Top cowpea producing countries in the world.
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Cowpea is consumed in several forms; for instance, in south-eastern USA, Asia and Caribbean, fresh seeds and green pods are mostly consumed while in many parts of Africa and Asia, dry grains are mainly consumed in addition to fresh or dry leaves (as side dish or part of the stew), thus providing significant nutritional value [7, 8, 9]. Although leaves are consumed, cowpea is mainly grown for consumption of grains as they are rich in proteins, carbohydrates as well as minerals. The nutrient composition both in grain and leaves is highly variable depending on the environment and genotype under consideration. In an evaluation of 1541 cowpea accessions for grain nutrient composition by [10], protein content ranged from 17.5 to 32.5%, Fe content from 33.6 to 79.5 mg/kg, Zn ranged from 22.1 to 58.0 mg/kg, Ca from 310 to 1395 mg/kg, Mg from 1515 to 2500 mg/kg, K ranged from 11,400 to 18,450 mg/kg and P from 3450 to 6750 mg/kg. Weng et al. also reported a wide range (22.8–28.9%) of seed protein content among the 173 cowpea genotypes [11]. A similar study of 15 genotypes by [12] showed that moisture content ranged from 12.28 to 13.35%, total carbohydrates from 49.37 to 55.74%, crude ash from 2.99 to 3.34%, crude lipids from 0.13 to 0.81%, crude protein from 23.37 to 29.70% and crude fibers from 1.40 to 4.34%. Cowpea samples recorded highest percentage of essential amino acids (60.71%) and non-essential amino acids (39.29%). The mineral content ranged from 1.97 to 2.69 mg/100 g for calcium, 3.23 to 3.90 mg/100 g for magnesium, 205.53 to 223.30 mg/100 g for sodium, 0.80 to 1.23 mg/100 g for zinc, 1071.15 to 1152.62 mg/100 g for potassium and 0.62 to 1.06 mg/100 g for phosphorus. Cowpea has shown great potential for production of fermented yoghurt-like food products with improved bioavailability of nutrients [13, 14]. Cowpea is rich in phenolic acids such as benzoic and cinnamic acid derivatives that are associated with antioxidant properties [15]. In addition, cowpea has a high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (40.1–78.3% of total fats) [16] and these are associated with several healthy benefits.
While cowpea is cultivated globally, most of the production occurs in the developing countries. Recent estimates show that West Africa accounts for over 80% of the total world production [17]. The leading cowpea producing countries in Africa include: Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso and Ethiopia with production of 3,576,361, 2,386,735, 652,454 and 374,332 tonnes, respectively. The estimated acreage, production and average yield of cowpea from the selected major producing countries of cowpea are presented in Table 1.
Rank | Country | Acreage (Ha) | Quantity (t) | Yield (hg/Ha) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Nigeria | 4,303,005 | 3,576,361 | 8311 |
2 | Niger | 5,725,433 | 2,386,735 | 4169 |
3 | Burkina Faso | 1,354,100 | 652,454 | 4818 |
4 | Ethiopia | 220,037 | 374,332 | 17,012 |
5 | Kenya | 298,120 | 246,870 | 8281 |
6 | Mali | 454,274 | 215,436 | 4742 |
7 | Cameroon | 244,058 | 215,016 | 8810 |
8 | Ghana | 149,102 | 202,735 | 13,597 |
9 | Senegal | 290,677 | 184,137 | 6335 |
10 | Sudan | 339,780 | 161,000 | 4738 |
11 | Tanzania | 112,657 | 127,884 | 11,352 |
12 | Myanmar | 122,637 | 108,021 | 8308 |
13 | Mozambique | 331,424 | 90,461 | 2729 |
14 | DRC | 175,418 | 76,292 | 4349 |
15 | Yemen | 26,062 | 66,190 | 25,397 |
16 | Malawi | 97,825 | 41,656 | 4258 |
17 | Madagascar | 34,122 | 31,069 | 9105 |
18 | Haiti | 42,145 | 30,741 | 7294 |
19 | Peru | 15,794 | 21,539 | 13,637 |
20 | China | 14,503 | 14,696 | 10,133 |
21 | Uganda | 33,350 | 12,697 | 3807 |
22 | USA | 5220 | 11,750 | 22,510 |
Despite the importance of cowpea, abiotic and biotic constraints are major yield limiting factors especially in the developing countries where most of the production takes place. Water availability is the most significant abiotic constraint for yield in cowpea despite the fact that the crop is inherently drought tolerant [9]. Cowpea diseases caused by various pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and parasitic plants) constitute one of the important biotic constraints to cowpea production in all regions where the crop is cultivated [18]. These diseases can infect cowpea at different stages such as during emergence, vegetative and reproductive stages causing substantial plant damage hence leading to yield loss or complete production failure [19]. While there have been some extensive reviews on shoot and pod diseases of cowpea [20], as well as soilborne diseases [21], this manuscript provides an updated synthesis of the economic importance of major soilborne fungal diseases in the world and the available options for their sustainable management. This present review covers past efforts, achievements and gaps in the management of soilborne fungal diseases of cowpea. The management approaches focused on include: resistance breeding/host resistance or pre-breeding, cultural practices, fungicides, microbial biocontrol agents (MBCAs) and use of botanicals.
Soilborne fungal diseases of cowpea are widespread globally and constitute a major constraint to production especially in the tropical and subtropic environments. Southern blight also referred to as basal stem disease or stem rot, damping-off, collar rot or seedling blight,
Charcoal rot or dry root rot caused by
Effective management of soilborne fungal diseases requires use of a number of approaches which can be grouped into four categories: (1) host resistance or use of tolerant varieties, (2) adoption of best cropping practices, (3) seed treatments and (4) protection of seedlings [38]. However, none of these approaches is effective when used alone thus necessitating the need for their combination within the framework of integrated disease management (IDM) approach if sustainability is to be achieved.
Host resistance is the most effective, economical and environmentally friendly approach for managing soilborne fungal diseases of cowpea. This approach mainly involves deployment of resistant and/or tolerant plant varieties, which support lower pathogen populations or better tolerate injury; and the integration of such varieties with other approaches within the IDM framework. In this section we provide a synthesis of available information about genetic resources for resistance, genetics of resistance, identification of markers associated with disease resistance and their potential for use in breeding programs.
Several screening studies have been conducted both under the field and greenhouse conditions to identify sources of resistance against major soilborne fungal diseases of cowpea. Majority of the studies have targeted resistance to
Oyekan reported resistance to FW in TVu109-2, 347, 984, 1000 and 1016-1 cowpea varieties under both field and greenhouse conditions [39]. Five cowpea cultivars with resistance to three FW races (1, 2 and 3) were identified in another study [40]. The cultivars were: Magnolia, Iron PI293520, Iron TVu 990, Iron TVu 1072 and Iron TVu 1611. Roberts et al. identified CB3, CB46, 7964 and 8517 as having resistance to FW [36]. Similarly, Hall et al. [2] reported varieties CB3 and 7977 as sources of resistance to FW. Moreover, CB 46 and CB 88 were reported to have resistance only against race 3 of FW while CB27 and CB50 gave resistance against both race 3 and race 4 of FW [41, 42]. Following screenhouse/greenhouse studies, four FW resistant cowpea genotypes namely: Asontem, Danila, IT89KD-88 and NE 70 were identified [43, 44]. Other genotypes that could be used as resistance donors for FW are: TVu 134, TVu 410, TVu 901-1 and MNCO1-649F-2-1 [45, 46]. Genotypes TVu 134, TVu 410 and TVu 901-1 share the same resistance gene [45, 46]. Wu et al. reported 10 highly resistant genotypes to FW. These were: Fei 8, CB46, IT93K_503_1, UCR5040, Zhijiang dwarf No. 1, Jiacaidou, Heiziyacao, Fan, Zhuyan long bean and Qiyezai [47] representing the Chinese asparagus bean, and the African cowpea.
For resistance to southern blight/basal stem disease, cowpea genotypes: CO-4, Brown Crowder, Carolina Cream, L-25, IT89-KD-374, IT86-D-715 and IT99K-1122 were identified [28, 48, 49, 50, 57]. According to Adandonon [24] Sèwé, Kpodji, Kumassi and Cameroon cowpea genotypes showed resistance to both stem rots and damping off under field conditions. The potential sources of resistance to charcoal rot include: IT04K-217-5, Komsare, Gaoua local-2, 58-57, Kaya local and SP369A profil-39B [51, 52]. Singh and Lodha found moderate resistance to charcoal rot in 26/4/1, V 16, K 39, 25/8/2 and CO3 genotypes [53]. In field experiments conducted over 3 years, IT98K-499-39, Suvita 2, IT93K-503-1 and Mouride were found to be highly resistant to charcoal rot [54]. Cowpea cultivar Caloona was reported to be resistant to
Most studies on inheritance of resistance to soilborne fungal pathogens of cowpea have relied on Mendelian genetics. These studies have mainly focused on FW resistance with few studies on charcoal rot and southern blight. Inheritance studies focusing on other pathogens such as
Efforts to identify resistant loci and development or deployment of molecular markers in breeding for resistance to soil-borne fungal diseases in cowpea have been restricted mainly to FW and charcoal rot. Little or no progress has been made on markers used or developed for other pathogens. For instance, a single SSR marker (C13-16) that can discriminate between resistant and susceptible genotypes for FW resistance was identified [45]. This marker can easily be used in low resourced laboratories in several developing countries [45]. Two independent loci (QTLs),
Agronomic practices that can delay or discourage the survival and development of pathogens can play a role in the management of soilborne fungal diseases. This is because many of the pathogens are relatively weak requiring a favourable environment for infection to occur [38]. Several agronomic practices that modify the growing environment such as seedbed preparation, soil pH management, planting dates, seed rate, plant density, soil fertility and moisture management, cropping systems (crop sequence and intercropping, cover crops), and soil solarisation have been reported as efficient in the control of soilborne pathogens [38]. However, few studies have been carried out on management of cowpea soilborne fungal diseases.
For instance, rotation of cowpea with a gramineous/cereal crop such as fonio (
Combined use of solarization and organic soil amendments is highly effective in controlling soilborne fungal pathogens [32, 61, 62]. For instance, there was a 78 or 96% reduction in charcoal rot disease severity, when millet residues or paunch amendments were applied in combination with solarization, respectively. Soaking of seed in an antioxidant, spermine (SP) at 10 mg L−1 before planting followed by foliar application of potassium (K) as potassium chloride (KCl) at 2% and zinc (Zn) as zinc sulphate ZnSO4 at 0.01% gave the highest germination percentage and lowest incidence of damping-off disease at 96.34 and 3.66%, respectively [63]. The same treatments (SP + K + Zn) also significantly reduced the incidence of charcoal rot by up to 83.30% [63].
The pathogens causing soil-borne diseases such as
Showing manifold performance of microbial biocontrol agents (MBCAs).
The beneficial microbes that have been frequently used for the control of soil-borne diseases of cowpea include:
Application of
In recent times, bio-priming as a seed treatment that integrates the biological aspects of disease management has been used as an alternative method for mitigating many seed and soil-borne pathogens, and it has emerged as another alternative to chemical fungicides. Also, seed coating with MBCAs is the most efficient treatment for mitigating root rot diseases as shown by many researchers [78, 79]. In this regard, bio-coated cowpea seeds with
One of the requirements for execution of MBCAs are the development of suitable formulation and delivery systems [82]. Fabrication procedures for these agents are dependent on enough and efficient biomass formation, which must be carried out carefully in order to retain viability at the end of processing and deployment. Seed treatment with different formulations of
More recently, biofilms based on MBCAs have been used for the control of many soilborne diseases. In particular, these biofilms are microbial communities adhering to the biotic and abiotic surface, and they are fixed in the organic matrix of biological origin that provides structure and stability to the microbial community. Due to multi-layers of microbial cells, these biofilms play a major role in plant-microbe interaction. For example, seed treatment with
In addition to
In addition, research has demonstrated that besides diseases control, MBCAs also increased nitrogen fixation ability. For instance,
The fungicidal properties of aromatic and medicinal plants have been recognized since prehistoric times. Worldwide, plant based natural chemicals and their application for plant protection is one of the focus areas of research. Earlier, plant extracts of many medicinal plants such as neem (
In another study by Dawar et al. [102], charcoal and root rot of cowpea was controlled by seed coating with
In addition to control of root rot diseases, plant extracts are reported to increase seed germination through decreasing disease incidences [108]. For example, soil application of 1–3% dry leaf biomass of
Besides plant extracts, essential oils extracted from higher plants has also been found effective against some soilborne pathogens. For example, essential oils from wild oregano and black cumin applied at the concentration of 0.16 μl/cm3 of air have been found effective against
Most of the pathogens causing root rot diseases in cowpea are soilborne. Therefore, seed treatment prior to sowing is important followed by soil drenching. In integrated disease management, fungicides are an important component for disease management. The majority of systemic fungicides need to be applied before the occurrence of disease or at the appearance of the first symptoms to be effective. Fungicides have ‘curative’ properties, that is, they are active against those pathogens that have already infected the plant, tend to have a higher risk of pathogens developing resistance to the fungicide. In Benin, the only registered fungicide used on cowpea is Super-Homai 70% PM (active ingredient: methylthiophanate 35%, thiram 20% and diazinon 15%) (SPV, Benin). Unfortunately, there has been a problem regarding the efficacy of this product against pathogens [79].
Control of fungal soilborne diseases of cowpea is achieved by several fungicides. Combined application of carbendazim and mancozeb at the rate of 2 g/L as soil drenching, controlled 14.28% collar rot disease, while 57.4% disease incidence was reported in control plots [86]. Seed soaking with potassium sorbate (9%) or sodium benzoate (20 mM) followed by their foliar spray efficiently reduced root rot incidence caused by
Furthermore, there has been investigations on the sensitivity of isolated
Improved plant nutrition through well-balanced fertilization particularly for micronutrients is critical in management of soilborne diseases [38]. A study by [124] reported that amending soil with manganese at a rate of 10 μg/g of soil as MnSO4.H2O reduced the severity of root rots caused by
Over 95% of the global cowpea production [17] occurs in the least developed countries by resource constrained smallholder farmers with limited knowledge on integrated pest and disease management options. Several cowpea genotypes with resistance or tolerance to several soilborne diseases were identified in many studies conducted in a few locations. This has hindered their widespread use because of adaptability/suitability to a restricted range of geographical conditions. Therefore, variety screening/evaluation should be conducted in diverse geographies across years when developing cowpea lines with disease resistance. Breeding for durable resistance to most soilborne fungal pathogens is still a challenge in many breeding programs due to pathogen diversity and monogenic nature of host resistance [23, 25, 26, 45]. Correct identification of causal pathogens/agents associated with soilborne diseases using rapid and reliable diagnostic assays is therefore needed.
Marker assisted selection (MAS) offers a great opportunity to improve efficiency in selecting progenies with desirable traits. This is because through MAS, selection for resistance can be carried out even in the absence of disease and at early stages of plant development [126]. Use of markers in breeding for resistance to soilborne fungal pathogens in cowpea is however lacking although a few markers were identified.
In many cowpea producing countries, many MBCAs have been experimentally tested and several are commercially available. However, their use or application is still on a very small scale. This is partly because of lack of sensitization of farmers who assume that a crop cannot be grown successfully without application of synthetic fungicides [127]. Creativity and appropriate guidance through proper extension advice is therefore needed to cause mind-set change among farmers who are still inclined to using synthetic pesticides. Many botanicals and bio-based products were evaluated in controlled environments in many studies but their effectiveness under field conditions is not yet fully known. Also, the application rates of some botanicals are unusually high [70] thus additional studies on refining their efficacy are needed.
Globally, resistance to synthetic fungicides is increasingly becoming a big problem. This problem is likely to worsen in many African countries where over 95% of the cowpea cultivation takes place due to laxity in application of fungicide regulations coupled with poor extension services to educate farmers. For instance, there is limited or lack of national, regional or international policies to guide enforcement of sustainable solutions/practices [127]. Unknowingly, majority of farmers think that registered pesticides are safe for the environment and for man, so there is no incentive for them to change. Also, farmers rarely rotate fungicides with different modes of action due to limited knowledge and extension on IDM [128].
Environmental factors such as soil moisture and temperature that greatly contribute to disease development in the field were reported to have an effect on the level of disease development [38]. For instance, initial inoculum load and soil moisture were the main factors responsible for incidence of damping-off and stem rots in cowpea [26]. A good understanding of all key predisposing factors that trigger development of soil-borne diseases is therefore needed.
Soilborne fungal diseases poses a major challenge to production of cowpea globally thus necessitating the need for sustainable management approaches that enhance production while also preserving the environment. Stem rot, damping-off, collar rot,
Use of cultural or agronomic practices such as rotation of cowpea with cereal crops (fonio and millet), application of compost and synthetic fertilizers (NPK) was shown to reduce infestation by charcoal rot. However, there is a knowledge gap regarding how much of these practices have been adopted by farmers to manage soilborne fungal diseases in cowpea.
Several studies reported the efficacy of synthetic fungicides against soilborne pathogens of cowpea however, most of these fungicides are pathogen-specific and their regular use may cause fungicide resistance. Therefore, more systemic fungicides should be screened. Furthermore, to reduce the fungicide resistance problems, their mixed application in seed treatment or fungicide rotation strategies should be recommended. However, continuous use of fungicides has a harmful impact on beneficial soil microbial communities, leading to poor soil fertility with reduced productivity.
Concerning the use of MBCAs, several beneficial microbes (
We are grateful to the financial support provided by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) for the publication of this chapter under the project titled ‘Enhancing institutional breeding capacity in Ghana, Senegal and Uganda to develop climate resilient crops for African smallholder farmers (EBCA)’. The technical support provided by Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and the Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP) is duly acknowledged.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
According to the definition by Björneborn and Ingwersen [1, 2], webometrics represents a joint (synergy) activity, i.e., application of other two approaches in one element known as bibliometrics and informetrics, for researching of the web, its information resources, structure, and technologies.
The name “webometrics” was defined in 1997, and it was created and established by Tomas Almind and Peter Ingwersen with an intention to show that informetric analysis can be applied to the web as an important source for measuring values (weight/sense) of documents and information [3]. They suggested several specific informetric parameters such as hyperlinks per website and sensitivity of links on websites distributed via types of documents and names of domains. Björneborn and Ingwersen [1] defined webometrics as “The study of the quantitative aspects of the construction and use of information resources, structures and technologies on the Web, drawing on bibliometrics and informetrics approach.” One developed a detailed topology of links, a diagram of nodes on the web, and additional terminology [4]. The area of activity and what webometrics includes may, in a wider sense, be characterized as (a) website content analysis, (b) web technology analysis, (c) web usage analysis, and web link structure analysis. Researches in this field imply creation of new discoveries based on analyses of numbers and types of hyperlinks, structure of the World Wide Web, and patterns of usage of the web as a mass communication medium and exchange of information.
Another definition of webometrics was given by
After these events, Ingwersen represented Web Impact Factor (WIF) [6] in 1998, which represented a key metrics to measure and analyze hyperlinks of websites.
Basically, WIF measure may be defined as a number of sites of a certain web host (website) or portals referred to by links from other websites or web hosts, divided with the number of shared/published websites on that web host which are available to the web/web robots.
Namely, it was logical to assume that areas of great interest would attract more sequential links than average. The greatest advantage of WIF, in which logic was inherited from significance of quoting within an impact factor of a journal, was that it was easy to calculate with the application of advanced inquiries of a browser represented by AltaVista, a leading commercial search engine of that time.
However, usage of WIF measure was neglected after comprehensive analyses and obtained results, due to mathematical artifacts obtained from mathematical law, i.e., due to
Subsequently, analyses of links were more directed toward analyses of influence of links and analyses of net connectedness of links, taking into consideration quantity of links as a reflection of productivity of researching within academic and scientific space.
Webometrics gradually evolved and became a great coherent field within the Information Science, at least from bibliometric perspective [7, 8], including analyses of links, web quotations, and a range of other web-based quantitative techniques.
Hyperlinks on websites are structured similarly like quotations in academic (scientific) journals since they guide from a source document to the final document. Similarity of links and quotations, together with the fact that universities were among the first ones which massively started applying advantages of the web, resulted in the appearance of numerous important naturally imposed research objectives. Such sequence of events imposed the question whether it was possible to use hyperlinks in a similar way as academic quotations or quotes in journals and articles, the question of validity of usage of a number of links and data obtained by AltaVista browser in the research and the best way to count links [9]. Simultaneously with these analyses of links, other researchers from the field of Information Science researched reliability and coverage of an area of browsing by browsers and change in contents of the web itself or individual collections of websites [10]. These three types of researches related to measuring the web are all together called webometrics.
Among other things, webometrics has become a useful methodology in many other fields, such as creation of ranking of universities in the world based on webometrics [11, 12], for scientometric evaluations or researches in some scientific fields [13].
Webometrics methodology includes analyses of links, analyses of web quotations, evaluations of results of browsing via web browsers, as well as some basic descriptive studies and analyses of the web [15].
The web is of great importance as a communication medium, i.e., a platform for placing and archiving a wide spectrum of documents. A significant number of repositories of various kinds of documents are related to the academic society, and therefore application of this methodology in general ranking of a current situation in the academic field is more significant. Because of this huge and easily accessible source of information, unlimited possibilities for measuring or counting contents of the web turned up in a wide range (e.g., a number of web hosts or a number of websites) or in a narrower range (e.g., a number of web locations in a state, a number of web pages on a website of a university).
Although the terms “Internet” and “web” are usually treated as synonyms, they are not the same. Namely, the “Internet” represents a global network of computers which can share information, while the term “web” specifically refers to a group of interrelated documents available for review and downloading using HTTP [14].
For an analysis of the system of ranking of universities, Webometrics Ranking, the most important parts of webometrics methodology would be link analysis and web browser analysis, i.e., a survey of ways in which relevant information that are used in the ranking process of universities according to the Webometrics ranking methodology may be obtained.
Link analysis is a quantitative study of hyperlinks among websites [15]. Similar to a mechanism of counting of quoted works in journals and articles, the importance of websites can be evaluated with links and their analysis. As previously mentioned, the importance or influence of a website on the Internet is defined as Web Impact Factor [5], which, obviously, is similar to the concept of an impact factor of a journal (
The idea behind the link analysis is that one can practically assume that a number of links pointing to (guiding toward another location) the academic space of a web content can be proportional to productivity of a research of an organization at the level of a university [9], departments [16], research groups [17], or individual researches [18].
Calculation of WIF [19] can be obtained as a logic amount of a number of links, i.e., external or incoming links (
Web tools such as search engines, web crawlers, and webometrics software which are used for collecting data from the web are called
The area of research in the field of webometrics can, in a wider sense, be divided into the following segments:
Analysis of contents of websites
Analysis of web technologies
Analysis of application of web contents
Analysis of structure of web links
To analyze data for the needs of webometrics, it is very important to know the source of information for each of the mentioned categories of webometrics. The main role of web browsers is to grasp relevant information on the basis of specific inquiries from various (heterogenous) sources of information.
Basically, there are two categories of sources of information which can be used in the research of webometrics:
Commercial web search engines
Personal web crawlers
Web search engines are computer programs which, on the basis of special algorithms, find appropriate information on the web, index them, and place them into databases appropriated for those purposes.
From the point of view of the webometrics research, web search engines can fundamentally be divided into two categories:
Web search engines which support searches related to the field of webometrics
Web search engines of a general type which do not have any additional capacity to direct searches toward terms related to the field of webometrics
Web search engines, such as Google, Yahoo, and Bing, enable users to access a vast quantity of information related to contents and structure of links on the web free of charge. Web browsers collect information in a similar manner as web crawlers which are used by users to collect linked data. Basically, web browsers contain three different parts, crawler, indexer, and interface, in which one enters inquiries with terms to be browsed [10]. Led by this fact, authors Aquillo et al. [11] applied advanced options of web browsers to collect data from the web for the needs of ranking of universities.
Web crawlers are programs with the main objective to collect data from precisely defined web locations. They function in the following way: they start collecting data from a certain web location, and then they apply links contained by that web location so that a web crawler could move automatically and independently to a next processed web location, from one site to another until there are several links to be monitored and analyzed.
Regardless of the existence of some additional tools for analysis of links such as
Generally speaking, one can say that web crawlers are an essentially better tool than web browsers if one talks about researches about the webometrics.
The most popular web search engines, which are very popular besides their application in the webometrics, are Google, Yahoo, and Bing. Each of the web search engines uses its own algorithms for browsing and different techniques for indexing and browsing of the web. Actually, it means that if a user wants to enter an inquiry into a search engine in a form of, for example, “webometrics methodology,” there is a huge probability that he/she would obtain different results from different search engines for the same browsed term. These algorithms applied by the web search engines are business secrets of corporations standing behind their implementation. Besides the abovementioned search engines, there are other search engines, but these three are the most popular due to the quality of obtained results and speed of browsing. In application of some of web engines, there are some keywords for browsing that may be entered so that obtained results could be filtered and oriented toward a searched term. For example, if one enters the term “site:untz.ba” in Google search engine, the inquiry will provide us all data related to that domain, its auxiliary subdomains, and all sites indexed by the browser.
Furthermore, if one enters a string in the form of “site:untz.ba <space> filetype:pdf,” the browser would provide us all sites and subdomains containing documents of
Web search engines of the Internet are very important in researching of the field of webometrics because their databases are a source of information that cover a great part of data of the web. Although commercial search engines are very important for surfing the Internet and data collection, they have some significant limitations, among which the following stand out:
Web search engines do not index the whole web space [24, 10, 19].
Systems for ranking of results of browsing eliminate similar or identical sites in results of browsing with an objective to eliminate useless information [25, 26].
Algorithms that search engines use for surfing the web and generation of reports are corporative business secrets, and, therefore, an exact criterium for collection, sorting, and ranking information by importance is not known [19].
A total result obtained in a search by a web search engine is assessed by time necessary for a search rather than by thoroughness and going into details into accurateness of data since they apply an algorithm which performs prioritization [4].
Results may be conditioned by a national or a language area [27].
Results may fluctuate and change from time to time.
Regardless of their limitations, commercial web search engines are one of the unique and best sources of information which are currently available but only for certain types of webometrics researches. At the same time, they are not properly designed for the purpose necessary for the academic community, and results usually are not thorough enough, which would be a great need of this field [28].
If an interface of a web browser is directly used for browsing, data collection may be a very demanding process in regard to time. This problem may be overcome with an application of a special software based on application program interface developed by companies which create web search engines and other services on the web.
Another important source of data is personal
Webometrics functions on a principle of an analysis of academic and nonacademic articles. Academic documents include publications such as e-journals, e-books, patents, technical reports, etc. Nonacademic documents include websites—commercial ones, sites of social networks, etc.—published by individuals, blogs, and portals where there is not any (i.e., which process of publishing of contents does not comply with)
In the first decade of the twenty-first century, most of the web search engines supported the webometrics research filed with application of special keywords for search engines such as “site:domain,” “linkdomain,” “linkfromdomain,” etc. Starting from 2012 there has been a great change which has reflected the field of usage of sources of data for webometrics researches as a
In 2005
Webconfs.com [36] represents one of the additional tools which may be used as a source of data for webometrics researches.
Ahrefs.com [40] is a famous set of tools (Site Explorer [41], Content Explorer [42], Keywords Explorer [43], Rank Tracker [44], Site Audit [45]) for analyzing backlinks to the websites, and it is a very important tool for SEO analyses.
These days, the Internet has become the main source of scientific information, both for the academic community and for the society. The whole society has been turning to the Internet as a primary medium for presentation of information to the public. On that ground, the fact that web publications are a primary tool for communication within the educational system and that they reflect the complete picture of quality and performances of universities has become very important [51]. Bearing in mind the development of digital world, the influence of electronic publications is significantly greater than the influence of written media or printed versions of journals and books today. Websites are the cheapest and the most efficient way to stimulate all of the three academic missions: to educate, to research, and to transfer knowledge [51]. This fact is one of the main reasons why web data have been extensively used for evaluation, inter alia, of universities and research institutions in the last couple of years.
Ranking is a process in which one defines positions of elements in a group in regard to a total system so that for any two elements in a sequence, the first one is ranked “as higher than,” “as lower than,” or “as equal to” the second item of a sequence [46].
Ranking process appears in many fields whether they are academic or of other type. In a case of academic space, ranking may be applied in different parts of academic space, starting from ranking of professors and ranking of researchers and research centers to ranking of universities. Ranking of universities is an especially interesting field of application of ranking.
Currently, one implements a process of comparing and evaluating universities in the domain of academic and research performances with the existing system of ranking of universities. Most of the academic institutions rely on data obtained from the ranking system of universities which serve them as indicators of a progress of an institution over time in regard to other academic institutions [47]. Besides this, information from these ranking lists often serve as a basis for applying for and obtaining financial assets from founders or other institutions on the basis of a position on these lists [48]. On the other hand, potential beneficiaries of services of a university use these lists to evaluate academic institutions to decide which one to attend and to evaluate which one provides better options for education and further employment.
The study [47] identified 24 ranking systems. Thirteen ranking systems were analyzed into details since their lists were active during the last couple of years, i.e., from 2015 to 2016. Other ranking systems were excluded from further analysis because they did not publish information and did not include indicators of their performances or published their ranking methodologies. The study evaluated between 500 and 5000 institutions. The oldest ranking system,
In the analysis from the study [47], 4 systems for ranking out of 13 for evaluation claimed that they used their results to evaluate quality or performances of researches. Nine of thirteen systems use a total number of publications as an indicator for evaluation of quality or performances of researches—this is usually defined as a number of
Ranking systems that strongly rely on metrics related to publications and quotations are
Several research teams have been working on the development of web indicators since the mid-1990s. Realizing possibilities of this kind of ranking, the European Commission started several projects for this purpose: EICSTES (www.eicstes.org—currently inactive), WISER (www.wiserweb.org—currently inactive), and www.webindicators.org (currently inactive).
After noting capabilities and importance of web search engines as the main agent to access information being processed and being processed by the web [53], one created new indicators [54, 11] which should have been milestones to solve problems arising from instability of results of browsing via web search engines [55] and artifacts arising from calculation of Web Impact Factors [6] [51].
The first catalogs of universities were created with projects EICSTES and WEISER, and the first preliminary list of these universities based on web indicators was published in 2004. This application of cybermetrics or webometrics techniques did not significantly differ from similar scientometric proposals where bibliometric data were the basis of information used in analyses [56, 51].
Most of the bibliometric indicators, such as a number of publications or quotations, are easily available. However, the problem with such access is that in this way only a limited number of information about activities, researchers, and observed institutions are available since only formal publications are taken into consideration. Actually, scientometric tasks should contain more elements, and more variables should be added [51].
However, including additional elements in an analysis, particularly when they are not easily available, may complicate the analysis and sometimes may be inapplicable when it comes to a global work plan. Among other things, there is an attitude that publications are not the only indicator of evaluation of professors. There are, inter alia, materials for lectures, raw data, slides from lectures, software, and bibliographic or linked lists (bookmarks), which are also deemed as relevant information about a professor’s dedication to students [51].
Besides these data, a structure and a content of all kinds of administrative information provided by an institution also have their value. All these elements speak for themselves when published publicly in the virtual world, the web world, and are very good indicators of an academic level of an educational institution. The fact that if someone is not on the web she/he does not exist supports the previous statement. Web space provides a comprehensive way to describe a wide range of activities of an institution where scientific publications represent only one of components which may be found on websites.
Today, highly ranked researchers, institutions, and universities publish millions of pages with various materials composed of hundreds of departments and services, hundreds of research teams, and thousands of students on their websites.
Until now one has talked about webometrics methodology and systems for ranking of universities generally. However, the topic of this chapter is oriented toward a specific system of ranking of universities which applies webometrics methodology for the world’s ranking of universities. This chapter will elaborate on Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, which was developed by and is under the competence of Cybermetrics Lab (Spanish National Research Council, CSIC) [50], who developed indicators called web ranking (WR) for the ranking process and who initially considered the following elements in the ranking process [51]: a number of published websites (S); a number of files contained, including PDF, ps, doc, and PPT form of documents (R); a number of articles collected via Google Scholar (GS) database system (Sc); and a total number of external links (V).
Webometrics Ranking of World Universities is the largest list for academic ranking of higher education institutions. From 2004, Cybermetrics Lab has implemented an independent, objective, free, open scientific exercise for provision of reliable, multidimensional, updated, and useful information about performances of universities from all over the world on the basis of their presence and impact on the web every 6 months.
These efforts are a continuation of scientometric research Cybermetrics Lab which started in 1994 and which was presented on a conference of the International Society for Scientometrics and Informetrics (ISSI, 1995–2011) and International Conferences on Scientific and Technology Indicators (STI-ENID, 1996–2012) and published in journals with a great impact effect (
After publishing of ranking of the University of Jiao Tong in Shanghai, Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) [52] in 2003, team Cybermetrics Lab decided to approve the main innovations proposed by Liu and his team. It was suggested that ranking should be done on a basis of publicly available web data, combining variables in a composite directory and with a real global coverage. The first edition was published in 2004, and it has been issued two times a year since 2006. After 2008 the portal has included webometrics ranking for research centers, hospitals, repositories, and business schools.
Probably one of the most important contributions of
Ingwersen’s proposal from 1998 [6] for a similarly designed
Following the
Values should be normalized before any combination of variables, but the practice of application of percentage is mainly inaccurate due to
Webometrics
Collection of a great quantity of data from the Internet, where one has to go through thousands of sites, may be done only automatically. One of the possibilities is to use commercial or free-of-charge crawlers, but adjustment of such systems for adjusted needs may be a complicated and difficult task, and it requires a significant participation of human and computer resources [57]. On the other hand, web search engines already have well-designed and tested systems for this need, and they do regular updates of their databases and have many tools which enable automatization of work so that machines may be easily adjusted to extract required data. Furthermore, web search engines are the main agents in navigation process on the web, and therefore the presence of a web domain in their databases represents an indicator of visibility on the Internet. Commercial web search engines also have limitations, which often include inconsistent and rounded-off results of browsing, favoritism in geographic and language coverage of results of browsing, or frequent and nontransparent changes in their work procedures. Due to the mentioned problems, one uses several web search engines together in practice, when collecting data. The most popular search engines such as Google (and Google Scholar), Yahoo Search, Bing, Exalead, and Alexa [11] are used for these purposes.
Webometrics ranking system [58] performs an evaluation and ranking of universities of the world two times a year (January/February and June/July) by its own developed methodology. Webometrics ranking methodology includes several phases and applies several systems so that data necessary for ranking and analyses may be updated and collected in time.
According to [51], there are three key aspects that need to be measured in the academic web space:
Size, i.e., quantity of published information
Visibility, number of certain cases of appearance on other web hosts which refer to the analyzed web host (quotations of websites-hosts = number of external incoming links) obtained by a domain
Popularity, which represents a number of visits to a website
Bibliometrics has traditionally ignored frequency of appearance of a journal on various locations or sources of data and has focused on an impact of a journal, i.e., relation between a number of quotations and a number of published articles in the journal. A similar approach was proposed in the case of Webometrics ranking.
Webometrics ranking performs monitoring of a certain group of parameters (criteria) (Table 1), but only size and visibility of a web host are included in the final data which are used for ranking. A model for ranking defines that a relation between these two parameters (size and visibility) is taken in the ratio 1:1. In order to take diversity of academic activities and services into consideration, component “size” is divided into three parts so that one could measure raw data about a quantity of websites, a number of rich files, and a number of articles and publications collected by Google Scholar system.
Criteria | Indicator | Sources | Weight |
---|---|---|---|
Size | Number of pages ( | Google, Yahoo, Live, Exalead | 25% |
Number of rich files (PDF, PPT, DOC, and PS) ( | 12.5% | ||
Number of papers ( | Google Scholar | 12.5% | |
Visibility | Number of external links ( | Yahoo, Exalead, Live | 50% |
Luminosity | Number of external outlinks | ||
Subdomains | Number of subdomains | ||
Popularity | Number of visits |
Criteria and weights used in the calculation of the WR indicator [51].
According to the work [51], criteria and weights used for calculation of WR indicators in those times were obtained from several sources only, which mainly were web search engines. Some of those search engines are not used to obtain data any more, but there are some new search engines together with some of the old ones which improved their algorithms for indexing and browsing of results from the web.
Pursuant to the proposed model, ranking (web ranking) is calculated with the following equation (Eq. (1)):
The ratio which combines weights ascribed to each of the elements is (2 + 1 + 1):4 or 1:1, which was the initial intention. In order to avoid problems related to size, search engine bias, and other factors, results collected in this way, which initially were expressed as absolute values of numbers, are log-normalized and transformed into ordinal numbers and then combined with the previously mentioned equation for WR [59].
Over the years of application of the system, Cybermetrics Lab has made adjustments of indicators of calculation according to the analyses of data available during the years preceding the analyses. The data shown in tables on www.webometrics.info are basically ranks (smaller number, better ranking) which purpose is to show individual performances, but one has to bear in mind that those values are not applied in ranking calculations [60].
Due to technical problems in the previous versions of the ranking system, Cybermetrics Lab changed some of the ranking weights (presence and excellence from Table 2) in the last version of the ranking system so that the current methodology is shown in Table 2 (January edition, 2019.1.0.).
Indicators | Description | Source | Weight |
---|---|---|---|
Presence | Size (number of web pages) of the main web domain of the institution. It includes all the subdomains sharing the same (central or main) web domain and all the file types including rich files like PDF documents | 5% | |
Visibility (or impact) | Number of external networks (subnets) originating backlinks to the institution’s webpages After normalization, the average value between the two sources is selected | 50% | |
Transparency (or openness) | Number of citations from top authors according to the source | 10% | |
Excellence (or scholar) | Number of papers among the top 10% most cited in 26 disciplines Data for the 5-year period (2012–2016) | 35% |
Webometrics university ranking methodology (January edition, 2019.1.0.) [60].
Results of ranking of universities [58] have been published two times a year since 2004 (data are collected during the first week of January and July to be prepared and published in the end of both of the months) covering more than 28,000 institutions of higher education all over the world with their analyses.
The data are collected between January 1 and January 20, depending on a current edition of a ranking publication. Data are taken (sampled) for each of the variables at least two times during the certain period, and the greatest value is taken as the final value to be analyzed in order to avoid possible errors in data collection. Inconsistency of web search engines is very huge so that the obtained results may be diversified, and there is a small possibility for their replication if browsing is done several days later. Google is very geographically biased; that is why data are collected with google.com mirror related to the domain, and English is used for the interface and Madrid (Spain) as the location.
A final publishing of ranking data is performed at the end of January or July, usually not before the 28th day of the month. It is very important to mention that Cybermetrics Lab follows its general rule not to discuss any presented result or provide unprocessed data with which a specific ranking was performed [58].
Like other ranking systems, Webometrics ranking system has a range of advantages and disadvantages. Differently from other systems of ranking of scientists and universities, one can say that webometrics is a “global” ranking system. Why global? Most of the ranking systems include only several hundreds or thousands of the best universities, such as Shanghai list, while Webometrics includes most of the universities of the world, i.e., currently 28,000 scientific institutions from all over the world [60]. This list also enables ranking of scientific institutions, institutes, and individual members of a university, which can entice competitive spirit among individual members of a university. Why is this important? An extremely small number of universities of the world satisfy the Shanghai list criterium. However, this does not mean that there are no other universities of good quality besides those which are ranked as well as scientists working at those universities all over the world. It is easy to conclude that the universities from the Shanghai list and similar lists mainly originate from countries from well-developed economics and well-ordered educational systems, developed democracies, and high degrees of autonomies of their universities. Higher education systems of developed economies follow up the needs of the labor market and technology progress, and the quality of educational institutions is institutionally maintained due to strict accreditation criteria prescribed by authorized organs and ministries in every state. In developing countries and in poorly developed economies, there are great problems regarding an objective assessment and ranking of quality of institutions of higher education due to:
Involvement of politics into institutions of higher education [61, 62]
Devaluation of diplomas and criteria through institutions which do not fulfill requirements and criteria prescribed by law [61, 62]
An extremely low percentage of scientific production of relevant publications indexed in the leading databases
In such circumstances, Webometrics ranking system actually represents a system of neutral international evaluation of quality of scientific institutions and scientists at all institutions not included into the Shanghai list. It is important to underline that there are not any significant deviations in the placing of the first 100 ranked universities on the Shanghai list and on the Webometrics list. Namely, the Webometrics list, through the four of its criteria (Table 2) [60], evaluates situations at the universities all over the world and positions them on its lists assessing every of the four criteria individually. This ranking procedure cannot be affected by any university, ministry, or state trying to improve its institution’s ranking position. In most of the low-developed or non-developed countries, there is not any adequate system to control and follow up the success of reforms or define weaknesses and evaluate destructiveness of the involvement of policy into activities of institutions of higher education. This is one of the great advantages of Webometrics because it actually represents a very simple international tool for quality control of higher education institutions and enables competition among higher education institutions all over the world. In such process, it is clearly visible through the ranking system which of the four ranking parameters (presence, visibility, transparency, excellence) an institution progresses or stagnates. This enables development of a strategy for improvement of quality of scientific institutions, particularly in the weakest segments being evaluated. An extremely good point of Webometrics is that it performs ranking of institutions within states, within regions, or within the whole world [63]. In total, a university can be better positioned in some country, but it does not simultaneously mean that it is better than others by all of the four ranking parameters.
According to the last Webometrics list for Bosnia and Herzegovina [64] (January 2019, Edition 2019.1.2.), the University of Banja Luka is positioned second in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but in “presence rank” category, the International University of Sarajevo (which, in total, takes only the fourth position in Bosnia and Herzegovina) is ranked better than the University of Banja Luka (Figure 1).
The Webometrics list for Bosnia and Herzegovina with all parameters (January 2019, Edition 2019.1.2.) [
How important having an international ranking list as a corrective showing and assessing situation at higher education institutions in developing countries may be analyzed on the example of universities of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina is composed of two entities (the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Srpska), and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is administratively divided into ten cantons. At the level of the state, there is the Framework Law on Higher Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, while at the level of entities and cantons, there are educational policies being implemented according to the laws of entities and cantons. There are 8 public and 35 private universities and faculties in Bosnia and Herzegovina which are ranked by the Webometrics list from January 2019 (January 2019, Edition 2019.1.2.)[64], which is an extremely great number for the country with about 3.5 million of inhabitants. Work permits and work control of these higher education institutions, without clear international criteria, are issued and implemented by cantonal ministries of education with laws differing from canton to canton. Cantonal laws often are not in compliance with the Framework Law on Higher Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina (“Official Gazette of Bosnia and Herzegovina” no. 59/07 and 59/09, hereinafter: the Framework Law), and very often they are subjects of dispute before the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (rating of constitutionality: U-19/16, U-22/18) [65, 66]. Cantonal laws are often changed for the purpose of involvement of politics into the universities in order to weaken and cancel their autonomy which is guaranteed by the Framework Law on Higher Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In such conditions, the only measure and objective evaluation is the Webometrics list. Namely, the University of Tuzla has been progressing on the Webometrics list over the years (after implementation of a set of measures by a quality team), and in June 2016, it took the 3186th position on the list, which was the best position of this university in the history (Figure 2). Immediately after this event, the Law on Higher Education in Tuzla Canton was changed, and in a day the management of the university was replaced, the Senate was dissolved, and receivership with temporary organs under political patronage was imposed. Although it is difficult to find such case in developed economies, or anywhere in the world, the key issue is how to measure the effect of such measure.
Position of the University of Tuzla in the world and in Bosnia and Herzegovina according to the Webometrics list for the period from January 2016 to January 2019.
In circumstances where there is not any adequate reaction of state institutions (Agency for Higher Education, parliamentary committees for education, state Ministry for Civil Affairs) to such situation because everything is politically controlled and the Constitutional Court is declared authorized for interpretation of compliance of the Cantonal Law on Higher Education with the Framework Law on Higher Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina (U-19/16) [65], an independent international factor unaffected by politics, i.e., Webometrics, is necessary. Although such measure was allegedly implemented to improve quality and position of the University of Tuzla, the Webometrics list soon showed all the effects of this measure. The position of the University of Tuzla on the Webometrics list was becoming weaker and weaker over the years, and in January 2019, it ended on the 3795th [64] place (Figure 2) and experienced the fall for 609 positions or 19.11%. The university which in July 2016 (Figure 2) took the second position in Bosnia and Herzegovina by quality took the 5th place. One more advantage of Webometrics is ranking of four segments, which provides an insight into segments where the university became weaker and into those where it became stronger. The mentioned indicators show fall of quality in almost all of the ranked segments, and it imposes the conclusion that cancelation of autonomy, involvement of politics into the university, and compulsory administration cause weakening of the quality of the university. Similar processes and measures were implemented at the University of Bihać, which resulted in its taking 11,546th position according to the list from January 2019 [64], and it would be very hard to improve its position significantly. This resulted in a significant decrease of the number of enrolled students, in the decrease of competitiveness, and in the struggle for huge international projects and low percentage of scientific production in the leading index bases of the world. An obvious decline of publishing and quoting of works is confirmed by the criterium of excellence by which the University of Tuzla takes the 4th place in Bosnia and Herzegovina [64], with a condition that the mentioned parameters probably are not correct which is a consequence of Google Scholar and webometrics itself. Although it measures the researching productivity on the basis of the presence on the web, the mentioned ranking system depends on categories related to publishing and quoting of scientific works (of excellence (SCImago) and transparency (Google Scholar))[60]. These two parameters bring 45% out of the total score in ranking of a university. Over the years there has been a notable tendency of increase of the weight of these two parameters in Webometrics ranking system. Here we see first the disadvantages of Webometrics ranking system. Webometrics uses GS for transparency criterium, which enables creation of a profile of a scientist with verification of an address from a scientific institution.
Google Scholar is a system in which the academic community has been very interested [67], and it has been used by a great number of universities and research institutions both for ranking of institutions and ranking of academic personnel [68, 69, 70, 71, 72]. The system is very good; it is automatized in the way that a computer program performs the main role in the whole process, from data collection to data processing. Like any other system, this one is not perfect, and it has some critical omissions which are mostly related to ascribing a quotation from a scientific paper to some authors to whom it does not belong.
GS system has several possibilities to ascribe articles to their authors. The first possibility is automatic. Computer system collects information about published scientific publications on the web, with all auxiliary elements of the paper which besides the title of the work include names of the authors, keywords, and a brief description of the paper. According to these data, GS system browses its basis of user profiles and proposes to a potential author found in its database of publications, which contains a name of a potential author, to ascribe the found article to his/her profile. On the basis of available data, GS system “assumes” that the user is the author of the publication found, which does not have to be true. This often causes situations where papers and quotes on certain profiles are not true. Of course, an author has to have his/her profile on GS system.
Another possibility is manual addition of a publication with all of its auxiliary meta-information. By this approach, GS system enables a user who has a profile on the system to enter data about his/her paper manually: a title of the paper, a list of all authors, a name of a publisher, a title of a journal or a conference, a year of publication, etc. There is not any mechanism to check authenticity of an author, i.e., if a person is the author or a co-author of the paper. The only good point of this approach, bearing in mind manipulation of quotes in the concerned publication, is that all quotes related to the paper concerned would not unconditionally be ascribed to the user of a profile, i.e., to the “author” who adds the paper to his/her profile. A possible explanation for this situation may be in the fact that there is not any possibility to acquire all quotes of a paper at once since it is done automatically by web crawler computers which have their time scheme of performance of tasks.
The third possibility is to add publications manually but not data. One browses the database of GS system and finds a desired publication and ascribes it to the user profile. This differs from the previous approach by the fact that the work concerned was already indexed in GS system and all necessary data (which besides the main data contain data about all quotes related to the publication) were ascribed to it. In this case, if a publication having a certain number of quotes has already been ascribed to an author who is its real author and if a user manually adds the publication to his/her profile, then all existing quotes of the publication concerned would be ascribed to his/her profile regardless of the fact that he/she is not the real author or co-author of the publication. According to our best knowledge, currently there is not any mechanism to heck credibility of an author—if a person really is the author of the co-author of the concerned publication. This is one of the great disadvantages of the current version of GS system regarding manual ascription of publications to users’ profiles.
Since we believe that the last mentioned situation represents a serious omission in GS system, we tested the concerned situation with two articles. One publication which we added to a profile of a user (with No = 47 quotes) who is not the author of the publication (one of the authors of this article) had a significant number of quotes (No = 388), while the other one did not (No = 20). Two publications with different numbers of quotes were added in order to check if it was really practically possible to add a publication with any number of quotes. We made a screenshot before adding the concerned publications to the profile of a user who was not the author of any of the articles (Figure 3) and after the publications were added (Figure 4). These two illustrations clearly show that after the concerned publications were added, the number of quotes of “new author” increased significantly proportionally to the number of quotes ascribed to the source publication. GS system did not, at any time, report that the “new author “ actually was not the author of the concerned publications.
Author’s profile on GS with an accurate number of quotes.
Author’s profile on GS after adding two papers with belonging quotes.
This represents significant omission in Google Scholar system, which opens possibilities for new ways of manipulation in all systems of ranking, of universities, and of researchers themselves, which use this system as a part of some other systems for various types of ranking. Some authors had already been pointing to manipulations with quotes in academic researches [73], but this is the case of manipulation of GS system [74, 75].
Where does this omission become very “disputable?” Namely, examining profiles of scientists from the University of Tuzla, one defined that even 30% of profiles out of the first ten ranked contain papers of which they are not authors or co-authors. Those are profiles taken into consideration in ranking of parameters on the list from January 2019. It is significant to mention that even 446 quotes which do not belong were ascribed to the mentioned profiles [76]. This data becomes extremely significant if we consider the fact that only 8 scientists from the University of Tuzla have more than 400 quotes (the real number is even less when one takes out nonexisting quotes and scientists who do not work at the University of Tuzla anymore). Analyzing the following 10 profiles of scientists (by order of 11–20), we found 186 more non-belonging quotes [76]. This becomes a greater problem if we bear in mind that most of those “added” works were published in journals of extremely good quality [76], so the quotes have been distributed over the years which affects the parameters of ranking of the university even more. If we know that the first ten ranked profiles are taken into consideration in ranking, we have to ask ourselves if those are really the best ranked scientists and if the position of the university on the Webometrics list is dully calculated [76]. A checkup may easily show that the order, the number of quotes, and the index are not correct, which leads us to a process of incorrect ranking of profiles and incorrect evaluation of the Webometrics list. Knowing the evaluation system on which webometrics functions, it is easy to conclude that adding highly quoted papers from prestigious publications can significantly improve the position of a university. This is also extremely important for ranking of scientists because many universities in the world do not have any access to WOS, and it is very easy for all to use GS ranking lists to measure quality of scientists and a degree of their being quoted. These lists should be reviewed in order to obtain a realistic picture in ranking of scientists in institutions and by states as an adequate hierarchy of universities. The example from our experiment can easily show that h-index has changed significantly. By adding only two papers, it increased from 3 to even 5, and i-index increased from 2 to 4 (Figures 3 and 4). Since the mentioned omissions were found at many other universities as well, we believe that changes in the ranking order of universities and scientists would be very significant. Authors on profiles often are not aware that those are not their works because they update their profiles automatically. Many of them do not pay great attention to it, while a great number of scientists do not have a great knowledge about ranking systems. Another disadvantage of this system is retention of scientists’ profiles, although they are engaged by another institution. This means that their profiles are retained after cessation of their engagements. Movements of scientists in the system of scientific institutions and going from one institution to another for the purpose of increasing quality of individual institutions are also a process which should be followed up by GS. To solve this problem, one needs to design a system which would obligate scientific institutions to update data in time and to ask for removal of profiles of those scientists who are not engaged anymore (i.e., the profiles should be adjusted to the new institution). Gaining benefits for quotes on profiles of retired scientists and of those who passed away by institutions is not fair. We found such omission at our university where even 2 out of the first 12 scientists left the University of Tuzla, having together over 1300 citations and being involved in the process of ranking of the university [76]. This omission may not be ascribed only to GS, but one needs to design a system of annual verification of profiles for which scientific institution would be in charge. On the other hand, there are scientists who are not ranked within the frame of an institution due to wrong entries of affiliation and do not contribute to the reputation of a university although they have a great number of quotes. Although Webometrics in its rules hinted at a possibility of sanctioning institutions for double profiles and ascribing papers to wrong authors [60], we noticed that the mentioned sanction has not been implemented, and we saw such cases at several universities in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There is a simple way to solve the mentioned manipulations and omissions. One of the ways is introduction of
As a global ranking system, webometrics represents an important step in the assessment of scientific institutions and scientists. It is very important, especially in countries which do not implement international standards and criteria through their institutional educational system. Through its main four parameters, the system entices healthy competition among scientific institutions and scientists. Along with all of the advantages, the system, like any other system, has some disadvantages, mostly in the domain of ranking of scientists and therefore of institutions through valorization of publications and quotes. Manipulations with a number of quotes and calculation of
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Acceptance of technologies such as eCommerce, Mobile and ERP that considered emotion and affect are still less. This creates a gap in the technology acceptance research, which consider the role of affect into technology acceptance model. This study considers the role of affect of a knowledge worker that work in Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)-status organizations in Malaysia on their behavioural intention to use knowledge sharing tools (KS tools) in their day-to-day tasks. Hence, Affective Technology Acceptance (A.T.A) model has been proposed. The behavioural intention on the acceptance of KS tools will be hypothesize in the Affective Technology Acceptance (A.T.A) model. Positive (PA) and Negative (NA) affect as the role of affect construct were introduce in this model to investigate its influence on KS tools usefulness and ease of use among employees in Multimedia Super Corridor organizations. The findings of this study highlighted that NA has no impact on perceive usefulness. The findings also showed that PA has very significant positive influence on PU, PEOU and BI with impact on PEOU being the greatest.",book:{id:"5491",slug:"knowledge-management-strategies-and-applications",title:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications",fullTitle:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Angela Lee Siew Hoong, Lip Sam Thi and Mei-Hua Lin",authors:[{id:"190265",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Angela",middleName:"Siew Hoong",surname:"Lee",slug:"angela-lee",fullName:"Angela Lee"},{id:"195089",title:"Prof.",name:"Lip Sam",middleName:null,surname:"Thi",slug:"lip-sam-thi",fullName:"Lip Sam Thi"},{id:"195090",title:"Prof.",name:"Mei Hua",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"mei-hua-lin",fullName:"Mei Hua Lin"}]},{id:"56374",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70067",title:"Knowledge Sharing and Human Resource Development in Innovative Organizations",slug:"knowledge-sharing-and-human-resource-development-in-innovative-organizations",totalDownloads:5060,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Global competition and rapid changes in technology demand more innovation in organizations. 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This chapter examines three major KM pillars, including people, process, and technology, for effective KM deployment. Based on a questionnaire‐based survey, the study investigates the perceived importance of three KM pillars that influence organizational inclinations of KM strategies and ultimately affect organizational performance. Quantitative findings are sought from 44 key informants in organizations. The results show a hybrid strategy that balances the importance of people, process, and technology pillars brings desirable impact on organizational performance, comparing with the KM strategy inclined to a particular KM pillar. Recommendations of KM endeavors on three KM pillars are provided to suggest the joint efforts from both management and employees.",book:{id:"5491",slug:"knowledge-management-strategies-and-applications",title:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications",fullTitle:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Ivy Chan",authors:[{id:"190882",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivy",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"ivy-chan",fullName:"Ivy Chan"}]},{id:"56383",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70070",title:"The Impact of the Internet of Things to Value Added in Knowledge‐Intensive Organizations",slug:"the-impact-of-the-internet-of-things-to-value-added-in-knowledge-intensive-organizations",totalDownloads:1617,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter has focused on the importance and influence of Industry 4.0 and consequently the Internet connected technologies’ creation of the value added for knowledge‐intensive organizations and society. 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Establishing a presence and generating growth in the emergent Chinese market has proven challenging for Western firms; operating effectively and efficiently in this ‘new’ market environment (characterised by significant psychographic, cultural, legal and political differences) has highlighted a number of significant research opportunities. One such opportunity has manifest in a call to develop a finer-grained understanding of the knowledge management processes required by Western hotel chains attempting to enter and establish their operations in China. This chapter presents an exploratory analysis of the knowledge management issues and processes experienced by the Marriott Group during its entry and growth in the Chinese hospitality industry. This analysis is based on a series of semi-structured interviews with senior managers present during Marriott’s entry into China. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the managerial and theoretical implications emanating therefrom.",book:{id:"5491",slug:"knowledge-management-strategies-and-applications",title:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications",fullTitle:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Tommy Wong, Linda French and Mark Wickham",authors:[{id:"190629",title:"Dr.",name:"Tommy",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"tommy-wong",fullName:"Tommy Wong"},{id:"195020",title:"Dr.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"French",slug:"linda-french",fullName:"Linda French"},{id:"195021",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Wickham",slug:"mark-wickham",fullName:"Mark Wickham"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56383",title:"The Impact of the Internet of Things to Value Added in Knowledge‐Intensive Organizations",slug:"the-impact-of-the-internet-of-things-to-value-added-in-knowledge-intensive-organizations",totalDownloads:1618,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter has focused on the importance and influence of Industry 4.0 and consequently the Internet connected technologies’ creation of the value added for knowledge‐intensive organizations and society. 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Acceptance of technologies such as eCommerce, Mobile and ERP that considered emotion and affect are still less. This creates a gap in the technology acceptance research, which consider the role of affect into technology acceptance model. This study considers the role of affect of a knowledge worker that work in Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)-status organizations in Malaysia on their behavioural intention to use knowledge sharing tools (KS tools) in their day-to-day tasks. Hence, Affective Technology Acceptance (A.T.A) model has been proposed. The behavioural intention on the acceptance of KS tools will be hypothesize in the Affective Technology Acceptance (A.T.A) model. Positive (PA) and Negative (NA) affect as the role of affect construct were introduce in this model to investigate its influence on KS tools usefulness and ease of use among employees in Multimedia Super Corridor organizations. The findings of this study highlighted that NA has no impact on perceive usefulness. The findings also showed that PA has very significant positive influence on PU, PEOU and BI with impact on PEOU being the greatest.",book:{id:"5491",slug:"knowledge-management-strategies-and-applications",title:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications",fullTitle:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Angela Lee Siew Hoong, Lip Sam Thi and Mei-Hua Lin",authors:[{id:"190265",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Angela",middleName:"Siew Hoong",surname:"Lee",slug:"angela-lee",fullName:"Angela Lee"},{id:"195089",title:"Prof.",name:"Lip Sam",middleName:null,surname:"Thi",slug:"lip-sam-thi",fullName:"Lip Sam Thi"},{id:"195090",title:"Prof.",name:"Mei Hua",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"mei-hua-lin",fullName:"Mei Hua Lin"}]},{id:"56277",title:"Knowledge Management Hybrid Strategy with People, Technology and Process Pillars",slug:"knowledge-management-hybrid-strategy-with-people-technology-and-process-pillars",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The importance of knowledge management (KM) contributes organizational competitiveness, which is widely addressed and became a central topic of management agenda in the last decade. This chapter examines three major KM pillars, including people, process, and technology, for effective KM deployment. Based on a questionnaire‐based survey, the study investigates the perceived importance of three KM pillars that influence organizational inclinations of KM strategies and ultimately affect organizational performance. Quantitative findings are sought from 44 key informants in organizations. The results show a hybrid strategy that balances the importance of people, process, and technology pillars brings desirable impact on organizational performance, comparing with the KM strategy inclined to a particular KM pillar. Recommendations of KM endeavors on three KM pillars are provided to suggest the joint efforts from both management and employees.",book:{id:"5491",slug:"knowledge-management-strategies-and-applications",title:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications",fullTitle:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Ivy Chan",authors:[{id:"190882",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivy",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"ivy-chan",fullName:"Ivy Chan"}]},{id:"56575",title:"Performance Management by Causal Mapping: An Application Field of Knowledge Management",slug:"performance-management-by-causal-mapping-an-application-field-of-knowledge-management",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"As implied by the performance management (PM) concept, modern corporate management has to focus on cause-and-effect relationships underlying a firm´s financial performance generation. To determine the causes of financially desirable effects, subject-bound experiences and knowledge of employees, called tacit knowledge, should be realised. For this, knowledge management (KM) offers various elicitation techniques to reveal corporate-specific success factors (SFs) of financial performance generation from the corporate experts´ implicit knowledge. The identified factors have to be organised within a network of cause-and-effect relationships. In this framework, PM can apply the instrument of mapping to structure the individually revealed knowledge, to aggregate and visualise it for the entire company. For a valid representation of the causal relationships, the subjective bias arising within the mentioned process has to be minimised. In the literature, a variety of mapping methods can be found that differ in their approaches and their level of significance. As such a method, causal mapping will be presented in this paper. For providing intersubjectivity, the decision-making trail and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) as a multi-criteria approach will be debated in the context of mapping as a research field.",book:{id:"5491",slug:"knowledge-management-strategies-and-applications",title:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications",fullTitle:"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Sarah Kölbel, Wolfgang Ossadnik and Stefan Gergeleit",authors:[{id:"191338",title:"Dr.",name:"Wolfgang",middleName:null,surname:"Ossadnik",slug:"wolfgang-ossadnik",fullName:"Wolfgang Ossadnik"},{id:"192805",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sarah",middleName:null,surname:"Kölbel",slug:"sarah-kolbel",fullName:"Sarah Kölbel"},{id:"192806",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Gergeleit",slug:"stefan-gergeleit",fullName:"Stefan Gergeleit"}]},{id:"56374",title:"Knowledge Sharing and Human Resource Development in Innovative Organizations",slug:"knowledge-sharing-and-human-resource-development-in-innovative-organizations",totalDownloads:5065,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Global competition and rapid changes in technology demand more innovation in organizations. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. 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The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"83117",title:"Endothelial Secretome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106550",signatures:"Luiza Rusu",slug:"endothelial-secretome",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Luiza",surname:"Rusu"}],book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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