the use of electron injection layer. Coe et al. published a sandwiched QLED structure in 2002, which consisted of two organic thin films with QDs as the emission layer. The luminescence was improved 25-fold over the best results of the previous QLED device, as shown in Figure 1(d) [3]. The QLEDs use Alq3 and poly-TPD as the electron transport layer, as shown in Figure 1(c). However, the organic thin layers were sensitive to moisture and oxygen. Thus, replacing organic material with inorganic material seems to be the best solution to improve the reliability of the QLED device. Mueller et al. fabricated an all-inorganic QLED in which QDs were sandwiched by n-type GaN and p-type GaN. Figure 1(e) shows the structure of QLED with GaN, while Figure 1(f) shows the corresponding electrical performance. Mueller et al. used metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) method to deposit n-type GaN and p-type GaN [4]. However, the deposition method is too harsh for QDs that make the luminescence efficiency lower than the first type of QLED device. Then in 2010, Bendall et al. demonstrated an all-inorganic QLED with metal oxide as the electron transport layer. The QLED had a layer-by-layer structure, which had three-layer emission layers as shown in Figure 1(g) and (h) [5]. The overall device performance was still poor which is caused by the degradation of QDs during the harsh deposition process of inorganic materials. However, these devices showed condescending stability under long-term usage and high current density conditions.
Structure designs and material designs for efficient QLEDs. (a) Energy-level structure of the first QLED. (b) Electroluminescence of the first QLED [1]. (c) Electroluminescence spectra and structures for a 40-nm-thick film of Alq3, followed by a 75-nm-thick Mg:Ag cathode with a 50 nm Ag cap. (d) The corresponding external quantum efficiency [3]. (e) QLED structure consists of p-type GaN and n-type GaN. (f) Electroluminescence of QLED consists of p-type GaN and n-type GaN [4]. (g) QLED structure with metal oxide as the electron transport layer with layer-by-layer structure in emission layer. (h) Electroluminescence and photoluminescence of the QLED with metal oxide as the electron transport layer with layer-by-layer structure in emission layer [5].
The organic materials had an advantage of high luminescence, while inorganic materials had an advantage of high reliability. Then the researcher combined the advantage of both organic materials and inorganic materials by using both organic materials and inorganic materials as the electron transport layers. MoS2, NiO, TiO2, and ZnO have been reported as the inorganic charge transport layers (CTLs) [6, 7, 8].
According to the type of electron transport layers, the structure of QLEDs can be categorized into four different types (Figure 2): (a) organic/QD bilayer, (b) all-organic electron transport layer, (c) all-inorganic electron transport layer, and (d) organic/inorganic electron transport layer. The four different types of QLED structure also represent the development history of QLEDs in sequence.
Four representative QLED structure types based on electron transport layers. (a) Organic polymer electron transport layer, (b) all-organic polymer electron transport layer, (c) all-inorganic electron transport layer, and (d) organic/inorganic electron transport layer [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
Among these four types of QLED structure, inorganic materials are one of the most important choices for electron transport layers owing to their high electrical conductivity and good stability against environmental factors such as oxygen and moisture. ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) applied in electron transport layer are a significant breakthrough in QLED development history, due to their excellent electron mobility and no significant damage to the underlying QD layer during fabrication process. What’s more, ZnO NPs are compatible with both polar solvent and nonpolar solvent, which makes the QLED fabrication process more flexible. More details about ZnO NPs will be introduced in Section 3.
The emission mechanism of QLED is discussed in this subsection. A QLED has a similar structure and behavior as an OLED. In the QLED, the emitter is a semiconductor nanoparticle, while in the OLED, the emitter is an organic material.
Once a molecular orbital achieved the maximum electron energy, it is called the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO). Otherwise, if a molecular orbital has unfilled electrons, the molecular orbital is called the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). The energies of HOMO and LUMO affect the ionization potential and electron affinity of materials (Figure 3) [12].
The orientation of the HOMO and LUMO [12].
Ionization potential energy is the minimum energy required to extract one electron from the HOMO, and electron affinity is the energy required to add one electron to the LUMO so that the system is stabilized [11, 12].
Before considering the light emission mechanism, it is important to understand the electron configuration in both the ground state and the excited state. Before excitation, when in ground state, the electrons are placed with both upward spin and downward spin (Figure 3). When excited, the electrons in the upper state are allocated with the same spin state, or the spin is reversed. The light emission is resulting from the energy transfer from the excitation state to the ground state.
Normal materials in QLED have high resistance at weak electric fields. Therefore, researchers introduced the thin film to create strong electric field and chose structures and materials suitable for charge injection [13]. The QLED performance is highly dependent on the choice of charge injection materials. Good charge injection materials should have high carrier mobility and balance the electron/hole injections well. The charge injection from electrodes follows the Schottky effect that means the injection barrier would be lowered according to the image force principle.
When an electron is injected into the electrode, if all the HOMO orbitals are occupied and cannot accept the additional charge, the charge will be transferred into the LUMO. When electrons are transferred into the LUMO, they form an electric current. At the same time, there will be a hole injected from the anode electrode which will be transferred into the HOMO. However, when the amount of injected charge exceeds the internal charge amount, the conduction system changes from ohmic to “space charge-limited current” [12, 13, 14].
If charge transfer by electric field and diffusion is taken into account and no trap is assumed, the electric current can be expressed as Eq. (1):
According to Eq. (1), the electric current is proportional to the square of the voltage. This is called the Mott-Gurney law, an extension of Child’s law that takes collision into consideration [15].
The recombination and generation of excitons of QLED are shown in Figure 4.
The energy diagram of QLED.
When an electron and a hole recombined in the emission layer, the photons formed, whose wavelength corresponds to the energy bandgap of the quantum dots. The more electron and hole are recombined, the more photos will be generated, which corresponds to more light we could detect. Thus, people applied the hole transport layer (HTL) and electron transport layer (ETL) to restrict the electrons and holes in the emission layer, in order to improve the device efficiency. There are five typical layers for a QLED structure:
Electron transport layer (ETL)—for electron injection from the cathode and transportation of the electron.
Electron injection layer (EIL)—for electron injection from the cathode electrode.
Hole transport layer (HTL)—for hole transportation from HIL to EML.
Hole injection layer (HIL)—for hole injection from the anode electrode.
Emission layer (EML)—electron/hole transportation and their recombination to form an exciton; this is the QD layer in QLED.
This direct injection of charge carriers is assumed as the most common phenomenon for creating an exciton in the device.
In Section 1, the QLED structure types are elaborated. Thus, it is very important to design a QLED by factoring in the relationships between the work function of each layer. The QLED device fabrication process will be discussed in Section 3.
Behind the QLED structure, the ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have gained substantial interest in the research community as the charge transport layer (CTL). In 2008, Janssen [8] and co-workers demonstrated all-solution-processed multilayer QLEDs by using ZnO NPs as ETLs and organic materials as HTLs. The colloidal ZnO NPs were dispersed in isopropanol, and the deposition of the ZnO NPs on the top of the QD layers did not dissolve the underlying layers. Since then, continuous efforts were made to improve the performance of QLED with solution-processed n-type oxides as CTLs. ZnO NPs are widely used as CTLs in the state of the art of high-performance QLEDs.
Generally, solution-processed oxide CTLs can be deposited by two approaches, the precursor approach and the nanocrystal approach. The molar ratio of zinc precursor to potassium hydroxide (KOH) played an important role in determining the shape of ZnO NPs and hence affected the conductivity and mobility of ZnO NP film prepared from ZnO NPs [15, 16, 17]. ZnO NPs were synthesized by hydrolysis/condensation reactions under basic conditions. The synthesis procedure will be introduced in Section 3.
Detergent TFD4 was purchased from BioLab, PEDOT:PSS 4083 from Heraeus, poly-TPD (LT-N149) from Luminescence Technology Corp Ltd., patterned ITO glass from Xinyan Technology Ltd., green (CdZnSeS/ZnS) quantum dots from Suzhou Mesolight Inc., and zinc acetate dihydrate powder, potassium hydroxide flakes, acetone, isopropyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, chloroform, and chlorobenzene all from Aldrich.
The uncleation-dissolution-recrystallization growth method [16] was applied to synthesize the ZnO nanoparticles. Firstly 0.37 g potassium hydroxide was dissolved in 16.25 ml methyl alcohol. Then zinc acetate dihydrate solution was prepared by adding 0.74 g zinc acetate dihydrate in 31.25 ml methyl alcohol at 60°C under vigorous stirring. Then the potassium hydroxide solution was jetted into the zinc acetate dihydrate solution at the rate of 0.8 ml/min. The reaction takes around 1.7 h under N2 protection condition. After the reaction, the solution was allowed to sit for another 2 h to let the ZnO nanoparticles settle at the bottom of the reaction flask. The ZnO nanoparticles were washed twice by methyl alcohol. Then the ZnO nanoparticles were dispersed in chloroform and isopropyl alcohol mix solution at the concentration of 35 mg/ml.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEOL JEM 2010) was applied to characterize the morphology of the nanoparticles.
The patterned ITO glass was cleaned by detergent, methyl alcohol, acetone, and isopropyl alcohol in turn, each sonication for 20 minutes. After cleaning, UV ozone plasma was applied for surface energy modification. PEDOT:PSS was spin-coated on the cleaned ITO surface at 3000 rpm for 30 s and then baked under vacuum at 150°C for 30 min. Then hole transport layer (HTL) was prepared by spin coating poly-TPD on the annealed PEDOT:PSS surface at 3000 rpm for 60 s and baking at 100°C for 30 min under vacuum protection. Quantum dots were also deposited on the annealed poly-TPD surface by spin coating at 3000 rpm for 30 s. Then the synthesized ZnO nanoparticle solution was spin-coated at 1500 rpm for 60 s. The baking temperature is 60°C for 30 min. The cathode was deposited by vapor deposition method. A more detailed QLED device fabrication process was mentioned in previous work [2].
The concentration of precursor, evaporation rate, and the time of reaction were all significant synthetic parameters, which affected the growth of ZnO nanoparticel dimensions and structures. Figure 5 shows the TEM images of the as-synthesized ZnO NPs from a well-dispersed ZnO colloidal solution carried out with the reference condition. To investigate the effect of reaction time on the growth morphology, reaction times of 80 and 105 min were carried out. The nanoparticle’s size is smaller in the reaction of 105 min than in the reaction of 80 min. Moreover, the crystal lattice fringes are more clearly observed in the 105 min reaction sample rather than in the 80 min reaction sample. According to confinement effect, particles with smaller diameter would have higher energy. Therefore, the ZnO NPs used for QLED preparation are the smaller ZnO NPs.
TEM images of two different sizes of ZnO NPs. (a, b) reaction times of 105 min and (c, d) 80 min.
In order to analyze the bandgap and quantum effects of the different ZnO NPs, their absorption and photoluminescence spectra need to be measured, which will be processed in future study. The energy bandgap (Eg) of the colloidal ZnO nanoparticles is determined from the intercept between the wavelength axis and the tangent to the linear section of the absorption band edge. The energy bandgap of ZnO NPs at 2.9 nm is 3.65 eV. The energy bandgap for the 5.5 nm ZnO NPs was 3.35 eV [17], while the energy bandgap of bulk ZnO is 3.2–3.3 eV [18], which is lower than the energy bandgap of ZnO NPs. It is found that the tendency of energy bandgap enlargement with decreasing size is consistent with the relationship based on effective mass approximation. Therefore, the reaction of 105 min can obtain smaller ZnO NPs than the ZnO NPs in the reaction of 80 min. In addition, the lattice fringes can be clearly observed in the TEM images, which suggests good crystallinity of the ZnO NPs.
Figure 6(a) shows the structure of the QLED device, while Figure 6(b) shows the energy band diagram of the QLED device. The QLED device is a multilayer structure, which consists of PEDOT:PSS, poly-TPD, QDs, ZnO NPs, and Al. The thickness of each layer was measured by the surface profile (Alpha-Step 200 Tencor). Figure 7 shows the TEM image of quantum dots; the diameter of the quantum dots was around 7 nm.
(a) The QLED device structure and (b) the QLED device energy-level diagram.
The TEM image of green QDs from Mesolight.
The energy-level diagram in Figure 6(b) illustrated that the electrons and holes can be easily recombined together in the emission layer. Because ZnO NPs have a wide energy bandgap, the holes can be stored in the quantum dot layer. At the same time, poly-TPD’s energy bandgap is from −2.3 eV to −5.4 eV. −2.3 eV is larger than −3.8 eV, which can also restrict electrons in the quantum dot layer. What is more, adding PEDOT: PSS layer and poly-TPD layer reduces the energy gap for holes jumping into the emission layer (quantum dot layer). The introduction of ZnO NPs has a similar function as PEDOT:PSS and poly-TPD, which confine the excitation and recombination region, hence potentially improving the efficiency of photon generation. The thin layer structure of QLED device makes it a promising candidate for the next generation of flexible displays.
Figure 8 shows the device performance analysis. The turn-on voltage is shown in Figure 8(a), which is between 2 V and 3 V. The low turn-on voltage is due to the high electron mobility of the ZnO NPs and the design of the QLED structures. When there is a current applied to the device, the electrons can easily be injected into the emission layer, while the holes can also flow to the emission layer easily and be restricted by the ZnO NP layer. At the same time, the electrons accumulate at the interface of the poly-TPD/quantum dots due to the ~1.5 eV energy offset between the LUMO of poly-TPD and quantum dots. When one high-energy hole can be obtained after absorbing the energy released from the interfacial recombination of an electron/hole pair, the high-energy holes can cross the injection barrier at the poly-TPD interface and recombine with the electrons inside the QD layer and then emit photons. This is called the Auger-assisted hole injection [14, 19]. Therefore, the high electron mobility of ZnO nanoparticles and the band alignment structure can facilitate the hole transport and balance of the carrier injection of the device.
(a) The QLED current density versus the voltage (J-V) curve, (b) the QLED electroluminance spectra as the applied voltage increased and (c) the 1931 CIE coordinate of QLED.
The electroluminance (EL) spectra of the QLED under different voltages are shown in Figure 8(b). The inserted picture is the QLED device. The EL intensity of the QLED device increases as the applied voltage increases. The wavelength is 534 nm with the full width at half maximum (FWHM) value is 44 nm through the spectrum. The peak wavelength of QLED electroluminance spectra is 2 nm red shift compared with the peak wavelength of QD solution, which might be because of the dot-to-dot interactions in the close-packed solid film. Moreover, the electric field induced the Stark effect [20]. The 1931 CIE coordinate after emission is (0.31, 0.66) as shown in Figure 8(c).
This work discussed the structure and mechanism of QLED and demonstrated an all-solution process of QLED in the last section. The QLED has high luminance with low turn-on voltage. These properties, caused by the use of ZnO NPs, improve electron injection and enhance radiative recombination. The resulting QLED fabrication process also makes printing QLED a possible method in the future.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
quantum dot light-emitting diode quantum dot drop on demand high-definition television cathode-ray tube liquid crystal display light-emitting diode organic light-emitting diode poly(ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulphonate zinc oxide nanoparticles indium tin oxide poly(N,N′-bis-4-butylphenyl-N,N′-bisphenyl)benzidine ethylene glycol butyl ether octadecylamine trioctylphosphine oxide dimethyl sulfoxide hole transport layer hole injection layer electron injection layer electron transport layer emission layer highest occupied molecular orbital lowest unoccupied molecular orbital wavelength Planck’s constant h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js particle momentum the energy of a single particle in free space mass of a single particle in free space the velocity of a single particle in free space the magnitude of the wave vector standing wave/the diameter of QDs current density carrier mobility of materials voltage dielectric constant the thickness of the thin film full width at half maximum
IntechOpen books are indexed by the following abstracting and indexing services:
",metaTitle:"Indexing and Abstracting",metaDescription:"IntechOpen was built by scientists, for scientists. We understand the community we serve, but to bring an even better service to the table for IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we partnered with the leading companies and associations in the industry and beyond.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/indexing-and-abstracting",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Clarivate Web Of Science - Book Citation Index
\\n\\nCroatian Library (digital NSK)
\\n\\nOCLC (Online Computer Library Center) - WorldCat® Digital Collection Gateway
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Clarivate Web Of Science - Book Citation Index
\n\nCroatian Library (digital NSK)
\n\nOCLC (Online Computer Library Center) - WorldCat® Digital Collection Gateway
\n\n\n\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5698},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10243},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15647}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"11"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10013",title:"Geothermal Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a5f5277a1c0616ce6b35f4b44a4cac7a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Basel I. Ismail",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10013.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"62122",title:"Dr.",name:"Basel",surname:"Ismail",slug:"basel-ismail",fullName:"Basel Ismail"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10370",title:"Advances in Fundamental and Applied Research on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f16232a481c08a05cc191ac64cf2c69e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brian FG Katz and Dr. Piotr Majdak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10370.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278731",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian FG",surname:"Katz",slug:"brian-fg-katz",fullName:"Brian FG Katz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10374",title:"Advances in Micro- and Nanofluidics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b7ba9cab862a9bca2fc9f9ee72ba5eec",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. S. M. Sohel Murshed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10374.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10376",title:"Adaptive Filtering - Recent Advances and Practical Implementation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"143698bdab370da4f6c14ddf8624488c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Wenping Cao and Dr. Qian Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10376.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174154",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenping",surname:"Cao",slug:"wenping-cao",fullName:"Wenping Cao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10377",title:"Electric Power Conversion",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9f41084eff07323bda451cd5c77dfaaf",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Majid Nayeripour and Dr. Eberhard Waffenschmidt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10377.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"66929",title:"Prof.",name:"Majid",surname:"Nayeripour",slug:"majid-nayeripour",fullName:"Majid Nayeripour"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10383",title:"Vibration Control of Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"912cb4cb6d5960e126cb843ddb4e001a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Said Elias Rahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10383.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"307861",title:"Dr.",name:"Said Elias",surname:"Rahimi",slug:"said-elias-rahimi",fullName:"Said Elias Rahimi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10491",title:"Anaerobic Digestion in Natural and Built Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"082ec753a05d6c7ed8cc5559e7dac432",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Anna Sikora and Dr. Anna Detman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10491.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"146985",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Sikora",slug:"anna-sikora",fullName:"Anna Sikora"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10495",title:"Insights Into Global Engineering Education After the Birth of Industry 5.0",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e83ddb1aa8017926d0635bbe8a90feca",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr.Ing. Montaha Bouezzeddine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10495.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"313464",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Montaha",surname:"Bouezzeddine",slug:"montaha-bouezzeddine",fullName:"Montaha Bouezzeddine"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10506",title:"Liquid Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a1c30d83631953e1c8905554d937bb10",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai, Dr. S. Gnanasekaran and Dr. Suresh Mayilswamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10506.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"247421",title:"Dr.",name:"Samson Jerold Samuel",surname:"Chelladurai",slug:"samson-jerold-samuel-chelladurai",fullName:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10567",title:"Uncertainty Management in Engineering - Topics in Pollution Prevention and Controls",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4990db602d31f1848c590dbfe97b6409",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Rehab O. Abdel Rahman and Dr. Yung-Tse Hung",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10567.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab",surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab Abdel Rahman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10573",title:"Fluid-Structure Interaction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3950d1f9c82160d23bc594d00ec2ffbb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Khaled Ghaedi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10573.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"190572",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",surname:"Ghaedi",slug:"khaled-ghaedi",fullName:"Khaled Ghaedi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:62},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:27},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5141},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"662",title:"Oceanology",slug:"oceanology",parent:{title:"Marine Biology",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences-marine-biology"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:63,numberOfWosCitations:58,numberOfCrossrefCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitations:68,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"oceanology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3517",title:"Topics in Oceanography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbe56ad1fcc5e5d113b608b6596a928a",slug:"topics-in-oceanography",bookSignature:"Enrico Zambianchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3517.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"150979",title:"Prof.",name:"Enrico",middleName:null,surname:"Zambianchi",slug:"enrico-zambianchi",fullName:"Enrico Zambianchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"867",title:"Oceanography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5ef83b6ccaff0d55f0702dd7a3fe20d",slug:"oceanography",bookSignature:"Marco Marcelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/867.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41631",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Marcelli",slug:"marco-marcelli",fullName:"Marco Marcelli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"45249",doi:"10.5772/56414",title:"Challenges and New Advances in Ocean Color Remote Sensing of Coastal Waters",slug:"challenges-and-new-advances-in-ocean-color-remote-sensing-of-coastal-waters",totalDownloads:2752,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"topics-in-oceanography",title:"Topics in Oceanography",fullTitle:"Topics in Oceanography"},signatures:"Hubert Loisel, Vincent Vantrepotte, Cédric Jamet and Dinh Ngoc\nDat",authors:[{id:"66224",title:"Prof.",name:"Hubert",middleName:null,surname:"Loisel",slug:"hubert-loisel",fullName:"Hubert Loisel"},{id:"99752",title:"Dr.",name:"Cédric",middleName:null,surname:"Jamet",slug:"cedric-jamet",fullName:"Cédric Jamet"},{id:"163462",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Vantrepotte",slug:"vincent-vantrepotte",fullName:"Vincent Vantrepotte"},{id:"167707",title:"MSc.",name:"Dat",middleName:null,surname:"Dinh Ngoc",slug:"dat-dinh-ngoc",fullName:"Dat Dinh Ngoc"}]},{id:"45198",doi:"10.5772/56105",title:"Stable Isotope Methods for the Study of the Nitrogen Cycle",slug:"stable-isotope-methods-for-the-study-of-the-nitrogen-cycle",totalDownloads:4086,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"topics-in-oceanography",title:"Topics in Oceanography",fullTitle:"Topics in Oceanography"},signatures:"Evgenia Ryabenko",authors:[{id:"163463",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgenia",middleName:null,surname:"Ryabenko",slug:"evgenia-ryabenko",fullName:"Evgenia Ryabenko"}]},{id:"33952",doi:"10.5772/29294",title:"On the Chemical Profile of Marine Organisms from Coastal Subtropical Environments: Gross Composition and Nitrogen-to-Protein Conversion Factors",slug:"on-the-chemical-profile-of-marine-organisms-from-coastal-subtropical-environments-gross-composition-",totalDownloads:1820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"oceanography",title:"Oceanography",fullTitle:"Oceanography"},signatures:"Graciela S. Diniz, Elisabete Barbarino and Sergio O. Lourenço",authors:[{id:"77206",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Oliveira",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"sergio-lourenco",fullName:"Sergio Lourenço"},{id:"81956",title:"MSc.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Diniz",slug:"graciela-diniz",fullName:"Graciela Diniz"},{id:"81957",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabete",middleName:null,surname:"Barbarino",slug:"elisabete-barbarino",fullName:"Elisabete Barbarino"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"44709",title:"Novel Tools for the Evaluation of the Health Status of Coral Reefs Ecosystems and for the Prediction of Their Biodiversity in the Face of Climatic Changes",slug:"novel-tools-for-the-evaluation-of-the-health-status-of-coral-reefs-ecosystems-and-for-the-prediction",totalDownloads:2084,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"topics-in-oceanography",title:"Topics in Oceanography",fullTitle:"Topics in Oceanography"},signatures:"Stéphane La Barre",authors:[{id:"50021",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephane",middleName:"Christian",surname:"La Barre",slug:"stephane-la-barre",fullName:"Stephane La Barre"}]},{id:"45239",title:"Near Surface Turbulence and Gas Exchange Across the Air-Sea Interface",slug:"near-surface-turbulence-and-gas-exchange-across-the-air-sea-interface",totalDownloads:2337,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"topics-in-oceanography",title:"Topics in Oceanography",fullTitle:"Topics in Oceanography"},signatures:"Qian Liao and Binbin Wang",authors:[{id:"164461",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Liao",slug:"qian-liao",fullName:"Qian Liao"},{id:"164462",title:"Dr.",name:"Binbin",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"binbin-wang",fullName:"Binbin Wang"}]},{id:"45198",title:"Stable Isotope Methods for the Study of the Nitrogen Cycle",slug:"stable-isotope-methods-for-the-study-of-the-nitrogen-cycle",totalDownloads:4086,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"topics-in-oceanography",title:"Topics in Oceanography",fullTitle:"Topics in Oceanography"},signatures:"Evgenia Ryabenko",authors:[{id:"163463",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgenia",middleName:null,surname:"Ryabenko",slug:"evgenia-ryabenko",fullName:"Evgenia Ryabenko"}]},{id:"33939",title:"Open-Sea Observatories: A New Technology to Bring the Pulse of the Sea to Human Awareness",slug:"open-sea-observatories-a-new-technology-to-take-the-pulse-of-the-sea-with-internet-in-the-ocean",totalDownloads:2196,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"oceanography",title:"Oceanography",fullTitle:"Oceanography"},signatures:"I. Puillat, N. Lanteri, J.F. Drogou, J. Blandin, L. Géli, J. Sarrazin, P.M. Sarradin, Y. Auffret, J.F. Rolin and P. Léon",authors:[{id:"68387",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Puillat",slug:"ingrid-puillat",fullName:"Ingrid Puillat"},{id:"76903",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Auffret",slug:"yves-auffret",fullName:"Yves Auffret"},{id:"76904",title:"MSc.",name:"Jérôme",middleName:null,surname:"Blandin",slug:"jerome-blandin",fullName:"Jérôme Blandin"},{id:"79491",title:"MSc.",name:"Jean-François",middleName:null,surname:"Rolin",slug:"jean-francois-rolin",fullName:"Jean-François Rolin"},{id:"79492",title:"Prof.",name:"Louis",middleName:null,surname:"Géli",slug:"louis-geli",fullName:"Louis Géli"},{id:"79493",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Marie",middleName:null,surname:"Sarradin",slug:"pierre-marie-sarradin",fullName:"Pierre-Marie Sarradin"},{id:"79496",title:"MSc.",name:"Nadine",middleName:null,surname:"Lantéri",slug:"nadine-lanteri",fullName:"Nadine Lantéri"},{id:"79497",title:"Mr.",name:"Yannick",middleName:null,surname:"Aoustin",slug:"yannick-aoustin",fullName:"Yannick Aoustin"},{id:"79498",title:"Dr.",name:"Roland",middleName:null,surname:"Person",slug:"roland-person",fullName:"Roland Person"}]},{id:"45249",title:"Challenges and New Advances in Ocean Color Remote Sensing of Coastal Waters",slug:"challenges-and-new-advances-in-ocean-color-remote-sensing-of-coastal-waters",totalDownloads:2752,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"topics-in-oceanography",title:"Topics in Oceanography",fullTitle:"Topics in Oceanography"},signatures:"Hubert Loisel, Vincent Vantrepotte, Cédric Jamet and Dinh Ngoc\nDat",authors:[{id:"66224",title:"Prof.",name:"Hubert",middleName:null,surname:"Loisel",slug:"hubert-loisel",fullName:"Hubert Loisel"},{id:"99752",title:"Dr.",name:"Cédric",middleName:null,surname:"Jamet",slug:"cedric-jamet",fullName:"Cédric Jamet"},{id:"163462",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Vantrepotte",slug:"vincent-vantrepotte",fullName:"Vincent Vantrepotte"},{id:"167707",title:"MSc.",name:"Dat",middleName:null,surname:"Dinh Ngoc",slug:"dat-dinh-ngoc",fullName:"Dat Dinh Ngoc"}]},{id:"45446",title:"A Statistical Approach for Wave-Height Forecast Based on Spatiotemporal Variation of Surface Wind",slug:"a-statistical-approach-for-wave-height-forecast-based-on-spatiotemporal-variation-of-surface-wind",totalDownloads:1819,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"topics-in-oceanography",title:"Topics in Oceanography",fullTitle:"Topics in Oceanography"},signatures:"Tsukasa Hokimoto",authors:[{id:"69561",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsukasa",middleName:null,surname:"Hokimoto",slug:"tsukasa-hokimoto",fullName:"Tsukasa Hokimoto"}]},{id:"33952",title:"On the Chemical Profile of Marine Organisms from Coastal Subtropical Environments: Gross Composition and Nitrogen-to-Protein Conversion Factors",slug:"on-the-chemical-profile-of-marine-organisms-from-coastal-subtropical-environments-gross-composition-",totalDownloads:1820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"oceanography",title:"Oceanography",fullTitle:"Oceanography"},signatures:"Graciela S. Diniz, Elisabete Barbarino and Sergio O. Lourenço",authors:[{id:"77206",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Oliveira",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"sergio-lourenco",fullName:"Sergio Lourenço"},{id:"81956",title:"MSc.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Diniz",slug:"graciela-diniz",fullName:"Graciela Diniz"},{id:"81957",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabete",middleName:null,surname:"Barbarino",slug:"elisabete-barbarino",fullName:"Elisabete Barbarino"}]},{id:"33950",title:"Geochemical Changes in Aquatic Environment Caused by Deep Dredging - A Case Study: The Puck Bay (Baltic Sea)",slug:"geochemical-changes-in-aquatic-environment-caused-by-deep-dredging-a-case-study-the-puck-bay-the-bal",totalDownloads:1593,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"oceanography",title:"Oceanography",fullTitle:"Oceanography"},signatures:"Bożena Graca, Katarzyna Łukawska-Matuszewska, Dorota Burska, Leszek Łęczyński and Jerzy Bolałek",authors:[{id:"67823",title:"Dr.",name:"Bozena",middleName:null,surname:"Graca",slug:"bozena-graca",fullName:"Bozena Graca"},{id:"119897",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Łukawska-Matuszewska",slug:"katarzyna-lukawska-matuszewska",fullName:"Katarzyna Łukawska-Matuszewska"},{id:"119901",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Łęczyński",slug:"leszek-leczynski",fullName:"Leszek Łęczyński"},{id:"119902",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Burska",slug:"dorota-burska",fullName:"Dorota Burska"},{id:"119903",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerzy",middleName:null,surname:"Bolałek",slug:"jerzy-bolalek",fullName:"Jerzy Bolałek"}]},{id:"33940",title:"New Technological Developments for Oceanographic Observations",slug:"new-technological-developments-for-oceanographic-observations",totalDownloads:2214,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"oceanography",title:"Oceanography",fullTitle:"Oceanography"},signatures:"Marco Marcelli, Andrea Pannocchi, Viviana Piermattei and Umberto Mainardi",authors:[{id:"41631",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Marcelli",slug:"marco-marcelli",fullName:"Marco Marcelli"},{id:"50280",title:"Dr.",name:"Viviana",middleName:null,surname:"Piermattei",slug:"viviana-piermattei",fullName:"Viviana Piermattei"},{id:"50303",title:"Mr",name:"Umberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mainardi",slug:"umberto-mainardi",fullName:"Umberto Mainardi"},{id:"123135",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Pannocchi",slug:"andrea-pannocchi",fullName:"Andrea Pannocchi"}]},{id:"33945",title:"Bodies of Water Along the Coast of a Tideless Sea in Areas with Young Pleistocene Accumulation from Scandinavian Glaciers (Baltic Sea)",slug:"inland-waters-in-coastal-areas-of-tideless-seas-in-regions-with-young-accumulation-from-scandinavian",totalDownloads:1868,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"oceanography",title:"Oceanography",fullTitle:"Oceanography"},signatures:"Roman Cieśliński and Jan Drwal",authors:[{id:"71500",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Drwal",slug:"jan-drwal",fullName:"Jan Drwal"},{id:"76911",title:"Dr.",name:"Roman",middleName:"Piotr",surname:"Cieśliński",slug:"roman-cieslinski",fullName:"Roman Cieśliński"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"oceanology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/32622/haruhiko-kaneko",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"32622",slug:"haruhiko-kaneko"},fullPath:"/profiles/32622/haruhiko-kaneko",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()