Physical thermal index of the drying material.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10460",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Caesarean Section",title:"Current Topics in Caesarean Section",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In 2019, approximately 1.2 million caesarean sections were performed in the United States, accounting for 31.7% of all births that year. In most European countries, the rate of caesarean delivery also exceeds 30%. The medical effects of this phenomenon remain unclear.This book presents comprehensive information on caesarean delivery including the risks and benefits, clinical indications, scientific guidelines, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83969-179-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-178-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-180-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92475",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-topics-in-caesarean-section",numberOfPages:258,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e59550fca39fd09ff4addfe39ca822a0",bookSignature:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Nikolaos Nikolettos, Werner Rath and Georg Friedrich Von Tempelhoff",publishedDate:"November 10th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10460.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3031,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 9th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",middleName:null,surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/48837/images/system/48837.jpg",biography:"Dr. Panagiotis Tsikouras is a specialist in obstetrics-gynecology,\nperinatal medicine, and contraception at the School of Medicine,\nDemocritus University of Thrace, Greece. He is also the headmaster of the Family Planning Centre and Gynecological Cytology\nLaboratory at the same university. Dr. Tsikouras is a fellow of the\nInternational Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis. His scientific activities focus on paediatric and adolescence medicine, gynecological oncology, high-risk pregnancies. He is a reviewer for several international journals and has numerous scientific publications to his credit, including papers and book chapters. He has also contributed to international and national guidelines on coagulation and thrombosis in obstetrics-gynecology.",institutionString:"Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Democritus University of Thrace",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"317103",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolettos",slug:"nikolaos-nikolettos",fullName:"Nikolaos Nikolettos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317103/images/system/317103.png",biography:"Dr. Nikos Nikolettos is a specialist in obstetrics, gynecology and\nassisted reproduction at the Democritus University of Thrace,\nGreece. He is trained in gynecological endocrinology, human\nreproduction, and in vitro fertilization. From 2007 to 2011, Dr.\nNikos served as director of the In Vitro Fertilization Unit, University Regional General Hospital of Alexandroupolis, Greece. From\n2012 to 2018, he was director of the Laboratory of Reproductive\nPhysiology - Artificial Fertilization. In 2018 he became Professor of Assisted Reproduction at the Democritus University of Thrace, Greece. In 2019 he took over the\nmanagement of the University Obstetrics-Gynecology Clinic, Medical Department,\nDemocritus University of Thrace. His scientific work includes more than 100 publications in international journals and many lectures by invitation to international and Greek conferences.",institutionString:"Democritus University of Thrcae",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Democritus University of Thrace",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"290374",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Rath",slug:"werner-rath",fullName:"Werner Rath",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290374/images/system/290374.jpg",biography:"Dr. Werner Rath is a specialist in obstetrics and gynecology, gynecologic oncology, perinatal medicine, and hemostaseology. He\nis currently a professor in the Gynecology and Obstetrics Faculty\nof Medicine, University of Kiel, Germany, and honorary doctor\nat the Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupoli University Hospital He previously served as chief of the Department\nof Gynecology and Obstetrics at University Hospital RWTH Aachen,\nGermany. Dr. Rath is a reviewer for numerous journals and chief editor of Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde (GebFra). He has several publications, including thirteen\nbook chapters, to his credit.",institutionString:"Kiel University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kiel University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"332241",title:"Dr.",name:"Georg Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Von Tempelhoff",slug:"georg-friedrich-von-tempelhoff",fullName:"Georg Friedrich Von Tempelhoff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332241/images/system/332241.png",biography:"Dr. Georg Friedrich von Tempelhoff is a specialist in obstetrics\nand gynecology, gynecologic oncology, perinatal medicine, and\nhemostaseology. He is chief of the Department of Gynecology\nand Obstetrics, St. Vinzenz Hospital Hanau, Germany, and head\nof the Institute for Thrombosis and Coagulation Disorders in Gynecology and Obstetrics, Germany. He is a fellow of the International Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis.\nHis scientific focus is hemostaseological and hemorheological disorders in women \nwith miscarriages, preeclampsia, and thrombosis. Dr. von Tempelhoff is a reviewer\nfor numerous journals and, in addition to his publications and book chapters, has\nalso contributed to international and national guidelines on coagulation and thrombosis in gynecology",institutionString:"St. Vinzenz Hospital Hanau",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"189",title:"Obstetrics and Gynecology",slug:"obstetrics-and-gynecology"}],chapters:[{id:"76592",title:"Second Stage Cesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97722",slug:"second-stage-cesarean-section",totalDownloads:283,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The incidence of second stage cesarean section is on the rise. Second stage cesarean section is associated more chances of maternal and fetal injury. Though various techniques are mentioned to deliver the fetal head in second stage cesarean section, the “pull” method is associated with lesser complications. It is important to train Obstetricians in second stage section as it needs extra skill to deliver a deeply engaged head. Judicious use of oxytocin and assisted vaginal deliveries may decrease the need for second stage cesarean section.",signatures:"Jayaraman Nambiar and Thiencherry Rema",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76592",authors:[{id:"343408",title:"Prof.",name:"Jayaraman",surname:"Nambiar",slug:"jayaraman-nambiar",fullName:"Jayaraman Nambiar"},{id:"344786",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiencherry",surname:"Rema",slug:"thiencherry-rema",fullName:"Thiencherry Rema"}],corrections:null},{id:"76132",title:"Twin Pregnancies Labour Modus and Timing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95982",slug:"twin-pregnancies-labour-modus-and-timing",totalDownloads:208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Twin pregnancies are categorized according to three factors, zygosity, chorionicity and amnionicity. Dizygotic twins are always dichorionic and diamniotic, where each twin has its own chorionic and amniotic sac. Monozygotic twins account for 1/3 of twin pregnancies and show higher morbidity and mortality. In monozygotic twins, chorionicity and amnionicity are determined by the time of zygote division. Chorionicity and amnionicity determine the risks of twin pregnancy. Morbitidies are shown notable decreasing tendency depending on improving of high risk obstetric and neonatal care, however is still discussed the optimum labour management in twin pregnancies Vaginal delivery in twin pregnancies is possible when both have cephalic presentation and in the late weeks of pregnancy during which the risks of prematurity are minimized. The aim of this review was the assessment and evaluation the impact of the labour modus and timing of termination of twin pregnancies due to rise of their occurrence based on scientific aspects of the new published literature on perinatal outcome.",signatures:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Anna Chalkidou, Anastasia Bothou, Angeliki Gerede, Xanthoula Anthoulaki, Spyridon Michalopoulos, Ioannis Tsirkas, Fotini Gaitatzi, Irene Babageorgaka, Apostolos Lazarou, Natalia Sachnova, Michael Koutsogiannis, Konstantinos Nikolettos, Theopi Nalbanti, Eythimios Demosthenous, Georgios Dragoutsos, Ifigenia Apostolou, Alexios Alexiou, Panagiotis Petsidis, Stefanos Zervoudis, George Iatrakis, Werner Rath, George Galazios and Nikolaos Nikolettos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76132",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76132",authors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras"},{id:"317103",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Nikolettos",slug:"nikolaos-nikolettos",fullName:"Nikolaos Nikolettos"},{id:"290374",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",surname:"Rath",slug:"werner-rath",fullName:"Werner Rath"},{id:"229225",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Chalkidou",slug:"anna-chalkidou",fullName:"Anna Chalkidou"},{id:"229226",title:"Ms.",name:"Xanthoula",surname:"Anthoulaki",slug:"xanthoula-anthoulaki",fullName:"Xanthoula Anthoulaki"},{id:"229227",title:"Ms.",name:"Anastasia",surname:"Bothou",slug:"anastasia-bothou",fullName:"Anastasia Bothou"},{id:"229230",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefanos",surname:"Zervoudis",slug:"stefanos-zervoudis",fullName:"Stefanos Zervoudis"},{id:"229232",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Iatrakis",slug:"georgios-iatrakis",fullName:"Georgios Iatrakis"},{id:"229233",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Galazios",slug:"georgios-galazios",fullName:"Georgios Galazios"},{id:"290371",title:"Mrs.",name:"Fotini",surname:"Gaitatzi",slug:"fotini-gaitatzi",fullName:"Fotini Gaitatzi"},{id:"298197",title:"Mrs.",name:"Eirini",surname:"Bampageorgaka",slug:"eirini-bampageorgaka",fullName:"Eirini Bampageorgaka"},{id:"303163",title:"Dr.",name:"Spyridon",surname:"Michalopoulos",slug:"spyridon-michalopoulos",fullName:"Spyridon Michalopoulos"},{id:"347903",title:"Dr.",name:"Angeliki",surname:"Gerede",slug:"angeliki-gerede",fullName:"Angeliki Gerede"},{id:"347905",title:"Dr.",name:"Efthimios",surname:"Demmosthenous",slug:"efthimios-demmosthenous",fullName:"Efthimios Demmosthenous"},{id:"347906",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Tsirkas",slug:"ioannis-tsirkas",fullName:"Ioannis Tsirkas"},{id:"347907",title:"Dr.",name:"Apostolos",surname:"Lazarou",slug:"apostolos-lazarou",fullName:"Apostolos Lazarou"},{id:"347908",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Sachnova",slug:"natalia-sachnova",fullName:"Natalia Sachnova"},{id:"347909",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Koutsogiannis",slug:"michael-koutsogiannis",fullName:"Michael Koutsogiannis"},{id:"347911",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",surname:"Nikolettos",slug:"konstantinos-nikolettos",fullName:"Konstantinos Nikolettos"},{id:"347912",title:"Dr.",name:"Theopi",surname:"Nalbanti",slug:"theopi-nalbanti",fullName:"Theopi Nalbanti"},{id:"347913",title:"Dr.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Petsidis",slug:"panagiotis-petsidis",fullName:"Panagiotis Petsidis"},{id:"356805",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Dragoutsos",slug:"georgios-dragoutsos",fullName:"Georgios Dragoutsos"},{id:"356806",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifigenia",surname:"Apostolou",slug:"ifigenia-apostolou",fullName:"Ifigenia Apostolou"},{id:"356807",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexios",surname:"Alexiou",slug:"alexios-alexiou",fullName:"Alexios Alexiou"}],corrections:null},{id:"75696",title:"Cesarean Section and Breastfeeding Outcomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96658",slug:"cesarean-section-and-breastfeeding-outcomes",totalDownloads:280,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cesarean section rates in the developed countries are well above the 5% to 15% rate of all births as suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2009 and currently range widely between 25% and 50%. Moreover, the WHO guidance promotes early breastfeeding initiation during the first hour postpartum, exclusive breastfeeding up until the 6th month and maintaining breastfeeding at least up to the second year of the infant’s life. In this review, we discuss the current evidence on whether a cesarean section interferes with the initiation and the long-term duration of breastfeeding practice among new mothers. The literature shows that a cesarean birth does have a detrimental effect on breastfeeding outcomes, however it is not per se a negative factor. It rather seems that infants who have feeding difficulties in the immediate postpartum period may experience long term problems. Therefore, interventions are discussed to promote breastfeeding after cesarean section for health professionals. Emphasis is given on promoting early skin-to-skin contact and on counseling new mothers about the advantages of breastfeeding as well as providing practical support and guidance throughout the early postpartum period.",signatures:"Angeliki Antonakou and Dimitrios Papoutsis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75696",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75696",authors:[{id:"343453",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Angeliki",surname:"Antonakou",slug:"angeliki-antonakou",fullName:"Angeliki Antonakou"},{id:"346827",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitrios",surname:"Papoutsis",slug:"dimitrios-papoutsis",fullName:"Dimitrios Papoutsis"}],corrections:null},{id:"78488",title:"VTE Prophylaxis in Cesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98974",slug:"vte-prophylaxis-in-cesarean-section",totalDownloads:115,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Venous thromboembolism (VT is a major cause of maternal mortality and severe morbidity. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods of prophylaxis are therefore often used for women considered to be a risk including women who have given birth by cesarean section. The risk is potentially increased in women with a personal or family history of VTE, women with genetic or acquired thrombophilia, and another risk factors like sickle cell disease, inflammatory bowel disease, active cancer, obesity, preeclampsia·and SARS COVID 19 infection. However, a specific score in obstetrics has not yet been well defined. Recommendations from major society guidelines for post-cesarean section (C/S) thromboprophylaxis differ greatly; the safety and efficacy of drug prophylaxis - mainly low molecular weight heparins - has been demonstrated, but large scale randomized trials of currently-used interventions should be conducted. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the indications and contraindications for VTE prophylaxis in cesarean sections, prophylaxis regimens and potential adverse events.",signatures:"Frederico José Amédeé Péret and Liv Braga de Paula",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78488",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78488",authors:[{id:"343455",title:"Dr.",name:"Frederico",surname:"José Amédeé Péret",slug:"frederico-jose-amedee-peret",fullName:"Frederico José Amédeé Péret"},{id:"349379",title:"Prof.",name:"Liv",surname:"Braga De Paula",slug:"liv-braga-de-paula",fullName:"Liv Braga De Paula"}],corrections:null},{id:"77573",title:"Caesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97290",slug:"caesarean-section",totalDownloads:202,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Caesarean section is a procedure performed to save the life of the fetus and sometime to save the life of the woman. Although risks are low, affected women suffer from severe complications. The first caesarean section performed has a bearing on management of subsequent pregnancies. It is crucial that the procedure is performed when necessary. The evolution of caesarean section has shown marked improvement in maternal outcome especially after the introduction of antibiotics. The resistance of bacteria to antibiotics may lead to rethinking about the procedure performed long ago to try and minimised complications related to sepsis. Complications of caesarean sections are common in patients who have had a previous caesarean section. Training in previous caesarean sections will be vital in preventing these complications.",signatures:"Tshililo J. Mashamba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77573",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77573",authors:[{id:"342240",title:"Dr.",name:"Tshililo",surname:"Mashamba",slug:"tshililo-mashamba",fullName:"Tshililo Mashamba"}],corrections:null},{id:"77477",title:"Magnitude, Factors Associated with Cesarean Delivery and Its Appropriateness",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98286",slug:"magnitude-factors-associated-with-cesarean-delivery-and-its-appropriateness",totalDownloads:142,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Inappropriate use of CS can have profoundly negative consequences for women and the broader community. A recent meeting of the International Confederation of Midwifes, the International Federation of Gynecologists and Obstetrics and the Gates Foundation to discuss the impact of rising CS rates on maternal and infant mortality in LMICs highlights the international importance of the issue. Knowledge of CS determinants is a first step in the effort to define strategies to reduce unnecessary CSs. Previous studies showed that the main reasons for performing CS are clinical factors. However, non-clinical factors such as demographic, health system factors, organizational variables were overlooked determinants that best predicted which women have a higher risk of CS.",signatures:"Awoke Giletew Wondie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77477",authors:[{id:"342301",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Awoke Giletew",surname:"Wondie",slug:"awoke-giletew-wondie",fullName:"Awoke Giletew Wondie"}],corrections:null},{id:"75893",title:"Association of Pre-Pregnancy Body Mass Index and Gestational Weight Gain with Preterm Delivery in Pregnant Women",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96922",slug:"association-of-pre-pregnancy-body-mass-index-and-gestational-weight-gain-with-preterm-delivery-in-pr",totalDownloads:307,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The perinatal mortality rate, which is one of the important adverse pregnancy outcome and includes stillbirths and infant death within first week of life is estimated to be nearly 40 deaths per 1,000 pregnancies in Gujarat. Also the infant mortality rates have been estimated to be 50 deaths before age of one year per 1,000 pregnancies. It is stated that children whose mothers are illiterate or belong to low socio-economic class have two and half times more chances to die within 1 year of their birth compared to those whose mothers have completed atleast 10 years of education or belong to high socio-economic class. There are nearly 13% of women who does not receive proper antenatal care and facility during pregnancy. In India, there are nearly half of the women (52%) who possess normal BMI range: rest are either underweight or overweight. Approximately 55% of the women of total population in India are anaemic. These maternal parameters directly affect the children causing 48% of the children to be malnourished and 43% to be underweight. Therefore, it is imperative to examine the association of pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index (BMI) as well as Gestational Weight Gain (GWG) with diverse pregnancy outcomes such as gestational diabetes, gestational hypertension and also with preterm delivery, caesarean delivery, etc. The present study was designed to investigate the prevalence, GWG, various pregnancy outcomes of underweight, overweight or obese pregnant women, and to explore the relationship between pre-pregnancy BMI as well as gestational weight gain during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes. This is a prospective, multi-centric study involving pregnant women with gestation week ≤20 weeks in Ahmedabad in Gujarat region. Our study observed that out of 226 women enrolled, 44 women (19.47%) were underweight, 137 women (60.62%) were normal, 30 women (13.27%) were overweight and 15 women (6.64%) were obese. The incidence of caesarean delivery (56.92%) was found more in nuclear family as compared to joint family (46.92%). It was found that in women taking no junk food at all, the chances of LBW were 16.39%, which was less as compared to mothers who had junk food. It was also observed that amongst women taking 1 glass milk daily (42.92%), about 55.67% of had normal type of delivery. Amongst women taking 1 fruit daily (57.52%), 53% women had normal delivery. Present study spotted decrease in risk of caesarean delivery with increase in maternal haemoglobin level from 9.0 gm/dl till 12.0 gm/dl. Average weight gain observed in underweight was 12.93 ± 1.90, in normal 12.32 ± 1.71, in overweight 10.23 ± 1.28 and in obese 9.6 ± 1.50. A negative correlation was found between GWG and pre-pregnancy BMI, i.e. as pre-pregnancy BMI increase, the GWG decrease. The incidence of pre-term delivery (9.49%) was much less in normal BMI range. The average infant birth weight observed in underweight women was 2.63 ± 0.47, in normal was 2.9 ± 0.49, in overweight was 2.92 ± 0.56 and in obese was 2.95 ± 0.86. It is observed that highest birth weight is obtained in obese women, which decreases as the maternal BMI range decreases. The incidence of LBW in normal and overweight women was 15.33 and 16.67%, which was low as compared to obese and underweight women. Our study reveals that parameters such as GWG, type of family, intake of milk, fruits and junk food, haemoglobin concentration directly affects the pregnancy outcomes such as term of delivery, type of delivery and infant birth weight.",signatures:"Bhavya Baxi and Jigna Shah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75893",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75893",authors:[{id:"332797",title:"Prof.",name:"Jigna",surname:"Shah",slug:"jigna-shah",fullName:"Jigna Shah"},{id:"332798",title:"Ms.",name:"Bhavya",surname:"Baxi",slug:"bhavya-baxi",fullName:"Bhavya Baxi"}],corrections:null},{id:"76917",title:"Prevention of Cesarean Scar Defects: What Is Possible?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97618",slug:"prevention-of-cesarean-scar-defects-what-is-possible-",totalDownloads:188,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Defect healing of the uterotomy at ceasarean section (CS) results in a morphological und probably functional disruption of the anterior uterine wall. Clinical sequelae concern subsequent pregnancies with a broad range of complications before and during pregnancy as well as at birth. In the following chapter, we provide an overview about the definition, diagnosis, symptoms and pathogenetical mechanisms of CS scar defects. Keeping in mind the pathogenesis allows to introduce preventative approaches.",signatures:"Christian Litzka, Annegret Schnabel, Maria Emilia Solano and Angela Köninger",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76917",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76917",authors:[{id:"344361",title:"Prof.",name:"Angela",surname:"Köninger",slug:"angela-koninger",fullName:"Angela Köninger"},{id:"354893",title:"Dr.",name:"Annegret",surname:"Schnabel",slug:"annegret-schnabel",fullName:"Annegret Schnabel"},{id:"354894",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Litzka",slug:"christian-litzka",fullName:"Christian Litzka"},{id:"354895",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Emilia",surname:"Solano",slug:"maria-emilia-solano",fullName:"Maria Emilia Solano"}],corrections:null},{id:"77610",title:"Optimizing Techniques and Suture Materials for Caesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97930",slug:"optimizing-techniques-and-suture-materials-for-caesarean-section",totalDownloads:316,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cesarean section is an important part of comprehensive emergency obstetric and neonatal care and their numbers are increasing worldwide in the recent times. Proper healing of the scar after cesarean section is of paramount importance to avoid various obstetrical complications in future pregnancies. There is no standard technique on the method of closure following cesarean delivery. It is unclear as which technique and suture material should be used for closure of cesarean section in order to get the best results with minimal complications. The objective of this chapter is to review the literature, analyze the available resources and evaluate the evidence for closure of each layer post cesarean section. The following discussion will review closure of each step post cesarean section and provide evidence-based recommendations for closure technique.",signatures:"Padmasri Ramalingappa, Raksha Shivaramegowda and Shruthi Holavanahalli SrinivasaMurthy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77610",authors:[{id:"288654",title:"Prof.",name:"Padmasri",surname:"Ramalingappa",slug:"padmasri-ramalingappa",fullName:"Padmasri Ramalingappa"},{id:"349512",title:"Dr.",name:"Raksha",surname:"Shivaramegowda",slug:"raksha-shivaramegowda",fullName:"Raksha Shivaramegowda"},{id:"349513",title:"Dr.",name:"Shruthi",surname:"Holavanahalli SrinivasaMurthy",slug:"shruthi-holavanahalli-srinivasamurthy",fullName:"Shruthi Holavanahalli SrinivasaMurthy"}],corrections:null},{id:"75863",title:"Characteristics of Catch-Up Growth in Very Low Birth Weight Infants (<1500 g)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96933",slug:"characteristics-of-catch-up-growth-in-very-low-birth-weight-infants-1500-g-",totalDownloads:89,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Features of catch-up growth are not well established in very low birth weight infants (VLBW). The aim of this study is to analyze the catch-up growth in height and some factors associated in a cohort of VLBW (<1500 g) from birth to age 14 years. Retrospective registration of weight and height at birth and ages 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 years in a cohort of 170 VLBW have been recorded Anthropometric variables were compared with those from a control group. Sixty-nine (40.6%) were small for gestational age (SGA subgroup) and 101 (59.4%) were appropriate for gestational age (AGA subgroup). Thirty-seven (21.8%) were extremely low birth weight (ELBW), and 32 (18.8%) extremely preterm (EPT). At age 2, 4 and 10 years, 49.4%, 78.9% and 87.1% VLBW, respectively, did reach normal height. Between 4 and 10 years of age, only 8.2% of VLBW reached normal height. At 10 years of age, 7% of VLBW (1000–1500 g) and 35% of ELBW (<1500 g) showed short stature (p = 0.001). Almost the entire sample of VLBW with normal height at age 2, 4 and 10 have reached an adequate catch-up growth in weight in the previous evaluations. ELBW, SGA and EPT were found to be independent predictors for inadequate catch-up growth in height at 2, 4, and 10 years of age. The growth pattern of children born preterm has particular features: they have a lower rate and/or slowness in the catch-up growth in height with respect to that described in full-term small-for-gestational-age infants. Catch-up in weight appears to be a decisive factor for catch-up in height, and, on this basis, we recommend a rigorous nutritional follow-up in these individuals. If these measures do not help improve catch-up in height, they may be eligible for the establishment of rhGH therapy.",signatures:"Teodoro Durá-Travé, Isabel San Martín-García, Fidel Gallinas-Victoriano, María Malumbres-Chacón, Paula Moreno-González and María Urretavizcaya-Martinez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75863",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75863",authors:[{id:"53819",title:"Prof.",name:"Teodoro",surname:"Durá-Travé",slug:"teodoro-dura-trave",fullName:"Teodoro Durá-Travé"},{id:"60541",title:"Dr.",name:"Fidel",surname:"Gallinas-Victoriano",slug:"fidel-gallinas-victoriano",fullName:"Fidel Gallinas-Victoriano"},{id:"334083",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabel",surname:"San Martín-García",slug:"isabel-san-martin-garcia",fullName:"Isabel San Martín-García"},{id:"338016",title:"Dr.",name:"María",surname:"Malumbres-Chacón",slug:"maria-malumbres-chacon",fullName:"María Malumbres-Chacón"},{id:"338017",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Moreno-González",slug:"paula-moreno-gonzalez",fullName:"Paula Moreno-González"},{id:"338018",title:"Dr.",name:"María",surname:"Urretavizcaya-Martinez",slug:"maria-urretavizcaya-martinez",fullName:"María Urretavizcaya-Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"75846",title:"The Extremely Low Birth Weight Infant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96921",slug:"the-extremely-low-birth-weight-infant",totalDownloads:206,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extremely low birth weight infants (ELBW) are defined by birth weight of less than 1000 g and are frequently born at 27 weeks’ gestation (GW) or younger. The neonatologists’ efforts focused on improvement of intact survival rate, especially for those born at the frontiers of viability at 22/23 GW. Survival rates of >80% for the advanced gestations and > 50% for 23–24 GW have been reported. Higher gestational age and birth weight, female gender, better maternal education, and white race have been recognized as significant predictors of decreased morbidity in ELBW infants. Although the mortality rate has significantly contracted for this group with improved technology and better understanding of pathophysiology, the proportion of surviving infants without sequelae, has not improved as noticeably. We review the short and long-term morbidities in ELBW infants and compare own and literature data. We analyze some of the specific immediate problems for this group such as: respiratory problems, infection, thermoregulation, impaired glucose homeostasis and disturbed cardiovascular and excretory functions as well as late morbidities such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia, late-onset infections, central nervous system occurrences, retinopathy and anemia of prematurity. We also deal with preventive and therapeutic strategies for improved outcome in this sensitive group of patients.",signatures:"Anet Papazovska Cherepnalkovski, Vesna Pavlov, Ivanka Furlan and Marija Bucat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75846",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75846",authors:[{id:"297251",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anet",surname:"Papazovska Cherepnalkovski",slug:"anet-papazovska-cherepnalkovski",fullName:"Anet Papazovska Cherepnalkovski"},{id:"333286",title:"Dr.",name:"Vesna",surname:"Pavlov",slug:"vesna-pavlov",fullName:"Vesna Pavlov"},{id:"333287",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivanka",surname:"Furlan",slug:"ivanka-furlan",fullName:"Ivanka Furlan"},{id:"333288",title:"Dr.",name:"Marija",surname:"Bucat",slug:"marija-bucat",fullName:"Marija Bucat"}],corrections:null},{id:"75906",title:"Haemodynamic Changes during Preterm Birth Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96923",slug:"haemodynamic-changes-during-preterm-birth-treatment",totalDownloads:203,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The well-being of the fetus depends on the efficiency of its circulatory system and the proper maternal-fetal exchange. Hemodynamic changes can occur due to disturbance of fetal and maternal homeostasis, malformations, pregnancy pathology, and medications. Preterm labor directly affects maternal-fetal haemodynamics, both due to uterine contractions and medications used to inhibit it. Research on maternal-fetal haemodynamics in preterm labor is currently focused mainly on the safety of the used tocolytics. In this chapter, we will discuss the basic principles of fetal haemodynamics, ultrasound methods of maternal-fetal circulation assessment, and the influence of preterm labor on maternal-fetal haemodynamics, with particular emphasis on medications used in threatening and progressive preterm labor.",signatures:"Szymon Bednarek, Małgorzata Głogiewicz, Rafał Adamczak and Mariusz Dubiel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75906",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75906",authors:[{id:"331814",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariusz",surname:"Dubiel",slug:"mariusz-dubiel",fullName:"Mariusz Dubiel"},{id:"342065",title:"Dr.",name:"Szymon",surname:"Bednarek",slug:"szymon-bednarek",fullName:"Szymon Bednarek"},{id:"342066",title:"Mrs.",name:"Małgorzata",surname:"Głogiewicz",slug:"malgorzata-glogiewicz",fullName:"Małgorzata Głogiewicz"},{id:"342067",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafał",surname:"Adamczak",slug:"rafal-adamczak",fullName:"Rafał Adamczak"}],corrections:null},{id:"76525",title:"Preterm Birth and Inflammation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96970",slug:"preterm-birth-and-inflammation",totalDownloads:207,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Half of all preterm births are caused or triggered by an inflammation at fetal-maternal interface. The sustained inflammation that preterm neonates are exposed is generated by maternal chorioamnionitis, premature rupture of membranes. This inflammation will facilitate the preterm labor, but also plays an important role in development of disease like: bronchopulmonary dysplasia, necrotizing enterocolitis, retinopathy of prematurity, intraventricular hemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia. Preterm neonates have immature immune system. The fragile co-regulation between immune defense mechanisms and immunosuppression (tolerance) is often disturbed at this category of patients. They are at high risk of sepsis due to this imbalance between the defense and suppression mechanisms but also several injuries can contribute to the onset or perpetuation of sustained inflammation. They experience altered antigen exposure in contact with hospital-specific germs, artificial devices, drugs, nutritional antigens, and hypoxia or hyperoxia. This is more significant at extremely preterm infants less than 28 weeks of gestation as they have not developed adaptation processes to tolerate maternal and self-antigens.",signatures:"Melinda Matyas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76525",authors:[{id:"219800",title:"Dr.",name:"Melinda",surname:"Matyas",slug:"melinda-matyas",fullName:"Melinda Matyas"}],corrections:null},{id:"76152",title:"Approaches at Community Level for Care of the Preterm Neonates in Low-Income Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96920",slug:"approaches-at-community-level-for-care-of-the-preterm-neonates-in-low-income-countries",totalDownloads:105,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The survival of preterm babies has significantly improved over the last several decades in the high-income countries because of the availability of Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICU’s) in both large and small hospitals, presence of specially trained physicians, nurses, and other health care personnel with easy access to sophisticated equipment. However, the bigger public health advances that saw improvements in socio-economic status of the populations, improvements in education and sanitation conditions and reductions in malnutrition and rates of infectious diseases were probably the main reasons for this improved survival rates for preterm neonates. Low in-come countries are currently highest bearers of the burden of preterm morbidity and mortality. The current preventive and care interventions do not reach all the neonates and their mothers, the coverage has remained low, access is poor and the quality of care is low. The aim of this chapter is to propose ideas on how the current preterm neonatal care interventions can be adapted for community scale up through community-based health system structures like community health workers to improve survival of neonates who have been delivered from home or after they have been discharged from hospital.",signatures:"Pontius Bayo and Juliet Ajok",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76152",authors:[{id:"333441",title:"Dr.",name:"Pontius",surname:"Bayo",slug:"pontius-bayo",fullName:"Pontius Bayo"},{id:"345017",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliet",surname:"Ajok",slug:"juliet-ajok",fullName:"Juliet Ajok"}],corrections:null},{id:"76599",title:"In the Crossing of Politics With Science: Medical Arguments on the High Rate of Cesarean Sections in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97635",slug:"in-the-crossing-of-politics-with-science-medical-arguments-on-the-high-rate-of-cesarean-sections-in-",totalDownloads:180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brazil is the second country with the highest rate of cesarean sections in the world. Most of these procedures are without medical reasons, representing risks for the mother and baby. Obstetric doctors are appointed as the main responsible for this index. The reasons given are for financial reasons or for the convenience of predictable and planned births, and in these cases, cesarean sections are performed without sufficient clarification to pregnant women about their risks and their real need. In this context, there is a constant conflict between doctors and social movement activists in favor of the humanization of childbirth. The purpose of this paper is to analyze from an anthropological point of view the arguments that doctors use to defend themselves against these accusations. Through participant observation at scientific events and meetings of representatives of medical entities, it was found that obstetricians argue that they are based on “medical evidence” and accuse humanized childbirth activists of being based on “ideology”. These arguments reflect the current political context in Brazil marked by intolerance and the advance of neoconservatism.",signatures:"Jaqueline Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76599",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76599",authors:[{id:"344338",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaqueline",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"jaqueline-ferreira",fullName:"Jaqueline Ferreira"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6191",title:"Selected Topics in Breastfeeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3334b831761ffa52e78de6fc681e33b3",slug:"selected-topics-in-breastfeeding",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría P.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8557",title:"Empowering Midwives and Obstetric Nurses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6d90f0978fbce94e13061740cb1d4bc",slug:"empowering-midwives-and-obstetric-nurses",bookSignature:"Amita Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8557.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"251100",title:"Prof.",name:"Amita",surname:"Ray",slug:"amita-ray",fullName:"Amita Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10929",title:"The Gynecological Papyrus Kahun",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8818312089bdfb0423707a231e104d8",slug:"the-gynecological-papyrus-kahun",bookSignature:"Helena Trindade Lopes and Ronaldo G. Gurgel Pereira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10929.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"202246",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",surname:"Trindade Lopes",slug:"helena-trindade-lopes",fullName:"Helena Trindade Lopes"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"416486",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo G.",middleName:"Guilherme",surname:"Gurgel Pereira",slug:"ronaldo-g.-gurgel-pereira",fullName:"Ronaldo G. Gurgel Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/416486/images/system/416486.jpg",biography:"Ronaldo Guilherme Gurgel Pereira is a historian (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) and archaeologist (Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal). In 2010, he received a Ph.D. in Egyptology from the University of Basel, Switzerland.\nFrom 2012 to 2017, Dr. Pereira was a post-doctoral fellow at CHAM/FCSH – Universidade Nova de Lisboa.\nIn 2018, he became an Onassis Fellow, hosted by the Department of Mediterranean Studies, University of the Aegean, Greece. \nIn 2019, he became an auxiliary researcher at CHAM/FCSH – Universidade Nova de Lisboa. He teaches Middle Egyptian grammar, Hieratic, and disciplines regarding Egyptology, and the history of Phoenician and Greek expansion in the Mediterranean basin. \nIn 2021, he was awarded a CAARI Scholar in Residence Fellowship.",institutionString:"Universidade NOVA de Lisboa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"4",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"10485",title:"Fibroids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"64ad14b1aba83e47fb100fa63e21533e",slug:"fibroids",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7961",title:"Induced Abortion and Spontaneous Early Pregnancy Loss",subtitle:"Focus on Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02cfa65d8d630b8cacd78aafa3f2f42e",slug:"induced-abortion-and-spontaneous-early-pregnancy-loss-focus-on-management",bookSignature:"Igor Lakhno",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8454",title:"Recent Advances in Cesarean Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cf497986f3bacb156aa16c955b83ff2",slug:"recent-advances-in-cesarean-delivery",bookSignature:"Georg Schmölzer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179622",title:"Dr.",name:"Georg",surname:"Schmolzer",slug:"georg-schmolzer",fullName:"Georg Schmolzer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8484",title:"Non-tubal Ectopic Pregnancy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3168b3b6a134f1664b6dfa5e15368e2",slug:"non-tubal-ectopic-pregnancy",bookSignature:"Julio Elito Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8484.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35132",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",surname:"Elito Jr.",slug:"julio-elito-jr.",fullName:"Julio Elito Jr."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9160",title:"Childbirth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8a7e8e48791d2155bf6ef4c5c1c0075c",slug:"childbirth",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric and Svetlana J. Milenkovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9160.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:null,name:"Miljana Z.",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7969",title:"Leiomyoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"659a9fef0f90168b2184c86af85d3a42",slug:"leiomyoma",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"73132",slug:"corrigendum-to-soil-erosion-influencing-factors-in-the-semiarid-area-of-northern-shaanxi-province-ch",title:"Corrigendum to: Soil Erosion Influencing Factors in the Semiarid Area of Northern Shaanxi Province, China",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73132.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73132",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73132",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73132",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73132",chapter:{id:"72647",slug:"soil-erosion-influencing-factors-in-the-semiarid-area-of-northern-shaanxi-province-china",signatures:"Ning Ai, Qingke Zhu, Guangquan Liu and Tianxing Wei",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 22nd 2020",datePrePublished:"June 29th 2020",datePublished:"March 24th 2021",book:{id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"319114",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Ai",fullName:"Ning Ai",slug:"ning-ai",email:"aining_office@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319299",title:"Prof.",name:"Tianxing",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Tianxing Wei",slug:"tianxing-wei",email:"weitianxing925@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319300",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingke",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Qingke Zhu",slug:"qingke-zhu",email:"xiangmub@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319301",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangquan",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Guangquan Liu",slug:"guangquan-liu",email:"gqliu@iwhr.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"72647",slug:"soil-erosion-influencing-factors-in-the-semiarid-area-of-northern-shaanxi-province-china",signatures:"Ning Ai, Qingke Zhu, Guangquan Liu and Tianxing Wei",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 22nd 2020",datePrePublished:"June 29th 2020",datePublished:"March 24th 2021",book:{id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"319114",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Ai",fullName:"Ning Ai",slug:"ning-ai",email:"aining_office@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319299",title:"Prof.",name:"Tianxing",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Tianxing Wei",slug:"tianxing-wei",email:"weitianxing925@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319300",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingke",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Qingke Zhu",slug:"qingke-zhu",email:"xiangmub@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319301",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangquan",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Guangquan Liu",slug:"guangquan-liu",email:"gqliu@iwhr.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]},book:{id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"7643",leadTitle:null,title:"Heavy Metal Ions Removal",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tSince the issue related to an overload of heavy metals in the environment is one of the crucial aspects of sustainable development, the aim of this book will be to describe state of the art techniques used for efficient removal of heavy metals from the environment. Special attention will be paid to methods of waters treatment (industrial and natural) and soil remediation to improve its state.
\r\n\tThe description of possible chemical or physical techniques available nowadays will be enriched by biological methods. Methods with a high potential for commercialization are of particular importance, that is why some of the material presented in this book will relate to this aspect.
Drying is a common and effective preservation technique that reduces moisture content of material to lower levels required. Therefore, drying can minimize the spoilage of various microbes in material and the physical, chemical, and biochemical changes within the drying products thereby increasing overall shelf life by considerable periods of time. However, the drying process will affect the quality of the product such as nutritional standards, sensory standards, and physical and chemical standards. Therefore, the drying method and drying parameters should be considered to find a suitable drying method with optimum drying condition to retain a high quality of drying products, especially in food technology, agricultural products, and medicinal products.
RF technology has shown some unique advantages in drying technology. RF heating is a volumetric heating method, which provides fast and deeper heat generation within material that increases heating rate and shortens drying time significantly. RF heating mechanism is described in Figure 1. In which, the RF generator creates an alternating electric field between two electrodes. The material is placed between the electrodes. The wet molecules within material continuously reorient themselves to face opposite poles of the alternating electric field. The friction resulting from the rotational movement of the molecules and the space-charge displacement causes the material to rapidly heat throughout its mass.
RF heating mechanism.
There were numerous studies of RF drying technology in which RF is combined with other drying methods as convection drying using hot air and freeze-drying for drying food and agricultural products [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. The results show that heat generation within the whole volume of drying material that supports the heat transfer and moisture diffusion process to take place faster shortens the drying time and the temperature, and moisture distribution within material becomes more uniform. The drying products still retain their characteristic color and taste.
In heat pump drying with circulating drying air, drying air after being blown through the heat pump has the specific temperature, velocity, and humidity. Drying air will be blown into the drying chamber, and the drying process is performed here. In heat pump drying, the drying air temperature is at low level. So, the drying products can retain a high content of bioactive ingredients and their characteristic color and taste.
The drying technology using RF and heat pump drying has been found to be suitable for drying medicinal products. The objectives of this study are (1) to design and manufacture a RF generator applied in drying technology for drying
A RF generator applied in drying technology is designed and manufactured in order to achieve a required maximum RF power of 3 kW and frequency of 27 MHz.
No | Symbol | Value |
---|---|---|
1 | Gb | 20 kg/batch |
2 | 20 kg | |
3 | ωi | 75% (w.b) |
4 | ωf | 13% (w.b) |
5 | Cp | 3.613 kJ/(kg °C) |
6 | r | 3150 kJ/kg |
7 | ti | 30°C |
8 | tf | 45°C |
Physical thermal index of the drying material.
The required RF power is calculated based on physical and thermal properties of
The circuit diagram and the components of the RF generator are designed and manufactured based on theory of RF heating mechanism, heat exchanger, and oscillator circuit of RF generator.
The components of RF generator are manufactured in a single unit as designed and installed to complete a RF operator. Some standard components are selected and purchased in the market.
The parameters can be measured by specialized measuring instruments directly such as temperature, velocity of drying air, voltage, and electric current. The other parameters are determined by the exchange formulas.
Experiments for investigation of the effects of the input drying parameters on drying rate in the RF-assisted heat pump drying of
The
The color of the drying products is measured by a colorimeter (see Table 1). The colorimeter displays three reflected light intensities corresponding to the lab color values. The total change in color of the drying
The parameters in Eq. (1) are described in detail in part of 3.4.2 c. (3.4.2 c. Color of drying material).
Polysaccharide content of
Statistical parameters such as mean and standard deviation are used to solve the experiment data. Examining the differences of the statistical data is conducted by means of least significant difference (LSD).
The heat required for drying process was calculated based on the theory of calculating and designing drying system [10].
Physical and thermal property index of the drying material (
No | Name | Description |
---|---|---|
1 | Colorimeter | Type: Minolta CR-200 |
2 | Frequency measurement instrument | Type: Acoustimeter CAT #A139 Max frequency: 70 ± 0.01 MHz |
3 | High-voltage voltmeter | Type: Voltmeter-MDP-50 K Voltage range resolution: 0.5–10 kVAC ±5% |
4 | Amperemeter | Type: Amperemeter-C.A401 Ampere range resolution: 0.1–10 A ± 1% |
5 | Thermal sensor | Type: AYN-MF59-104F-3950FB-1000 Measurement ranges: −60–300°C ± 0.05°C |
6 | Moisture analyzer | Type: DBS 60–3 model Maximum capacity: 60 g ± 0.01% Temperature range: 50–200°C Temperature increments: 1°C Repeatability (sd) with 2 g sample: 0.15% Moisture value predicted: 0–100% |
7 | Electronic scale digital balance | Type: DS-2002-N Max weighing capacity of 2000 ± 0.001 grams |
Parameter index of the measurements.
The heat required for heating the material in drying process is the heat of heating the drying material until the material achieves the required temperature. The required temperature of 45°C is chosen for calculation:
The predictive time period required for
In the drying process, an amount of heat must be supplied to vaporize the water within drying material at specific drying temperature in order that the material achieves the required final moisture. The heat required depends on the mass of vaporized water in the material and latent heat of drying material.
The mass of vaporized water in the material (kg) is
So,
The initial moisture content of
In the drying process, the drying material is placed on a drying tray which is normally a plastic mesh grid. So, there must be an amount of heat loss for heating the drying tray until the drying tray gets the drying air temperature:
in which mtray is the mass of the tray, mtray = 1 kg, and CP_plastic is the specific heat capacity of plastic, CP_plastic = 1.67 kJ/(kg °C).
The predictive time period required for the drying tray to get the temperature of 45°C is 45 minutes. The heat loss is calculated as
In the drying process, the drying air flows inside a pipe system, and the outside wall of the pipe is in contact with environment. So, the heat loss through pipes should be considered, and it depends on the pipe material, size, length of the pipe, and drying temperature. The pipe is normally made of PVC plastic.
The length of pipe from the pump to the drying chamber is 1.5 m, so the surface area of the pipe is
So, the heat loss through pipes is calculated as
in which
The drying process is performed in a drying chamber that is also heated up to the drying temperature. So, the heat loss for heating the drying chamber should be considered, and it depends on the material and mass of the chamber and drying temperature. In drying process of food and agricultural products, the drying chamber is normally made of a galvanized steel for food hygiene:
The predictive time period required for the drying chamber to get the temperature of 45°C is 25 minutes. The heat loss is calculated as
in which mch (30 kg),
The inside wall of drying chamber is in contact with drying air, and the outside wall is in contact with the environment. This causes the heat loss through the drying chamber wall in the drying process, and it depends on the material and area of the drying chamber. The area of the drying chamber (F) includes the area of the drying chamber wall (Fw) and two tops (Ft).
The area of the drying chamber wall is
After expanding the top of the drying chamber on computer by AutoCAD software, the surrounding area of a top is
So, the area of the drying chamber is
The heat loss is calculated as
in which k is thermal conductivity of galvanized steel and k is 2.06 W/(m.oC). lch, wch, and hch are the length, the width, and the height of the drying chamber.
The radiation heat loss is calculated as
in which ε is the radiation ratio of galvanized steel, ε = 0.85, and C0 is the radiation ratio of absolute black object,
Thus, the total heat required for drying process is
In current study, the RF operator will be designed, manufactured, and applied in RF-assisted heat pump drying. So, in the drying process, RF heating has the main function of heating the material, vaporizing water within the material, and heating the drying tray. The other heat losses are supplied by heat pump. Thus, the heat required for RF generator is.
Therefore, the RF power of RF generator is chosen P = 3 kW.
The circuit diagram of RF generator was designed based on the theory of RF heating mechanism, heat exchanger, and oscillator circuit of RF generator [11]. The circuit diagram of RF generator is described in Figure 2.
The circuit diagram of RF generator.
The power supply unit consists of a transformer, a wire supply voltage transformer, and a rectifier.
The transformer has the function of changing three-phase voltage 380 VAC into 6.5 kVAC. This high voltage is converted into DC voltage of 6.5 kVDC by the rectifier and supplied to the oscillation circuit. Besides, the wire supply voltage transformer will change the voltage from 380 VAC to 12.6 VAC to supply the triode tube filament.
The oscillation circuit consists of a high-frequency triode tube and LC oscillation circuits. A high voltage of 6.5 kVDC is applied to the anode of the triode tube after passing through an induction circuit including L1, L2, and C1 that acts as a filter circuit to remove the alternating current components of the supply power.
A high voltage of 12.6 VAC is applied to the filament and grid pin of the triode tube. A 12.6 VAC power is applied to the grid pin of the triode tube through an induction circuit that consists of L5, L6, and C4. The induction circuit controls the voltage of the grid pin to generate the output frequency at 27 MHz.
The RF emitting circuit is a circuit consisting of L3 and C3 in parallel. The RF high-frequency energy at the output of the high-frequency triode tube passes through the RF emitting circuit, and it is supplied to the electrode plates of the drying applicator.
The drying applicator is composed of two parallel electrode plates which are called RF electrodes. The drying material is placed between the electrodes during drying process. The material is heated based on dielectric heating principle.
The high-frequency triode tube is selected in the market according to the required RF power, and it has the specific specifications as follows:
Type: Toshiba 7T69RB.
Voltage applied to filament: 12.6 VAC.
Frequency: 27 MHz.
Voltage applied to anode: 6.5 kVDC.
Output power (maximum): 5 kW.
The output power of 5 kW will be converted to RF electrode plates in drying applicator at 60% efficiency (Figure 3).
High-frequency triode tube.
The transformers and the rectifier were manufactured at the workshop with the engineering specifications required. The transformer and rectifier are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
Transformer.
Rectifier.
The oscillation circuit consists of numbers of capacitors and the inductor coils. The function of the oscillation circuit is amplifying the power and required generating frequency. The capacitors and the inductor coils are the industrial components that can work at the high voltage and high frequency (Figure 6).
Inductor coil and capacitor.
The oscillation circuit consists of two induction circuits:
The L1, L2, and C1 induction circuit works as a filter circuit to remove the alternating current components.
The L4, L5, and C4 induction circuit regulates the voltage at the grid pin of the high-frequency triode tube to generate the output RF.
These capacitors and the inductor coils are selected and manufactured according to the standard in Strayfield’s handbook for manufacturing RF generator [11], in which the capacitors C1 and C4 are selected in the market, while the inductors L1, L2, L4, and L5 are manufactured at the workshop. Their values are as follows:
The structure of RF emitting circuit is composed of L3 and C3 in parallel that forms an induction circuit. The RF emitting circuit has the function of generating operating frequency of 27 MHz that is the technical requirements. L3 and C3 are manufactured in the workshop according to the technical requirements with the specifications below.
The structure of the capacitor C3 consists of two parallel electrode plates. The capacitance value of capacitor C3 depends on the area of the parallel electrode plates and distance between them.
The electrode plates have an area of
The capacitance value of capacitor C3 is calculated as
in which
The function of the L3 and C3 induction circuit is generating operating frequency of 27 MHz. So, the inductance value of L3 is calculated with the parameter f = 27 MHz as follows:
The inductor L3 is manufactured in workshop with its specific specification as follows:
Inductance value:
Material: a copper wire.
Diameter of wire: 2.5 mm.
Diameter of wire coil: 40 mm.
The drying applicator consists of two electrode plates which are called RF electrodes. The RF electrodes are fabricated at the workshop. The material used for fabrication of RF electrodes must be a good electric conductive material, and aluminum is chosen. The electrodes have a rectangular surface and dimension of 1200 mm × 1100 mm. They are fixed in drying chamber and connect to the RF emitting circuit through thin copper connectors. The distance between two electrodes is fixed by Teflon plastic bars. The RF electrodes are shown in Figure 7.
Electrode plates.
The RF-assisted heat pump dryer used in drying experiment is shown in Figures 8 and 9. In the drying process, the drying air is circulated over the evaporator of heat pump. The evaporator cools the drying air further down below the condensation temperature. Below this temperature, the drying air will be dehumidified. Then, the drying air is heated to the desired temperature inside the condenser and blown inside the drying chamber for drying process. In the drying chamber, the drying air will combine with the RF generated by the RF generator to conduct drying process of
RF-assisted heat pump dryer model. (1) compressor, (2) sub-condenser, (3) valve, (4) condenser, (5) evaporator, (6) heat pump controller, (7) air fan, (8) drying tray, (9) drying chamber, (10) RF electrodes, (11) RF operating controller, (12) operating current intensity controller, (13) unit of supplying the operating voltage.
RF-assisted heat pump dryer.
In drying experiment, the mass of
The RF generator is operated with the maximum RF power of 3 kW to inspect the operating parameters. The operating frequency of RF generator (f) is measured by a frequency measurement instrument, the operating voltage (U) is measured by a high-voltage voltmeter, and the operating current (I) is measured by an amperemeter. The temperature of the material in drying process is measured by a thermal sensor that is connected to a computer through an integrated circuit. The temperature is recorded each 2 minutes.
The measurement of the operating parameters of RF operator has got the results as follows:
f = 27 MHz, U = 6.5 kV, I = 0.46 A. So, the power P = U.I = 2.99 kW.
The material is heated and achieves the required temperature of 45°C in 28 minutes.
The results show that the operation parameters achieve the designing requirement.
The engineering parameters of measurement instruments are described in the Table 1.
The drying curves of RF-assisted heat pump drying process at the drying air temperature of 45°C, drying air velocity of 1.2 m/s, and RF power of 0.65, 1.3, and 1.95 kW is presented graphically in Figure 10.
Drying curves of RF-assisted heat pump drying process at different RF powers.
As shown in Figure 10, increasing RF power has a significant effect on moisture ratio; the moisture ratio is higher at higher RF power. At RF power of 1.95 kW, the drying time reduces by 9, 17, and 33% in comparison with RF power of 1.3, 0.65, and 0 kW (heat pump drying). It can be explained by RF heating mechanism, in which, increasing the RF power will increase energy absorption inside
The polysaccharide content of
No | Input drying parameter | Polysaccharide content (mg/g) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
ta (°C) | va (m/s) | PRF (kW) | ||
1 | 45 | 1.2 | 0 | 7.82 |
2 | 45 | 1.2 | 0.65 | 9.18 |
3 | 45 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 9.31 |
4 | 45 | 1.2 | 1.95 | 9.47 |
Polysaccharide content of
The data in Table 3 shows that RF power has a significant effect on polysaccharide content of
Evaluation of the color change of
Color index | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type of sample | CIELAB color value | Color change index | ||||||
L0 | a0 | b0 | ||||||
Fresh samples | 47.12 | 4.11 | 18.85 | |||||
L* | a* | b* | ΔL | Δa | Δb | ΔE* | ||
Heat pump drying (PRF = 0 kW) | 36.5a | 6.94a | 12.52a | 10.62 | 2.83 | 6.33 | 12.68a | |
RF-assisted heat pump drying (PRF = 0.65 kW) | 38.71b | 5.75b | 13.76b | 8.41 | 1.64 | 5.09 | 9.97b | |
RF-assisted heat pump drying (PRF = 1.3 kW) | 39.02c | 5.42c | 14.1c | 8.1 | 1.31 | 4.75 | 9.48c | |
RF-assisted heat pump drying (PRF = 1.95 kW) | 39.35d | 5.12d | 14.46d | 7.77 | 1.01 | 4.39 | 8.98d |
The CIELAB color values of
Mean values in the same column with different letter symbols. Significant difference at significance level of 0.05.
The data in Table 4 shows that the color change index as ΔL, Δa, and Δb corresponding to RF-assisted heat pump drying is considerably smaller than heat pump drying and increase in RF power decreases the color change index values. Thus, the
The drying curves of RF-assisted heat pump drying process at the drying air temperature of 40, 45, and 50°C, drying air velocity of 1.2 m/s, and RF power of 1.3 kW is presented graphically in Figure 11.
Drying curves of RF-assisted heat pump drying process at different drying air temperatures.
As shown in Figure 11, increasing drying air temperature has a significant effect on moisture ratio; the moisture ratio is higher at higher drying air temperature. At drying air temperature of 50°C, the drying time reduces by 10% and 21% in comparison with drying air temperature of 40 and 45°C. It can be explained by the fact that the increase in drying air temperature will increase the amount of heat absorbed by material. Thus, the heating rate increases, and the moisture diffusion within
The drying curves of RF-assisted heat pump drying process at the drying air temperature of 45°C; drying air velocity of 1.2, 1.6, and 2 m/s; and RF power of 1.3 kW is presented graphically in Figure 12.
Drying curves of RF-assisted heat pump drying process at different drying air velocities.
As shown in Figure 12, increasing drying air velocity makes drying time become longer. This is explained by the fact that the increase in drying air velocity will increase the drying airflow in contact with the drying material surfaces. The temperature of drying material is maintained at a higher level than drying air temperature during drying process by RF heating mechanism. So, when drying air comes into contact with drying material surfaces, the temperature of material surfaces will decrease that causes the average temperature of material to decrease and drying time to become longer. However, drying air velocity does not significantly affect the drying rate. The drying time corresponding to three drying air velocity values differs only about 10–15 minutes, and the drying curves shown in Figure 12 are almost identical. The experimental results are in agreement with the previous studies of agricultural product drying [15, 16, 17, 18].
Based on the calculation and design results, the RF generator has been successfully manufactured and applied in drying technology. The RF generator worked efficiently and achieved the required RF power of 3 kW and frequency of 27 MHz as designed. The drying experiment results showed that in RF-assisted heat pump drying, increase in RF power and drying air temperature increases the drying rate considerably. Meanwhile, drying air velocity does not significantly affect the drying rate. Besides, when RF power increases, the
AC | alternating current |
C | capacitor |
Cp | specific heat of drying material, J/(kg °C) |
d.b | dry basic (kg H2O/kg dry solid) |
DC | direct current |
f | frequency, MHz |
Gb | drying capacity, kg/batch |
h | the height, m |
HP | heat pump |
HPLC | high-performance liquid chromatography |
I | ampere, A |
l | the length, m |
L | inductor coil |
LSD | least significant difference |
mLC | mass of Ganoderma lucidum, kg |
M | moisture of drying material, d.b |
PRF | RF power, kW |
Q | the heat, kW |
r | latent heat of vaporization of moisture in material, J/kg |
RF | radio frequency |
t | temperature of drying material, °C |
T | absolute temperature of drying material, °K |
U | voltage, kV |
w | the width, m |
w.b | wet basic (kg H2O/kg wet solid) |
Greek symbols | |
λ | thermal conductivity, W/m °C |
ω | moisture of drying material, w.b |
ε | radiation ratio of galvanized steel |
τ | the time, s |
Subscripts | |
i | initial |
f | final |
W | water |
ch | chamber |
Down syndrome (DS) is the chromosomal abnormality caused in humans when extra genes from chromosome 21 are transferred to a newly produced embryo. It affects the fetal development leading to physical and mental abnormalities. The babies with DS have a distinct appearance than normal babies. Some of the DS victims are shown in Figure 1. The babies suffering from DS are likely to have retardation in growth and the mental problems. DS, in general, cannot be cured; the simplest way to avoid the babies with DS is to detect the fetus with DS and prevent it from being born.
Victims of DS (courtesy:
DS is not a rare phenomenon and the occurrence of this phenomenon is eventually improving throughout the world. Patterson [1] in his work “Molecular genetic analysis of Down Syndrome” states that more than 1 in 1000 neonates has DS. A stats report [2] shows that i) the risk of DS in the global birth rate is 0.00125% ii) women in the age of 30 and below have 0.001% risk of DS iii) women in the age of 45 have 0.022% risk of DS. The abortion rates in DS-affected pregnancies [3] have amplified to 67–92% in the United States and Europe.
In medical world, ultrasonographic markers like nuchal fold, nasal bone hypoplasia and femur length are often seen as a symptom of DS. Nuchal fold is a skin fold noted at the backside of neck in the fetus during the second trimester. Increased thickness in the nuchal fold is observed as the most sensitive symptom of DS. A comparison of the nuchal fold between the normal fetus and DS affected fetus is shown in Figure 2.
Comparison of nuchal fold between normal fetus and DS related fetus (courtesy:
Nasal bone hypoplasia is a condition where the nasal bone of the fetus appears to be very small. It has to be noted that 70% of DS [4] fetuses have no nasal bone or smaller nasal bone. A comparison of nasal bone analysis between the normal fetus and DS related fetus is shown in Figure 3.
Comparison of nasal bone between normal fetus and DS related fetus (courtesy:
Femur length is the measure of the longest bone in the fetus. Shortening of femur length is considered as the symptom of DS. Recently, Echogenic Intracardiac Foci (EIF) had been considered as a new symptom of DS. Many clinical researches affirm that the presence of EIF is considered as a potential indication of DS. An EIF is named as an intense white shape that is found in the heart of the fetus. It can be examined through the ultrasound. An article “Ultrasound Findings” expresses that EIF is seen in around 1 out of each 20 or 30 pregnancies (∼3–5%). EIF is associated with 12% of foetuses with DS [5] and biventricular EIF suffers higher risk for aneuploidy. If an EIF is detected in an ultrasound image, the pregnant women with EIF fetus feel dreadful mental pressure fearing that they would deliver DS affected baby [2]. This psychological weight caused in the pregnant ladies can undesirably affect the fetus. To cut the down the psychological weight of the pregnant ladies and to guarantee that the fetus is unaffected with DS, women with EIF symptoms are prescribed to go through chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis.
Amniocentesis, Percutaneous umbilical blood inspecting and Chorionic villus sampling methods are the most non-ultrasonic method for detecting DS. Amniocentesis is a method of collecting a little amount of the amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus and analysing it for trisomy 21. It is carried in the light of ultrasonic guidance. It is advised after the 15th week of pregnancy. This method has the high risk of leaking amniotic fluid, miscarriage, needle injury to fetus and infection transmission. Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) is a method of collecting the blood from the umbilical cord and tests it for chromosomal defects. It is performed in the 18th week of the pregnancy. PUBS have a higher risk of miscarriage. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a method of analysing the chromosomes in the cells taken from the placenta. CVS is performed between 9th and 14th weeks of the pregnancy. This method suffers from the drawbacks like miscarriage and uterine infection problems.
As the relativity of EIF with DS is very low, it would not be advisable to request women with EIF fetus to undergo Amniocentesis, CVS and PUBS. There is a great need to coin a new mechanism that can differentiate DS related EIF fetus from the normal EIF fetus through ultrasound testing. This research aims at bringing a new invention that can detect DS based on EIF through an ultrasound scan.
The major contributions of this chapter are:
A new medical parameter EIF is used for the detection of DS
A new image segmentation algorithm Multi-scale Quantized Convolution Neural Network (MSQCNN) is developed and used for accurately detecting and extracting the EIF in the ultrasound fetal images
Cross-Correlation Technique (CCT) is employed to confirm DS by analysing the nasal bone hypoplasia in the training phase
A new supervised classification scheme Enhanced Learning Vector Quantiser (ELVQ) is utilised to differentiate the normal EIF from the EIF related to DS.
Introduction of the problem statement, the necessity for this research and the challenges present in this research had already been well discussed in section 1. The rest of this chapter is structured as follows. A complete view of related studies is provided in section 2. The proposed methodology is elucidated in section 3. The test results and comparisons are elaborated in section 4. Future research directions and conclusion are briefed in section 5 and section 6.
This section provides a detailed view of the emerging researches performed on the identification of DS utilising ultrasound. Rebecca et.al [6] performed analyses to decide the exactness of second-trimester ultrasound in identifying DS in fetuses. The malformation in the structure and ultrasonographic markers are the baseline factor behind this research examination. The experimental outcomes demonstrated that the ultrasonographic markers without related morphological abnormalities could not differentiate between the normal fetus and the fetus with DS. This research made a noteworthy observation that placing the markers as a deciding factor to suggest amniocentesis can lead to a huge number of fetal losses.
Lauren Lynch et.al [7] brought forth the new ultrasonic parameter nuchal fold that was highly informative for detection of DS than the other parameters like biparietal diameter and femur length. Patrick Rozenberg et.al [8] recommended the inclusion of the first-trimester ultrasound scan for the diagnosis of DS in addition to the second-trimester ultrasound. Detection of the ultrasonographic marker like nuchal fold, biparietal diameter and femur length is a challenging task due to the presence of speckle noise in an ultrasound image. Detection of these markers requires highly skilled sonologists, obstetricians, and fetal medicine professionals [2]. This led to the paradigm shift for the automated diagnosis of DS from the ultrasound images.
Cuckle et al. proposed a genetic scan mechanism called nuchal translucency scan [9] to assess the risk of the fetus suffering from DS based on the nuchal fold. NT scans works based on the principle that “fetus with DS will accumulate more fluid at the end of the neck”. NT scan is always performed between 11 to 13 weeks of the pregnancy. As the risk of Aneuploidy and DS increases exponentially with the thickness of NT thickness [10], there has been wide growth in the mechanism of semi-automated methods for detecting DS based on the nuchal fold.
Yinhui Deng et al. [11] have presented a systematic structural model for the automated detection of nuchal translucency region. Anzalone et al. [12] automated the measurement of nuchal translucency from the ultrasound image. Nirmala. S and Palanisamy. V [13] proposed the identification of nuchal translucency utilising the imaging methods like mean shift analysis and canny operators. The thickness of nuchal translucency was computed utilising blob analysis. Sonia. R and Shanthi V [14] performed the morphological operations and Otsu thresholding for the partitioning and calculating the region of nuchal translucency.
Lai K Wee et.al [15] utilised the neural network to figure out the area of nuchal translucency. The boundary region of nuchal translucency layer is detected utilising an instinctive computerised algorithm. After the identification of the boundary region, the optimum thickness of the region is computed based on intensity continuity and edge strength. Yan Du et.al [16] performed fetal karyotype assessment among Chinese ladies and found that nonappearance of nasal bone in the second trimester has the high risk of DS in the fetus. Iliescu Dominic-Gabriel and Drăgușin Roxana-Cristina [17] reviewed various schemes in early hereditary screening and ultrasound assessment and inferred a decision that first-trimester ultrasound assessment can possibly analyse the most of fetal irregularities.
Shafia Shakoor, Humera Ismail and Shama Munim [18] explored the experimental results in fetuses with EIF. The trial was experimented in Pakistan and the outcomes showed that 95.77% of the fetuses were normal, just 4.2% recorded abnormalities in heart and 0% had DS. Aaron B. Caughey, Deirdre J. Lyell et.al [19] assessed the impact of isolated EIF for screening DS. The investigation affirmed the use of EIF as a screening factor may prompt an immense number of amniocenteses and miscarriages to decide a rare DS fetus.
The following observations are evident from the recent researches carried out in this field I) The most often utilised parameters for the identification of DS are nuchal fold, femur length and nasal bone hypoplasia ii) Association of DS and EIF is relatively low iii) There exist a need and necessity for developing a computerised methodology for spotting DS, as the manual diagnosis requires some artifacts.
Histopathology is the assessment of tissues in the impacted organs of the body. The extensive growth of the computerised image processing has given rise to a new diagnostic methodology termed as computer-assisted diagnosis (CAD). CAD assists the radiologists for disease detection, diagnosis and prognosis prediction. Diagnosis of DS based on EIF is one of the difficult issues that could be tackled by CAD methodology. The efficiency of imaging techniques and CAD can be unitedly employed to substitute the traditional DS diagnostic methods like amniocentesis and chronic sampling.
The proposed system “Ultrasonic Detection of Down Syndrome using Multiscale Quantiser with Convolution Neural Network” uses a medical parameter EIF for the detection of DS. It is designed with the aim of discriminating the normal EIF from DS related EIF. It consists of two phases i) training phase and ii) testing phase. Training phase involves learning and forming the knowledge cluster of EIF related to DS. Testing phase involves classifying the diagnostic ultrasound fetal image as DS positive or negative, based on the knowledge cluster. An architecture diagram of the proposed system is given below in Figure 4.
The architecture of the proposed system.
Not all the fetus that contain EIF result in DS, only few patterns of EIF can cause DS. The aim of this phase is to find the characteristics of DS-related EIF. The training phase includes five steps i) Image Pre-Processing using Neuro-Fuzzy Filter – to eliminate the speckle noise in the ultrasound fetal image that can hinder the detection of EIF ii) Detection of Nasal Bone using CCT - to confirm the presence of DS in the ultrasound fetal image iii) Detection of EIF using MSQCNN – to detect/segment EIF present in the ultrasound fetal image iv) Learning the features of EIF and cluster formation – to analyse the features of EIF like size, location and form a cluster. The systematic representation of the training phase is shown in Figure 5.
A schematic representation of the training phase.
The ultrasound devices produce high quality, real-time images but very often it is degraded with speckle noise. Speckle noise is a big threat for the quality of the results of image processing. It can produce artificial edges, echoes the patterns in the images that disturb the diagnosis process.
The image pre-processing is the most significant step of the training phase. In pre-processing; a neuro-fuzzy filter that operates based on neuro-fuzzy and evolutionary learning is used to eliminate the speckle noise. The neural network possesses the ability to train. The knowledge for the training is fed into the system in a fuzzy format. Speckle noise is eliminated based on the fuzzy knowledge. A memetic algorithm is utilised to improve neuro-fuzzy filter. The algorithmic description of neuro-fuzzy filter is given below:
Algorithm: Neuro-fuzzy filter Input: Ultrasound image with speckle noise Output: Processed image with less noise Algorithm
|
Detection of nasal bone is the second step of the training phase. The presence of DS is confirmed by the absence of nasal bone using CCT, as seventy percent of DS foetuses have no nasal bone [4]. CCT is a simple matching algorithm that works based on the correlation. The algorithmic description of CCT is displayed below [20].
1. Start 2. Consider target image S and template image T. 3. Consider the ultrasound image S for which nasal bone has to be detected 4. Consider the ultra sound image T with nasal bone detected 5. Derive subset image(I) in T image that include nasal bone area 6. Look for I in S image 7. If I is present in S, obtain the location of I 8. Find cross correlation matrix for the template image and target image where 9. The correlation matrix is converted into surface plotting graph 10. Based on the graph, the maximum value of image correlation will be used for the detection of nasal bone 11. If the peak of the graph is less than 0.35, it can be concluded that nasal bone is absent 12. Stop |
Detection of EIF is the third step in the training phase following the image pre-processing and detection of the nasal bone. Training phase continues to the detection of EIF, only when the detection of nasal bone reports that fetal image has no nasal bone or weak nasal bone in it.
MSQNN is used to detect the EIF in the ultrasound images. MSQNN consists of additional components such as acceptor, quantiser with the conventional five layers that include convolution layer 1 and 2, pooling layer 1 and 2, fully connected layer 1 and 2. The output object coming out of FC Layer 2 is led into acceptor. The functionality of acceptor is to compare the object detected in the various scale of the input image and compute the difference between the objects. If the difference between the objects detected at the various scale lies within the threshold, it is treated as the final object. Acceptor computes the difference between the objects using the following formula.
where ∂ = Difference between the object detected at scale 1 and scale 2,
Y (i) = Object detected at scale 1,
Y (i + 1) = Object detected at scale 2,
SF = Scale factor at which object is detected.
Acceptor stops forwarding the control to Quantiser if the acceptance criteria are met. Below is the condition for the acceptance criteria to be met.
where
∂ = actual difference between objects detected at various scale.
If the acceptance criterion is not met, acceptor transfers the control to quantiser. Quantiser performs quantisation by dividing the input image by scaling factor and rounding this value to the nearest integer. The mathematical formulation of quantiser is presented below.
The next iteration for object detection starts with the reduced size input image. This iterative process of detecting an object continues until the number of iterations reaches the maximum or the acceptance criterion is met in Acceptor. The final object detected is treated as the EIF present in the ultrasound image of the fetus.
The pictorial representation of Multiscale Quantised Convolution Neural Network is given below in Figure 6.
A pictorial representation of multiscale quantised convolution neural network.
Learning the features of EIF is the last step of the training phase, it happens just when the nasal bone is absent. The size and spatial coordinates of EIF are stored and clustered based on the closeness of the appearance (2). The similarity parameter utilised for clustering are i) size of EIF and ii) position of EIF specifically left ventricle and right ventricle. These clusters become the knowledge base for ELVQ function of the testing stage. Basically, two clusters are formed in this training phase of ELVQ, one cluster is for DS positive EIF fetus and other is for DS negative EIF fetus.
Testing phase involves discriminating DS related EIF from the normal EIF. The knowledge attained in the training phase plays the critical role in the determination of DS-related EIF. ELVQ maps the testing image to the cluster map developed in the training phase, by spotting the malignant EIF.
The testing phase contains five steps namely i) Image Pre-Processing using Neuro-Fuzzy Filter – to eliminate the speckle noise in the ultrasound fetal image that can hinder the detection of EIF ii) Detection of EIF using MSQCNN – to detect EIF present in the ultrasound fetal image iii) Find the features of EIF – to find the features of EIF like size and location iv) Enhanced Learning Vector Quantisation Classification – to classify fetus into DS positive or negative based on the knowledge cluster. The flowchart representation of the testing phase is shown in Figure 7.
A flowchart representation of the testing phase.
The first two steps of testing phase are i) Image Pre-Processing and ii) Detection of EIF using MSQCNN are discussed well in the section 3.1.1 and 3.1.3. The third step concentrates on obtaining the features of EIF. Then as the fourth step, ELVQ classification involves.
ELVQ supervised learning classifies the test image into DS positive or negative groups. For a single testing, two steps of ELVQ should be finished. In the initial step, the size of EIF is treated as the weight vector and in the second the location of EIF is treated as the weight vector (2). Enhanced Learning Vector Quantiser differs from the conventional Learning Vector Quantiser in one aspect; LVQ uses Euclidean distance whereas ELVQ uses Manhattan distance function.
|
At the end of this testing phase, ELVQ classifies an input EIF fetus image as DS positive or negative.
This section describes the experimental results of the proposed techniques. The proposed system is implemented with software Scilab. It [2] was employed for image and mathematical processing needs. Scilab is open source and freeware that can perform wide numerical computation for engineering and scientific applications.
As there is no standard dataset for EIF fetus images, the experiment was carried out on the user created the dataset. Nearly 35 2D-ultrasound fetal images were collected from numerous online and offline sources. These fetal images belong to the period of 24–26 weeks. Out of these 35 fetal images, the diagnosis result of DS is known for 25 fetal images (that includes 20 ultrasound fetal images with DS positive and 5 ultrasound fetal images with DS negative).
These 25 ultrasound fetal images are used in the training phase to obtain the characteristics of EIF associated with DS. There were also 10 ultrasound fetal images with EIF with no clue for DS were used in the testing phase. Some of the fetal images with EIF that were used for the experiment were shown in Figure 8.
The dataset of the fetal images with EIF.
Training was performed with 25 DS diagnosed images. It was done in five iterations and the learning rate was consistently improving. The training phase results were presented in Table 1. The average rate of the learning at the end of training phase was 80%, while the rejection rate was only 20%.
Iteration No# | No. Of Input Images | Learning Rate | Rejection Rate |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 10 | 10 | 0 |
2 | 20 | 14 | 6 |
3 | 40 | 34 | 6 |
4 | 80 | 68 | 12 |
5 | 100 | 86 | 14 |
Training phase results.
Experimental results of the training phase are given as follows:
Detection of EIF using MSQCNN is shown in Figure 9.
Detection of EIF.
Detection of nasal bone using CCT in Figure 10.
Detection of nasal bone.
The fetal image (A. Normal) that was rejected and the fetal image (B. Down syndrome) that was learnt in the training phase is shown in Figure 11.
Results of the training phase.
The knowledge attained from the training phase about the location and size of EIF is shown in Table 2.
S.No | Size of EIF | Location of EIF | Other Ultrasound findings | DS Positive |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | > = 5.4 mm | Left Ventricle | Nasal Bone Absence | Yes |
2 | > = 5 mm | Biventricular | Nasal Bone Absence | Yes |
Clustered knowledge from the training phase.
The testing phase was carried out to identify DS in 5 fetal images with EIF is shown in Table 3.
Experiment No # | Tested images | Down Syndrome Positive | Down Syndrome Negative |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 50 | 33 | 17 |
Results of the testing phase.
The fetal image with EIF that was analysed for DS in the testing phase and proved to be Down syndrome negative is displayed in Figure 12.
26 weeks fetus with left ventricular EIF with DS negative in the testing phase.
The fetal image with EIF that was analysed for DS in the testing phase and confirmed as Down syndrome positive is displayed in Figure 13.
A fetus with EIF on both the ventricles with DS positive in testing phase. X.
The performance of DS detection system is evaluated using parameters such as sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy. Sensitivity is the number of true positives that are rightly acknowledged by a diagnostic test [2]. It states how well the diagnostic test is identifying a disease.
Specificity is the quantity of the true negatives rightly acknowledged by a diagnostic test [2]. It determines how good the test is identifying normal (negative) condition.
Accuracy is the number of true results, either true positive or true negative, in a population. It measures the degree of veracity of a diagnostic test on a condition.
(Note: T.P stands for True Positive, T.N stands for True Negative, F.P stands for False Positive, F.N stands for False Negative)
The performance metrics of the proposed system is compared with the existing system “Automatic Computerized Diagnostic Tool for Down Syndrome Detection in Fetus” [2] is shown in Figure 14.
Comparison with the state of art.
The proposed system showed the better performance than the existing system terms of sensitivity and accuracy, but it showed low specificity than the existing system.
The newly designed system was able to clearly differentiate DS related fetus from the normal fetus based on EIF. It was producing very accurate results when operated on the fetal ultrasound images with a single EIF and multiple EIF. In future works, the soft markers like nuchal fold and femur length can be considered as an alternate parameter instead of nasal bone hypoplasia in the training phase.
This chapter presented a new idea “Ultrasonic Detection of Down Syndrome using Multiscale Quantiser with Convolutional Neural Network” to detect DS based on EIF in an ultrasonic automated method. The proposed system was intelligent enough to clearly distinguish DS causing EIF from the normal EIF. It attained better results in terms of accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. In future works, this system can be added as a new feature in the ultrasound fetal scan. It can also serve as an alternate for the conventional DS diagnostics like amniocentesis, PUBS, and CVS.
I feel proud and privileged to thank my guide Dr.A.R.Kavitha M.E., Ph.D. for her precious guidance and whole hearted support. I wish to express a sense of gratitude to my lovable English Teacher Mrs. Sucy George M.A., M.A., B.Ed for copy editing of this chapter. Last but not least I wish to dedicate this chapter to my family members (Late Simon – My Father, Mrs. Shanthi Simon - My Mother, Mrs. Gnana Rita M.A., B.Ed. - My Sibling, Mrs. Pearlin M.E - My Wife) and well-wishers (Mrs.Vimala Gilbert, Rev.Fr.Yesu Antony, Ms.Tamil Ilakika) for their boundless honest support and consistent motivation.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6602},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5908},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2400},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12542},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1008},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17561}],offset:12,limit:12,total:132766},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"56121318 FILLER ads"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:43},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:61},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:124},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3}],offset:12,limit:12,total:0},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[],latestBooks:[]},subject:{topic:{id:"904",title:"Intravascular Immunity",slug:"pure-immunology-intravascular-immunity",parent:{id:"150",title:"Pure Immunology",slug:"pure-immunology"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:7,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitations:46,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"904",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8590",title:"Macrophage Activation",subtitle:"Biology and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e15abd1b0e08f1b67d33592999c52c32",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",bookSignature:"Khalid Hussain Bhat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8590.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"162478",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"khalid-hussain-bhat",fullName:"Khalid Hussain Bhat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7129",title:"Neutrophils",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4f71e75cb45249658d48e765d179ce9f",slug:"neutrophils",bookSignature:"Maitham Khajah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7129.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"68185",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88013",title:"Macrophages: The Potent Immunoregulatory Innate Immune Cells",slug:"macrophages-the-potent-immunoregulatory-innate-immune-cells",totalDownloads:2173,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Macrophages are ubiquitously present innate immune cells in humans and animals belonging to both invertebrates and vertebrates. These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]},{id:"67289",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86474",title:"The Pivotal Role of Macrophages in Metabolic Distress",slug:"the-pivotal-role-of-macrophages-in-metabolic-distress",totalDownloads:1230,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Obesity is a prevalent condition with several associated co-morbidities including the development of metabolic diseases. In obesity there is immune cell infiltration into the white adipose tissue and this is associated with the generation of inflammation and insulin resistance (IR). A large majority of the infiltrating leukocytes in obese adipose tissue are pro-inflammatory macrophages, which upon activation induce a switch in metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation, as is utilised by macrophages in lean adipose tissue, towards aerobic glycolysis. The signalling pathways evoked in the recruited macrophages induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, in signalling pathways which directly interfere with insulin signalling and thus induce a state of IR. As macrophages appear to play such a pivotal role in the generation of IR and are the largest leukocyte population in the adipose tissue, they provide a promising therapeutic target. Indeed, there are several strategies currently being studied to induce a ‘switch’ in macrophages associated with obese adipose tissue, towards the phenotype of those associated with lean adipose tissue, with arguably the most promising being those strategies designed to target the metabolic pathways within the macrophages. This chapter will discuss the polarisation and activation of macrophages within lean and obese adipose tissue and how these cells can be targeted therapeutically.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Joseph Roberts, Padraic G. Fallon and Emily Hams",authors:null},{id:"64543",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81995",title:"Cannabinoid Receptors as Regulators of Neutrophil Activity in Inflammatory Diseases",slug:"cannabinoid-receptors-as-regulators-of-neutrophil-activity-in-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cannabinoids are compounds present in Cannabis sativa (phytocannabinoids), endogenously produced (endocannabinoids) or synthesized, that bind to G protein-coupled receptors named cannabinoid receptors B1 and B2. They were first described as psychotropic compounds; however, cannabinoids are also potent immunoregulatory agents. Cannabinoids can modulate neutrophil activity in sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases. Concerning sterile inflammatory diseases as arthritis, ischemic diseases, and colitis, the use of CB2 agonist impairs the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and expression of adhesion molecules. As a consequence, neutrophils did not release metalloproteinases either to adhere to endothelial cells, resulting in reduced tissue damage. A similar anti-inflammatory CB2 agonist mechanism of action in sepsis and mycobacterial infection models is observed. However, it is not clear if inflammation resolution promoted by cannabinoid treatment during infection is also related to microbial viability. Despite the growing literature showing the effects of cannabinoids on neutrophils, there are still some gaps that should be filled before proposing cannabinoid-based drugs to treat neutrophil-dependent diseases.",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Mariana Conceição Souza and Elaine Cruz Rosas",authors:null},{id:"68678",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88754",title:"Macrophages in the Pathogenesis of Leprosy",slug:"macrophages-in-the-pathogenesis-of-leprosy",totalDownloads:881,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by the intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium leprae. The disease may present different clinical forms depending on the immunological status of the host. M. leprae may infect macrophages and Schwann cells, and recent studies have demonstrated that macrophages are fundamental cells for determining the outcome of the disease. Skin lesions from patients with the paucibacillary form of the disease present a predominance of macrophages with a pro-inflammatory phenotype (M1), whereas skin lesions of multibacillary patients present a predominance of anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2). More recently, it was shown that autophagy is responsible for the control of bacillary load in paucibacillary macrophages and that the blockade of autophagy is involved in the onset of acute inflammatory reactional episodes in multibacillary cells. So, strategies that aim to induce autophagy in infected macrophages are promising not only to improve the efficacy of multidrug therapy (MDT) but also to avoid the occurrence of reactional episodes that are responsible for the disabilities observed in leprosy patients.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Rhana Berto da Silva Prata, Mayara Garcia de Mattos Barbosa, Bruno Jorge de Andrade Silva, Jéssica Araujo da Paixão de Oliveira, Tamiris Lameira Bittencourt and Roberta Olmo Pinheiro",authors:null},{id:"67817",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86433",title:"Wnt Signaling Regulates Macrophage Mediated Immune Response to Pathogens",slug:"wnt-signaling-regulates-macrophage-mediated-immune-response-to-pathogens",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Infection with pathogenic microbes is a global threat. Macrophages play a fundamental role in promoting host resistance to deadly infections from pathogenic microbes by virtue of a well-orchestrated immune defense system. Phagocytosis and obliteration of invading pathogens by macrophages are an innate immune function that not only sustains immune homeostasis but also bolsters adaptive immune response through antigen processing and presentation. Wnt signaling, where Wnt, a secreted glycoprotein which interacts with Frizzled and ROR cell surface receptors to initiate cellular interactions, could be vital for the immune response executed and propagated by macrophages in both innate and adaptive immune responses. The goal of this chapter is to describe how Wnt signaling influences phagocytosis, autophagy, and transcriptional activation to enable the macrophage to exercise its immune response program to resist infection.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Suborno Jati and Malini Sen",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68185",title:"Macrophages: The Potent Immunoregulatory Innate Immune Cells",slug:"macrophages-the-potent-immunoregulatory-innate-immune-cells",totalDownloads:2173,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Macrophages are ubiquitously present innate immune cells in humans and animals belonging to both invertebrates and vertebrates. These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]},{id:"68585",title:"Macrophage Polarization Is Decisive for Chronic Bacterial Infection-Induced Carcinogenesis",slug:"macrophage-polarization-is-decisive-for-chronic-bacterial-infection-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:809,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Macrophages are the special cells of the immune system and play both immunological and physiological role. One of the peculiar characteristics of macrophages is that they are double-edged and highly plastic component of immune system. Due to this characteristic, they are responsible for both progressions as well control of a variety of inflammatory, infectious and metabolic diseases and cancer. These are found in the body in three major phenotypes, which are known as M0 (also known as naïve); M1 (classically activated macrophages); and/or M2 (alternatively activated macrophages) at normal physiological conditions. We have been exploring macrophages in context of bacterial infection and previously demonstrated that M2 polarization of M1 effector alveolar macrophages during chronic/persistent Chlamydia pneumonia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Helicobacter pylori pathogens are decisive for the infection induced cancer development in host. Since chronic infection with these pathogens has been associated with adenocarcinoma, therefore, we feel that disruption of macrophage plasticity plays crucial role in the host for the development of cancer. On the basis of this, we propose that in such pathological conditions, management of M1/M2 imbalance is paramount for minimizing the risk of developing cancer by chronic and persistent infection.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Mishi Wasson, Sonia Kapoor, Manoj Garg, Sandhya Singh and Hridayesh Prakash",authors:null},{id:"64543",title:"Cannabinoid Receptors as Regulators of Neutrophil Activity in Inflammatory Diseases",slug:"cannabinoid-receptors-as-regulators-of-neutrophil-activity-in-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cannabinoids are compounds present in Cannabis sativa (phytocannabinoids), endogenously produced (endocannabinoids) or synthesized, that bind to G protein-coupled receptors named cannabinoid receptors B1 and B2. They were first described as psychotropic compounds; however, cannabinoids are also potent immunoregulatory agents. Cannabinoids can modulate neutrophil activity in sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases. Concerning sterile inflammatory diseases as arthritis, ischemic diseases, and colitis, the use of CB2 agonist impairs the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and expression of adhesion molecules. As a consequence, neutrophils did not release metalloproteinases either to adhere to endothelial cells, resulting in reduced tissue damage. A similar anti-inflammatory CB2 agonist mechanism of action in sepsis and mycobacterial infection models is observed. However, it is not clear if inflammation resolution promoted by cannabinoid treatment during infection is also related to microbial viability. Despite the growing literature showing the effects of cannabinoids on neutrophils, there are still some gaps that should be filled before proposing cannabinoid-based drugs to treat neutrophil-dependent diseases.",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Mariana Conceição Souza and Elaine Cruz Rosas",authors:null},{id:"63248",title:"Neutrophil Activation by Antibody Receptors",slug:"neutrophil-activation-by-antibody-receptors",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Neutrophils, the most abundant leukocytes in blood, are relevant cells of both the innate and the adaptive immune system. Immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibody molecules are crucial activators of neutrophils. IgGs identify many types of pathogens via their two Fab portions and are in turn detected through their Fc portion by specific Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) on the membrane of neutrophils. Thus, antibodies bring the specificity of the adaptive immune response to the potent antimicrobial and inflammatory functions of neutrophils. Two types of FcγRs with several polymorphic variants exist on the human neutrophil. These receptors are considered to be redundant in inducing cell responses. Yet, new evidence presented in recent years on how the particular IgG subclass and the glycosylation pattern of the antibody modulate the IgG–FcγR interaction has suggested that a particular effector function may in fact be activated in response to a specific type of FcγR. In this chapter, we describe the main types of FcγRs on neutrophils and our current view on how particular FcγRs activate various signaling pathways to promote unique effector cell functions, including phagocytosis, activation of integrins, nuclear factor activation, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Carlos Rosales and Eileen Uribe-Querol",authors:[{id:"192432",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rosales",slug:"carlos-rosales",fullName:"Carlos Rosales"},{id:"198687",title:"Dr.",name:"Eileen",middleName:null,surname:"Uribe-Querol",slug:"eileen-uribe-querol",fullName:"Eileen Uribe-Querol"}]},{id:"67326",title:"Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages by Chinese Medicine Intervention: Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"polarization-of-tumor-associated-macrophages-by-chinese-medicine-intervention-mechanisms-and-applica",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Macrophage polarization is a spectrum of phenotypes and generally can be classified into two states: (1) classically activated or M1 macrophages, which can be driven by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alone or in association with Th1 cytokines and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6 and, IL-12, and (2) alternatively activated M2 macrophages, which can be promoted by Th2 mediators IL-4 and IL-13 and produce anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-β and IL-10. Current studies have found that the phenotypic switch between M1 and M2 macrophages governs the fate of an organ in inflammation or injury. The imbalance of M1/M2 polarization is closely involved in various pathological processes and is becoming a potential target for therapeutic strategies. Traditional Chinese medicine is an integrated healthcare system composed of many practices and is characterized by multi-target, multi-level, and coordinated intervention effects. Chinese medicines nowadays are applied to regulate phenotype polarization of macrophages to improve the microenvironment, thus ameliorating or even eliminating the symptoms. In this chapter, we will discuss the molecular mechanisms of macrophage polarization, their roles in health and disease, and the intervention with Chinese medicines to modulate the polarization of macrophages in tumor microenvironment (TME) for therapeutic purpose.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Yuanjun Lu, Hor Yue Tan, Ning Wang and Yibin Feng",authors:[{id:"14428",title:"Prof.",name:"Yibin",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"yibin-feng",fullName:"Yibin Feng"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"904",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:50,paginationItems:[{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/325270",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"325270"},fullPath:"/profiles/325270",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()